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Title: A Manual of Historic Ornament

Author: Richard Glazier

Release date: October 26, 2016 [eBook #53373]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF
HISTORIC ORNAMENT ***

Contents.
Index.
List of Plates.
Illustrations in the Text.

(In certain versions of this etext [in
certain browsers] clicking on the
image will bring up a larger version.)
Some typographical errors have been
corrected; a list follows the text.
(etext transcriber's note)

Historic
Ornament.

Page from one of the Harleian Manuscripts.
British Museum.
French, Early 15th Century.

A Manual of
HISTORIC
ORNAMENT

TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION,
TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED
ARTS.
PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
AND CRAFTSMEN.

···
BY RICHARD GLAZIER,
Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
Head Master of the Municipal School
of Art, Manchester.

With 470 illustrations by the Author.

···
LONDON:
B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN.
1899.

Manchester:
Printed by Chorlton & Knowles, Mayfield Press.

Preface.

THIS manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an
elementary knowledge of Architecture and Historic Ornament, of
awakening a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and
interesting remains of ancient and mediæval civilization, and lastly of directing
the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty, suggestiveness and
vitality of the Industrial Arts of the past, and their intimate relation to the
social and religious life of the people.
The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study are
manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts, we may see the capabilities and
limitations of material, the appropriateness and application of ornament, the
continuity of line and form—yet with a marked diversity of enrichment and
treatment—the interest and significance of detail, and the customs, myths and
traditions of the past with their continuity of thought and expression.
The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work, are typical
examples of each period or style and are produced in line as being the method
best suited to the requirements of students, giving definition, emphasis and the
constructive qualities of design rather than pictorial effect.
In the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of reference,
which may be studied with considerable advantage by students desiring further
information upon this important subject.
RICHARD GLAZIER.
Manchester,
1899.

Contents.
PAGE.
Ornament of Oceania 3
Egyptian Ornament 5
Assyrian Ornament 7
Greek Architecture 9
Greek Ornament 13
Roman Architecture 21
Roman Ornament 25
Pompeian Ornament 29
Byzantine Ornament 31
Scandinavian Ornament 33
Celtic Ornament 35
Norman and Gothic Architecture 36
Norman Details 43
Early Gothic Details 45
Renascence Ornament 49
French Renascence 58
English Renascence 60
Mahometan and Moresque 63
Persian Ornament 65
Indian Ornament 69
Chinese and Japanese Ornament 71
Ivories 73
Mosaics 75
Greek Ceramics 77
Ceramic Art 79
Maiolica 87
Terra Cotta 88
Enamels 91
Glass 95
Stained Glass 97
Gold and Silver 101

Bronzes 103
Wrought Iron 105
Furniture 106
Textile Fabrics 109
Frets 123
Continuity of Style 125
Terms used in Ornamental Art 131

List of Plates
PLATE. PAGE.
1 Ornament of Oceania 2
2 Egyptian Ornament 4
3 Assyrian Ornament 6
4 Greek Architecture 8
5 Greek Ornament 12
6 Greek Ornament 18
7 Roman Architecture 20
8 Roman Ornament 24
9 Roman Ornament 26
10 Pompeian Ornament 28
11 Byzantine Ornament 30
12 Scandinavian Ornament 32
13 Celtic Ornament 34
14 The Triforium and Clearstory 41
15 Norman Details 42
16 Early Gothic Details 44
17 Decorated & Perpendicular Gothic Details 46
18 Renascence Ornament 48
19 Renascence Ornament 55
20 Arabian Ornament 62
21 Persian Ornament 64
22 Persian Ornament 67
23 Indian Ornament 68
24 Chinese and Japanese Ornament 70
25 Ivories 72
26 Mosaics 74
27 Greek Ceramics 76
28 Ceramics 78
29 Maiolica 86
30 Glass 94
31 Stained Glass 96

32 Gold and Silver 100
33 Bronzes 102
34 Wrought Iron 104
35 Textile Fabrics 108
36 Sicilian Fabric 111
37 Indian Palampore 112
38 Persian Carpet 114
39 Textile Fabrics 117
40 Peruvian Textiles 119
41 Peruvian Textiles 120
42 Frets 122
43 Polynesian Paddle 124

Illustrations in the Text.
PAGE.
Ornament of Oceania 3
Plan of the Parthenon 9
Plan of the Erectheum 10
The two Fates, from the Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon 14
Doric Frieze of the Parthenon 14
North Frieze of the Parthenon 15
Frieze from Phigaleia 15
Relief from Nike Apteros 16
Frieze from Pergamos 16
Frieze from Susa 17
Greek Scroll 17
Greek Coins 19
Arch of Septimius Severus 21
Theatre of Marcellus 22
Plan of the Pantheon 22
Plan of the House of Pansa 23
Roman Scroll 25
Coffered Ceiling 25
Frieze from Tivoli 27
Plan of St. Mark’s 31
Plan of St. Sophia 31
Lismore Crosier 35
Gothic Piers 37
Plan of Lincoln Cathedral 37
Early Gothic Window 38
Grisaille Glass, Salisbury 39
Gothic Crockets 45
Gothic Borders 45
Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto 50
Bas-relief, by Donatello 51
Monument to Conte Ugino 51

Italian Velvet 52
Fresco, by Michel-Angelo 52
A Sibyl, by Michel-Angelo 53
Arabesque Decorations 53
Renascence Scroll 54
Renascence Marble Inlay 54
Frieze, by Mantegna 56
An Italian Etching 56
Venetian Well-head 57
Wood Carving, period of Francis I. 58
Decoration, period of Francis II. 58
Relief, by Jean Goujon 59
Goujon 59
Frieze, by Le Pautre 59
Wood Carving, period of Louis XV. 59
Elizabethan Frieze 60
Elizabethan Strap-work 60
Ceiling, Audley End 60
Persian Plate 65
Peruvian Pottery 85
Greek Terra Cotta 89
The Annunciation, by Andrea della Robbia 89
Relief, by Andrea della Robbia 90
Painted Enamel by Pierre Raymond 93
Battersea Enamel 93
Early Gothic Glass 97
Early French Glass 98
Late Gothic Glass 98
Chairs 106
Italian Carved Chest 107
Carved Wood Screen 107
Italian Fabrics 115
Flower Vase Pattern 116
Spitalsfield Silk 116
Flemish Fabrics 116

Frets 123
Egyptian Capital 126
Corinthian Capital 127
Early French Capital 127
Composite Capital 127
Byzantine Capital 128
French Romanesque Capital 128
Siculo-Norman Capital 129
Early English Capital 129
Arabian Capital 129
Decorated Gothic Capital 130
Renascence Capital 130
Roman Scroll 130
ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate 1.

The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is
O R N A M E N T full of interest and is remarkable for the evolution and
O F O C E A N I A . perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people,
with myths and traditions purely local and in no way
influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full
of meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and
arrangement, not founded upon the beautiful vegetation
and flora of their islands but upon abstract forms derived
from the human figure, and arranged with a pleasing
geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.

The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces,
each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and traditions, New Zealand
showing the highest development and Australia the lowest in the ornament of
Polynesia and Melanesia.
Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines;
that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground
and occasionally filled in with colour. In New Guinea a higher development is
reached, the ornament, of straight and curved lines, being carved in flat relief.
In the province of Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and
the linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The
Hervey and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations
of the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the original
type and its ornamental development. These examples, together with the
circular eye pattern form the elements of the Hervey province, of which the
Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the Solomon Island the
linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of
mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is distinguished by its skilful
pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure,
fig. 1. 12., and the constant use of the border here given.

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2.

The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to 340 B.C.,
E G Y P T I A N during which 30 dynasties existed, is usually divided into
O R N A M E N T. three groups: (1) The Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties,
4400-2466 B.C. (2) The Middle Empire, XII.-XIX., 2466-
1200; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, 1200-340 B.C.
The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the
Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor and Tanis: and of the New Empire, Sais and
Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are attested by
the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture and decorative arts that enrich
our national museums. The Great Pyramids were built during the fourth

dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 B.C., is 756 ft. × 756 ft., and 480 ft.
high; the second, by Kephren, 3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. × 707 ft. and 454 ft.
high: and the third, 333 ft. × 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by
Mykerinos, 3633-3600 B.C.
The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, and is
probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that all the earliest
sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we are acquainted, were
realistic portraiture, remarkable for its fidelity to nature. Kings, queens, and
individuals of note, were finely sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But
the Deities, Amen Sckhet, Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris, were represented in
the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather
than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of the
earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo Relievo, a
peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or
flowers, being sunk into the surface of the granite or basalt, and then carved
within this sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs being
invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. The frieze, which, in the hands
of the Greeks at a later period, became their principal ornamental field, was
used by the Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the
industrial arts and pursuits, weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery;
ploughing, sowing, and reaping, also hunting and fishing. The composition and
sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined and purely decorative, with a
naïveté and unaffection so appropriate to the architectonic conditions. Mingled
with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the
Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral
construction of lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the
latter being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new
life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. Great
fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural capitals with
the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A singular feature introduced during the
18th dynasty was the Hathor Capital surmounted by a small Naos. During the
Ptolemaic period, B.C. 300, the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical
bell-shaped capital (fig. 3).
ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3.

The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long
A S S Y R I A N series of wars and conquests. Originally one nation, they
O R N A M E N T. became divided, and the younger Assyria in the north
became the most powerful empire of that period under
Tiglath Pileser I., B.C. 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C.
860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C., 722-705,
Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C.
668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the
Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562;
this city was destroyed by Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539.

Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic conditions,
differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though stone is found in
Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the
arts and civilization coming from Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay
plentiful. Both at Babylon in Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional
type of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-
dried bricks; the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs,
carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors
engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was in
enamelled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and Bud,
together with the rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The
representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so
admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria.
The enamelled bricks of Chaldea, were modelled in low relief with enamels of
turquoise blue, yellow, white and black, of fine quality and colour, one
splendid example is the Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The
enamelled bricks of Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the
enamels were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones,
but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects
(fig. 9). The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal winged and
human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. Typical examples of
Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and 3), the Patera or Rosette
(figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life (fig 8). The Lotus enrichment
shows Egyptian influence, and only came into use during the 7th century B.C.,
when intercourse between the two nations was established. It is differentiated
from the Egyptian lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the
geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).
The Anthemion or Hom, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong
lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass (fig. 3). The Hom is
frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a form of enrichment that
influenced much of the later Persian and Sicilian textile fabrics.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate 4.

Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the
GREEK Greek and Roman styles, and each style comprises
A R C H I T E C T U R E . several orders of architecture; the Grecian orders
are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and
many examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her
colonies:—Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of these
buildings certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be
present, and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or
order, which comprises the base, (except in the Grecian Doric, which has no
base) column and capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the
Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The proportions of these orders are generally
determined by the lower diameter of the column which is divided into 2
modules or 60 parts; the height of the column always including the base and
capital. The DORIC order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600
and culminated in the Parthenon B.C. 438. The Columns in this order are 4½ to
6 diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises;
the Capital is half a diameter in height and is composed of an echinus or ovolo
moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a large square abacus
above. The Architrave is plain; the Frieze is enriched by rectangular blocks,
with 3 vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyphs, alternately with
square metopes which were frequently sculptured. The Cornice, composed of

simple mouldings, and enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs
and metopes, projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze.
The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9½ diameters in
height, with 24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the base is half
a diameter in height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet,
cavetto, fillet, torus, and fillet. The Capital is 7/10 of a diameter
high and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported
by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with
an astragal below.
The Entablature is ¼ the height of the columns, the Architrave
of one or more fascias, the Frieze continuous and frequently
enriched with sculpture in low relief; the Cornice has simple and
compound mouldings supported by a dentil band. Caryatides
were occasionally introduced into this order; they were female figures clad in
drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column.
These caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful
example of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.
The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples
however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The Columns
are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the Base is ½ diameter high; the
Capital is a little greater than a diameter in height and is enriched with
acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The Entablature is richer; and the
Cornice deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders.
A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is 1/60 of the
diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian examples.
Architrave Frieze Cornice Total Entablature
Parthenon 43 43 32 118
Doric
Theseus 50 48 19 107
Erechtheum 43 48 47 140
Ionic
Priene 37 49 47 133
Lysicrates 53 41 49 143
Corinthian
Jupiter Olympius 40 26 46 112
The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:—The Temples at Corinth B.C.
650, Ægina B.C. 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum B.C. 438, the Temples of
Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ B.C. 436, Minerva at Sunium,

and the Propylæa at Athens B.C. 431. The Parthenon is the only octastyle
temple in Greece.
Ionic buildings in Greece are:—Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and the
Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of Diana at
Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos.
Corinthian buildings in Greece are:—Monument of
Lysicrates, the Tower of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in
Athens.
During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively
used in the Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or
Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine hexastyle and peripteral
Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of Zeus B.C.
450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were found the
Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with their arms raised,
probably supporting the roof of the temple.
At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and
peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet. This
temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19 feet. At Egesta,
there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric temple with the columns not fluted, and
at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two Doric temples, the temple of
Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the usual hexastyle and peripteral form,
but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral and is remarkable for its two porticos of
nine columns each. All these buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between B.C.
500 and 430.
Classification of Classic Temples:—
1st. The arrangements of the columns and walls
(a) When the side walls have no colonnade Apteral
(b) When there is a colonnade standing apart from the
side walls Peripteral
(c) When the colonnade is attached to the side of the side Pseudo-
walls peripteral
(d) When there is a double colonnade standing from the
wall Dipteral
2nd.The relation of the ends of the temple
(a) When the columns do not project beyond the walls In Antis

(b) When a portico stood in front of the temple Prostyle
(c) When there was a portico at each end Amphi-prostyle
(d) If the portico was one column in depth Mono-prostyle
(e) If the portico was two columns in depth Di-prostyle
3rd. The number of columns in the portico
(a) If of 2 columns Distyle
(b) If of 4 columns Tetrastyle
(c) If of 6 columns Hexastyle
(d) If of 8 columns Octastyle
4th. The Intercolumniation
(a) If 1½ diameters apart Pycnostyle
(b) If 2 diameters apart Systyle
(c) If 2¼ diameters apart Eustyle
(d) If 3 diameters apart Diastyle
(e) If 4 diameters apart Ærostyle
GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5.

Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states,
GREEK speaking the same language, and worshipping the same
O R N A M E N T. gods. Almost the whole of the Ægean coast of Asia Minor
was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, which
supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern portion of
this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by Ionians. In the
course of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and
Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at Syracuse, Gela and
Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in Italy. These
colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than
Greece itself. The ascendency in art in Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians

circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the
Ionians, when Athens became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of
perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was
destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles (470-29
B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.

The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture,
sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and
culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality and religious
sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was
brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. Their myths and
traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical
nature, and their intense love of the beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek
people, from the siege of Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The
almost inexhaustible store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum,
and in other European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable
illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of
conception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate
knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are
here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.
The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely
represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great
personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon
contemporary and later plastic art.
The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the
Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was enriched with
splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the originals are now in the
British Museum, forming part of the Elgin Marbles, which were purchased
from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two pediments of the temple contained
figure sculpture in the round, larger than life size. The Eastern group represents
the birth of Athene, and the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon
for the soil of Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the
British Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture
during the Phidian age. An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western
pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure, with
rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line and mass for
its position renders it singularly beautiful and architectonic in character. Of the
92 square metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15

are included in the Elgin Marbles. The
subject represented on these metopes was the
battle between the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or
Greeks, and are fine examples of
composition of line and mass, and dramatic
power of expression.

The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the
colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in height, and
523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject being the
Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals
of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of
composition, its groups of beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of
noble citizens, its heroes and deities, heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial
oxen, and its horses and riders are doubtless the most perfect production of the
sculptor’s art. Each figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having
an individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition,
appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.
The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or statue of
the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of plates of gold and
ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably owing to the intrinsic
value of the material, this work of Phidias disappeared at an early date.

Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the
beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, erected
by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows an extraordinary vitality and
movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of 23 slabs 25½ inches in width, the
incidents depicted being the battle of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the
contest between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the
Parthenon frieze is here replaced by activity and energy of line and an
exuberance of modelling.

Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument of
Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures display moist clinging
garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet. These sculptures
show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the work of the Athenian
sculptor, Bryaxis.
Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of the
Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and white
marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of about the same date is noted for
the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which crowned the lofty bastion on
which the temple stands. An example of Nike or victory,
adjusting her sandal is here given. These reliefs are
remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment,
and the exquisite rendering of the draped female figure.
Other friezes now in the British Museum are from the
Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus
B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement of
masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36
columns. The upper part of the basement was enriched with a
frieze, illustrating the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the
frieze of the cella was illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus.
Seventeen slabs of the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British
Museum; they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their

composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and richness
of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon frieze in its
fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, the sculptor of the Nereid
monument executed the north frieze, while the south was by Timotheus, the
east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.
A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an
important feature, was the great altar at Pergamos,
erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 168. This had a
basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft.
high, enriched with a sculptured frieze 7½ ft. high.
The subject is the Gigantomachia, or battle of the
gods and giants; the treatment being characterised by
passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in grouping and technique.
Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze are now in the Berlin Museum.
The frieze was an important decorative
feature with the Assyrians and Greeks. The
continuity of incident and rhythm of
movement that was possible with the
continuous frieze, together with its functional
use of banding, no doubt tended to preserve
its traditional form, hence we have many
remains from antiquity of this beautiful
decorative treatment. An early and fine
example is the frieze of Archers from the
palace of Darius at Persepolis, B.C. 532, now
in the Louvre. This frieze, of which an
illustration is here given, was executed in
glazed and enamelled bricks. A dignity of
conception and unity of composition were
here combined with skilful modelling of relief work, and fine colouring of
blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt influenced the
later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this tradition of the frieze.
Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of detail,
radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry. The anthemion,
which is the typical form, is derived from the traditional lotus and bud of
Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs however in its more abstract rendering and
its absence of symbolism, having a charm of composition and a unity and

balance of parts, yet lacking that interest and deeper significance associated
with many periods of art.
The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the
funeral stele, (figs. 1, 2, and 5, plate 4), upon the
architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and above the
necking of the Ionic columns (plate 6); or painted
upon the panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It
was also used in a thousand ways upon the many
fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period.
The simplicity and
GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6.

beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless rendered it
one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian and Assyrian
prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with alternate flower and
bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently by a double spiral.
Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a few typical examples, where
the rhythm and beauty of composition are indicative of the culture and
perfection of Greek craftsmanship.
Another feature, which at a later period received considerable development,
was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine example from the

roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with V shaped sections,
springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the same features being observed
in the nest of foliage which supports the tripod upon the apex of the roof (plate
6). This scroll is formed of a series of spirals springing from each other, the
junction of the spiral being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself
being often broken by a similar sheath.
This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and Italian
Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the Gothic ornament,
in which the construction line is continuous and unbroken.
The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently used
upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 plate 5) where its
circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with the functional straight
lines of architectural design. The extraordinary vitality and versatility of the
Greek craftsmen may be traced through a magnificent series of coins dating
from B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The interest of subject, beauty of composition and
largeness of style, combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these
gold, silver and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of
the early Greeks.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7.

Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of
ROMAN Greece by the extensive use of the arch and of
A R C H I T E C T U R E . superposed orders. The many fine remains of
Roman temples and public buildings show the
extraordinary versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their
constructive skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other
nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek
prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an
ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament, less refined in contour and
detail.

A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of Septimus
Severus, A.D. 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. 79, and the Arch
of Constantine, A.D. 326. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by
Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch.
The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed illustration
from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of the Doric and the
upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story, having the Corinthian
order, and an attic story, with Corinthian pilasters; the whole reaching to a
height of 156 feet.
One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon, with
its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze ornaments. The
portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian order, beautifully
proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the Corinthian order was
used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently called Jupiter Stator; some
50 examples of this Corinthian order date from the Roman period. The Tuscan
and Composite orders were added by the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the
Corinthian, forming the five orders of architecture.
The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman orders,
the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in parts:—
Columns. Capital. Architrave. Frieze. Cornice. Entablature.
Doric. Theatre of
15½ 24 31 46 37 113
Marcellus

Baths of
16 22 32 45 46 123
Diocletian
Theatre of
18 31 43 36 66 145
Marcellus
Ionic.
Temple of
17½ 33¾ 38 28 70 137
Virilis
Jupiter
20 66 43 43 69 156
Corinthian. Stator
Pantheon 19½ 67 42 39 54 136
The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was of the
same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the Romans show
the greatest constructive skill and splendour of embellishment. The skilful
planning and appropriateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and
amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans.
The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature,
rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the Tribunal
was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with concrete, and
supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of two typical Roman
basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180

× 160 feet, five aisles, the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and
enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one class; and the basilica of
Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is
typical of a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the
centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof.
These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early
Christians to their service, and the basilica church was
the typical form used up to the 12th century in the
Romanesque provinces.
The Roman houses were of two types: the Domus, or
houses clustered together, and the Insular, houses which
were surrounded by streets. Most of the finest Pompeian
houses were of the Insular type.
The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the Ostium
or entrance, sometimes called the Vestibule, which
opened into the Atrium, which was a large room or court
partly roofed over, with an opening in the centre called
the Conpluvium, under which was the Impluvium, or
cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers
surrounded the Atrium, and at the further end was the Tablinum or private
room, frequently leading to the Peristylium or private part of the house, an
open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain, with flowers,
shrubs and trees, forming a Viridarium. Surrounding the Peristylium were
private rooms, one of which was the Triclinium or dining room. From the
Peristylium, fauces or passages led to the Porticus, a colonnade which
overlooked the garden.
ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8

Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by
ROMAN successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world,
O R N A M E N T. absorbing the arts and the architecture of the Etruscans B.C.
567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of Corinth and Carthage
B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style termed Roman, assimilating
and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks; the arch,
the vault, the mural paintings and the decorative use of bronze and the terra-
cotta of the Etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of
the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected
by the Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D.

Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, consisting
of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans using these forms
with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with bold and vigorous
carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and graceful contour of the
Greek and Etruscan forms.

Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral
lines clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus
foliage, the various spirals terminating in a rosette.
These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine
curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other
foliation, such as the vine, olive and ivy. Birds and
reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. 1)
are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving
that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so
characteristic of Roman art.
The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative ceilings,
having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square, hexagonal or
octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high relief and the border mouldings
of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart or the water leaf. These
exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs
and palaces were in many cases ornamented
ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9.

with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or mythical
figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings or divisions in
higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and dart enrichment (Plate
9.)
The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and
sarcophagi of this period were often decorated with
festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9), and were supported
by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls
of oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at

Tivoli, here given, which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of
worship.
The architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected A.D. 114, by
Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the
remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans.
Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a rectangular
pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the dresses, armour and
standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports a column of the Tuscan
order of architecture 97¼ feet high and 12 feet in diameter, enriched with a
series of spiral bands, having bas-reliefs representing the successive events of
the Dacian War by the Emperor Trajan.
This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a complete
epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period. Another well-
preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in Rome by Marcus
Aurelius A.D. 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the war with the Marcomans.
Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with Bacchanalian figures, surrounded
with foliage and birds and animals; magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and
candelabra, of bronze, enriched with silver damascening, together with the
choice remains of sculpture and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and
love of magnificence of the wealthy Roman citizens.
In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling
combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of foliage,
repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This elaboration of the
typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded serrations of the Acanthus, forms
the chief characteristic of Roman ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and
vigorous in conception and execution, but deficient in the refinement and
delicacy of Greek art.
POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10.

Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were
P O M P E I A N buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79.
O R N A M E N T. These cities had already suffered from an earthquake in
A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were
finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the historian, was a
spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus,
describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained
buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of
rare workmanship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of
mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid

glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D.
Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 A.D., and from
these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum at
Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over
150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large mosaics, together with a
splendid collection of marble statuary.
A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of and
use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the vestibule,
corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the
key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesserie. The
triclinium, or dining room floor was often a magnificent mosaic representing
some mythological or classic subject. The walls were painted in colour, usually
with a dado ⅙ th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into
rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour
was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black
dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations
upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with
great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and
entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. A small
panel painted with a classical subject usually occupies the centre of each wall
panel.
The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman
relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral form
and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups grow the
finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are
placed.
Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, were
frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details,
such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in
a regular series.
BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11.

When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of
B Y Z A N T I N E . Government from Rome to Byzantium, in the year A.D.
330, he inaugurated a new era in art, viz.: the Byzantine.
The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now assimilated with the arts of
Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving the
strong personal vitality, deep significance and symbolism which was so
remarkable throughout the Byzantine period.
The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings
erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were
gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of S. Sophia by

Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of
Miletus, during the reign of Justinian, A.D.
538. This building is remarkable for its
splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and
pendentives on a square plan, its
embellishment with mosaics of glorious
colours, and the great inventiveness and
symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp
acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united
with the emblems of Christianity such as the
circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the peacock also is frequently seen.
Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great
profusion in the gold ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls
and the vaults and domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The
churches of Ravenna in Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale,
the basilica churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in
Classe, A.D. 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and
sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of Torcello,
A.D. 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, marbles and
mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans here given are
typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of the circle and cross
are used as constructive features. This symbolism is a marked feature in
Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus
or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is
largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is
visible in the sculptured ornament of this period.
SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12.

The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and
S C A N D I N AV I A N implements of war of the early Viking period, found
O R N A M E N T. in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no trace of
plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter
consisting wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking
ship found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows traces
of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early Scandinavian Sagas. At
the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms are found mingled with the
dragons, and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of the

gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the
newer cult in religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap.
Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one day by
Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods—Loki, Hœni and Woden—these
being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when the skin of Otter
should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the dwarf Andwan, who
was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring of magical properties,
carrying with it a curse, that the treasure should be the death of those who held
it. Loki then returned and covered the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after
which the gods were set at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the
treasure. Fafni, after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay
guarding the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the
treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd, in testing
his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a magic sword, with
which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced it through (figs. 1-4). Then
Regan took out the heart of the dragon, which Sigurd cut into slices and
toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd, burning his fingers, places them in his
mouth, and tasted the blood of Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the
voice of birds saying that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed
Regan, eat the heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse
Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for this
crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).[A]
This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and 2 the
story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the fertility of invention and
dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk
Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same subjects, dating from the 11th
century. In later times the dragon becomes more pronounced in character, until
in the 14th century it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing
ornament (fig. 6).
CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13.

No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the
C E LT I C Celtic. The carved stone architecture and crosses, the
O R N A M E N T. bronzes, enamels and silversmith’s work, the splendid
illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and
borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and accurate
writing of the text, are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the
early Irish people. The incised ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and
4th centuries B.C. show simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and
spirals which are used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early
stage the Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing

forms. The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel
enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or 3rd
century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in
its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the
8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being typical of Celtic work up to the
middle of the 11th century when all trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing
bird and animal forms used from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless
derived from Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which
is such a marked feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been
borrowed from the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to
Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin of the
dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that distinguishes the
Celtic from all other styles of ornament except Scandinavian.

The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical examples of
this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period is noted for its
bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with Champlevé enamels. The
fine chalice of Ardagh (plate 34) and the Tara Brooch (7th century) are
splendid examples of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-
460. The beautiful Book of Kells, A.D. 650-690, the Book of Armagh, A.D. 807,
the Book of Durrow, A.D. 750 (Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of
Durham, A.D. 689-721, written by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a
tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful
craftsmanship of the early Irish people.
English Gothic Architecture has been broadly
NORMAN AND divided into periods for the purpose of classifying
GOTHIC the styles, the following being the most generally
A R C H I T E C T U R E . accepted.
By Sharpe.[B]
A.D.
Saxon 1066.
Romanesque—
Norman 1066-1145.

Transitional 1145-1190.
Lancet 1190-1245.
Gothic—
Curvilinear 1245-1360.
Rectilinear 1360-1550.

By Rickman.[C]
A.D.
Norman 1066-1189.
Romanesque—
Early English 1189-1307.

Decorated 1307-1379.
Gothic— Perpendicular 1379-1483.
Tudor 1483-1546.
French Classification by De Caumont.
Primordiale 5th to 10th century.
Romanesque— Secondaire 10th to 12th ”
Tertiaire 12th ”

Primitive 13th century.
Pointed— Secondaire or Rayonnant 14th ”
Tertiaire or Flamboyant 15th ”
Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded A.D. 1066-1170 by Norman
bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York,
or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new sites such
as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more magnificent
erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still
existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine
architecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and
Scandinavian peoples.
The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the
apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and is
therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical division in the
nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate 14 is an illustration of
four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the development of style from

the 12th to the 15th century. The general characteristic of each bay is given
separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each
cathedral was influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily
overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in
the choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular
Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the Triforium
and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed
arch.
The Piers (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have distinctive features
which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic development. Sketch
plans are here given showing the changes that took place in the shape of the
pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general characteristics are observed in the
arch mouldings and string courses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
NORMAN PERIOD.
Nave Arcading. The universal use of the
round arch, cylindrical or rectangular piers
with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. Capitals cubical and cushion
shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with concentric rows of Chevron and
Billet ornament.
Triforium. In early work, of one arch. In
later work, two or four small arches
carried on single shafts under one large
semi-circular arch.
Clearstory. One window with an open
arcading in front, of three arches, the
centre one larger and often stilted. This
arcade forms a narrow gallery in the
thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof
of the nave, of wood, flat and panelled,
roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra
partite vaulting.
An arcading of semi-circular arches was
usually placed upon the wall, under the
aisle windows.
Early windows are narrow, flush with the
external wall, and deeply splayed on the
inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb shafts and capitals
supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few semi-circular rose windows
still remain, of which a fine example is to be found in Barfrestone Church,
Kent.
EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.
The Lancet or pointed arch universal.
Capitals, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch
mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the
characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in

bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch
mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a
“Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a
“Label.”
The Triforium has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or
subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced
trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts
attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched
with the Dog’s tooth ornament or trefoil foliage.
The Clearstory lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the
inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the
floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes
under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the
simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite in form. Early windows
in small churches were arranged in couplets and at the east end, usually in
triplets, with grisaille stained glass similar to the example given on the next
page from Salisbury Cathedral. The annexed example from the east end of
Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrangement.
Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment,
was frequently used upon external walls. The
figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly
under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of
which there are fine examples at Wells, Lichfield,
Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate 14). Splendid
examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in
the north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral,
also at York, but they are comparatively rare in
England, while France possesses over 100 of the
finest and most important examples of this type of
ecclesiastical adornment. They are to be seen in the
Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres, and
Rheims.
DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.
In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals
having plain mouldings or enriched with finely

carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow. The pier
arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched,
usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage
similar to that upon the capitals.
The Triforium consists of double arches, with
subordinate cusped arches, adorned with Geometric
tracery.
The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one
large window being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by
equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 14).
Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which
springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under
the Clearstory string.
The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric tracery and
finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold
geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of
this period.
PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.
The Piers of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings
carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they frequently
resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally
they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the
vine. In some instances, the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is
relieved with an embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a
cresting for the elaborate perpendicular screens, or for relieving the
clearstory strings.
The Triforium is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal
divisions only. The Clearstory, owing to the suppression of the Triforium
becomes of more importance. The windows are large and often in pairs,
with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head.
The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on
which the battlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also
suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface
tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon

walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of
doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the
characteristic features of the Perpendicular or Tudor period. English
cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contemporary French
buildings. The English nave and choir is less in height and width but greater
in length than French cathedrals. For instance, Westminster is the highest of
our English cathedrals, with its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30
ft. wide, and 505 feet in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof,
45 ft. wide, and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft.
wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, 39 ft.
wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough with 81 ft.
are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York with 45 ft. being
the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.
The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand,
being as follows:—Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415
ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft.
in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in
length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave,
45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length.
The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th
centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in
a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, S.
Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies,
features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous
Scaligers at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by the use of the
ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in France and England
where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; the abbeys and
cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched with the most
vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and canopies with crockets,
finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and details, and the splendid
windows filled with glorious coloured glass, are all tributes to the religious
zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages.
On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that took
place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the 15th
century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in the
Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style may also

be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman one (fig.
1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and 8.
THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14.

NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15.

Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the
N O R M A N traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed
D E TA I L S . arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches
in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed
carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the
mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable
Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling.
Characteristic features of this period also are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the
corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which

spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman
surface ornament are still extant; at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful
intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above
being a scale or imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich
example of surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).
Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known
of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not
the rule.
Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular
arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The semi-
circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture
in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the
archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb
mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or
diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals showing a
classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute.
Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln
Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley
Church, Oxfordshire.
The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus,
enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The
capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or
segments of circles.
The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary work
in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its name—
Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, beautiful
in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of Angouleme
Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, displays more
affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two French capitals (figs.
9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals and birds may be seen,
showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art of that period.
EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16.

The Norman style was succeeded by the pointed,
E A R LY G O T H I C or Gothic style, remarkable for its variety, its
D E TA I L S . beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and
vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions,
beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high
degree of perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric
character of the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and
well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals
characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage

growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in
beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to the spiral
line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated
and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given
show the distinctive character of English Gothic ornament.

A. Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral
lines. B. Decorated Gothic, with natural types of
foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing
indulating line. C. Perpendicular Gothic, showing the
vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner.
The same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here
given.

The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church,
Kent (fig. 1), is remarkable for the vigour and
flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of
ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of
much of our early English foliage.
The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to
contemporary carved work, but showing more of the
DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17.

profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in
addition to the spiral forms of foliage.
Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from the
early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a rounder type
of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is so characteristic
of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain moulded capitals so
prevalent in this country are rarely found in France.
DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS.

Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric
tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the
undulating character of line and form in its
ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the
vine, the maple, the rose, and the ivy were
introduced in much luxuriance and profusion,
being carved with great delicacy and accuracy.
Lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of
the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in
brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with
adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply
attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but lacking
that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early work.
Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were
now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The ball
flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the equally
characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style.
French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more
reserve and affinity for architectural forms.
This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within half a
century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, with its
distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface panelling, and the
prevalent use of the four centred arch—of octagonal capitals enriched with
the angular treatment of the vine,—of heraldic shields and arms, and of the
four-leaved flower; all typical of the period.
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18.

The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy
R E N A S C E N C E until the 12th century, losing their vitality and vigour,
O R N A M E N T. except at Venice, where the Byzantine style reached
a culminating point in the glorious buildings at
Murano and of St. Mark’s.
Lombardy, in the north, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic
art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards and the
symbolisms of the old Byzantine, thus producing the architecture known as

Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint
imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support
for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, and at
Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy; a beautiful
illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “Stones of
Venice,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic influence
with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets, and its
strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with this Gothic
personality; hence, during the 12th and 13th centuries in Italy, this
intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an
art barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness,
and the detail rich and varied in conception. Yet it was but the herald of a
style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style
where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where
refinement of line and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and
which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect
adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness, and
rugged personality of the early Byzantine, Lombardic and Gothic styles.
Italian Renascence is broadly divided into three periods. Tre-cento, A.D.
1300 to 1400; Quattro-cento, A.D. 1400 to 1500; and Cinque-cento, A.D.
1500 to 1600. In the Tre-cento style this intermingling of the classic details
with the Lombardic and Gothic constructions produced such remarkable
buildings as S. Maria della Spina, and the Campo Santo at Pisa, by
Giovanni Pisano 1240-1320; the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church of Santa
Croce, and the Cathedral of Florence, by Arnolfo di Cambio (1232-1310),
with its alternate courses of black and white marble, and its Gothic arches
and tracery; the beautiful Campanile by Giotto (1276-1336) is a noble
accessory to Arnolfo’s Cathedral. A charming illustration of this Tre-cento
period, from Giotto’s Campanile, is the frontispiece to Ruskin’s “Seven
Lamps of Architecture.”
The sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity of
conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classical traditions. Perhaps the
earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa, a
similar one in the Cathedral at Siena, and the fountain at Perugia, all by
Nicolo Pisano (1206-76). He was assisted in much of his work by his son
Giovanni, who also executed the pulpit in the Cathedral at Pisa. Andrea

Pisano (1273-1344), a pupil of Giovanni executed a beautiful bronze gate or
door, cast in 1332, for the Baptistery at Florence.
A fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of St. Peter the Martyr,
in the Church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa, 1308-47.
The Quattro-cento period, of which Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465), was
the great master, is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism. Ghiberti’s
chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery; the first
gate is dated 1403-24, and the second 1425-50. Both have panels modelled
in low relief, the first with incidents from the New, and the second from the
Old Testament. The frame-work of these gates has a series of single figures
in niches, with circular medallions between them. The bronze architrave
round each of the Ghiberti gates, in addition to the one he placed round the
earlier gate, by Andrea Pisano, are rich examples of Quattro-cento design.
The details are natural fruits, flowers, and foliage, banded-together with
ribbons, with the introduction of birds, squirrels, &c. The egg-plant and
pomegranate portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example.

Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438) who
executed the beautiful monument here shown, to Ilaria di Carretto, in the
cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent figure of Ilaria is sculptured in white
marble with perfect simplicity and beauty; another famous work of Jacopo
was the fountain at Siena.
Luca della Robbia (1400-82) executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble
for the Cathedral at Florence, with admirable singing and dancing figures in
relief. But beautiful as this work is, Luca’s reputation rests upon his

Enamelled Terra Cotta, which he perfected to a remarkable degree.
Modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel (see Maiolica), he
produced a marvellous series of these reliefs, which were invariably
surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of modelled fruit and
flowers, enamelled in bright colours. His nephew, Andrea della Robbia
(1445-1525) continued the traditions, methods, and skill, with marked
success; and also Andrea’s son Giovanni (1524) who executed a beautiful
frieze upon the façade of the hospital at Pistoja. Andrea’s other sons,
Girolamo and Luca carried the art into France under Francis I. (1531.)
Donatello (1386-1466) was remarkable for the singular grace and sincerity
of his portraiture, especially of children; the dancing figures in relief on the
panels of the singing gallery of the Cathedral of Florence, are perfect
examples of his art. Donatello also carried the art of low flat relief called
“Stiacciato” to the greatest perfection. An illustration of Donatello’s work,
from the high altar of St. Antonio at Padua, is here given.
The art of the medallist, which had declined since the Roman
period, now took its position among the arts of the quattro-
cento period, under Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-
1451). The vigour of his modelling, and the individuality of his
medals of the contemporary Princes of Italy, are exceedingly
fine. Among other remarkable medallists were Sperandio of
Verona (1423-90); Caradosso, of Milan (1480-1545);
Vincentine, of Vicenza (1468-1546); Benvenuto Cellini, of
Florence (1500-71); Lione Leoni (1498-1560); Pompeoni
Leoni (1530-1610); and Pastorino, of Siena (1510-91). The
great dome of Arnolfo’s Cathedral at Florence was designed by
Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who was a competitor with Ghiberti for the
bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence. Other names of this period were
Desiderio da Settignano (1428-64,) his
masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini,
in the Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da
Fiesole (1430-84); Andrea Verrocchio (1435-88);
the author of the fine equestrian statue of
Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes);
Matteo Civitali (1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five
brothers, of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who

executed a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo in the Church
of the Nunziata, Florence.
The Cinque-Cento period was the culmination of the Renascence, when
architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under the
magnificent patronage of the Popes and Princes of Italy.
Palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed and
embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations;
hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the Venetian,
Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with altar
paintings and mural decorations, by the most renowned of
painters; and enriched with the magnificent productions of
the gold and silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia or
inlaid woodwork.

Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1474-1653), by his great intellect and power,
stands above his many contemporaries. The colossal figure of David, and
the Madonna and Child at Bruges, are familiar examples of this great
artist’s work. The magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici at
Florence, show his noble power and conceptions of art. The splendid
decorative work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is
another example where unity of conception and marvellous execution are

shown in a remarkable degree. Two illustrations of this ceiling are given—
one of the panels, with the expulsion from Eden, and one of the Sibyls or
Prophets, both showing beautiful harmony of incident and composition.
Contemporary with Michel Angelo was Raphael
(1483-1520), who displayed the highest capacity for
grace and refinement in painting. His principal mural
paintings are in the stanze of the Vatican, where four
rooms are painted in fresco, almost entirely by
Raphael. The Loggia of the Vatican, by Bramante, was
also decorated by Raphael and his pupils. The then-
recent discoveries of the Baths of Titus and House of
Livia, with their Roman mural painting, influenced in
a remarkable degree the decorative painting of the
Cinque-Cento period. These arabesques (or, as they were termed,
Grotteschi, being found in the supposed caves or grottos of Roman
gardens), were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of the pilasters, piers,
and walls of this Loggia. The designs were painted with a fine range of
colour upon white ground, and enclosed within borders of modelled stucco
ornaments. In the panels upon the ceiling, Raphael painted a series of 52
incidents of the Bible. These are spoken of as “Raphael’s Bible.”
Raphael was assisted in this work of the
Loggia by many contemporary artists:
Giovanni da Udine (1494-1564), Giulio
Romano (1492-1546), Francesco Penni (1488-
1528), Perino del Vaga (1500-47), and
Primaticcio (1490-1580), who completed much
of the work after Raphael’s death. These artists
carried his traditions and methods to other
parts of Italy. Giulio Romano executed some
fine mural decorations at the Villa Madama in
Rome; and for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of
Mantua, he enriched with beautiful decorative
paintings and arabesques, the Palazzo Ducale
and the Palazzo del Te. These arabesques were
upon richly coloured or parti-coloured grounds (see plates 86-9 “Grammar
of Ornament,” by Owen Jones).

These arabesques of Raphael’s, which were
excelled by later ones of Giulio Romano, show
a great inventiveness and skilful combination
of parts, but they are not to be compared with
the refined and beautiful modelling and
harmonious composition of the contemporary carved work of Andrea
Sansovino (1460-1528), Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino Busti,
Pietro Lombardo (1500), and his sons Tullio and Antonio. These delicate
reliefs have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a fine feeling
for relief modelling, and beauty of line; vases, masks, shields, and similar
accessories are found in profusion in some examples (fig. 3, plate 19). The
composition of the Cinque-cento ornament is symmetrical, the details being
varied and most interesting in the best work, and whilst lacking the vigour
and symbolism of the Lombardic and Byzantine styles, it excelled them in
its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions, with perfection of design
and craftsmanship.
Andrea Mantegna (1431-1517) executed nine
paintings or cartoons in tempera upon linen,
representing the triumphs of Julius Cæsar, which are a
portion of the cartoons for a frieze 9 feet high and 80
feet long, painted for Lodovico Gonzaga’s Palace of
St. Sebastian at Mantua, they were purchased by Charles I., and are now at
Hampton Court. An illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon
copper in the British Museum, is given on page 55; they were also engraved
on wood by Andrea Andreani in 1599.
Many beautiful examples of the Cinque-Cento ornament may be found in
contemporary printed and illuminated books. The advent of printing in Italy
(1465) by the Germans, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannitz at the
Benedictine Monastery of Subiaco, near Rome, gave a great impetus to
Literature, and printing rapidly progressed in Italy, more especially at
Venice, where in 1499 Aldus Manutius produced the Hypnerotomachia, or
dream of Poliphilus
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 19.

with illustrations ascribed to Mantegna. Good reproductions of many of
these early illustrated books are given in the “Italian Book Illustrations,” by
A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December, 1894; and in “The
Decorative Illustration of Books,” by Walter Crane.
The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publication at
Rome in 1486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of the time of
Augustus; an edition was also published at Florence in 1496, and at Venice
in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice, published “The Five Books of

Architecture,” by Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Another
treatise upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52), was
also published at Venice in 1537 and 1540.
Beautiful types of the Renascence
decorative art were the Venetian
well-heads, situated as they were
in most of the public squares of
Venice, and in many of the court-
yards of her princely palaces.
Designed with details of the most
varied and beautiful character by such artists as Andrea
Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his sons Tullio and
Antonio, the Venetian well-head became a type of
beauty, diversified in its treatment, but never losing its
characteristics or its usefulness. Venetian well-heads
display a great variety of form and decoration. The
earlier examples are square or circular, with enrichments of Byzantine
character, consisting largely of interlacing, circular, and angular lines,
enclosing quaint bird and animal forms. In the later examples the
Renascence treatment is used with singular richness and appropriateness,
the grace, delicacy and diversity of detail being a tribute to the vivacity and
artistic feeling of the Venetian Republic. These well-heads, worked mostly
in white marble and evincing good judgment in the quality of relief, now
show comparatively little injury after centuries of usefulness. Occasionally
they were of bronze, of which two fine examples are still in position in the
court-yard of the Doge’s Palace. Many of these well-heads are carefully
treasured in our European Museums, teaching us that beauty of form, and
perfection and delicacy of ornament are quite compatible with usefulness,
when used by an artistic people.
The Renascence in Italy was remarkable for the
many magnificent secular buildings erected
during the 15th and 16th centuries in the chief
cities in Italy.
In Florence the palaces have a severe dignity of
treatment, with bold rusticated courses of stone-
work, circular-headed windows, and finely-

proportioned cornices. The first Renascence palace was the Riccardi (1430)
by Michelozzi (1370-1440); and it was followed by the Pitti (1435), by
Brunelleschi (1377-1444), the Rucellai (1460), by Leon Battista Alberti
(1389-1472), the Strozzi (1489), by Cronaca (1454-1509), the Gondi
(1490), by Giuliano Sangallo (1443-1507), the Guadagni and the Nicolini,
by Bramante (1444-1514), the Pandolfini (1520), by Raphael (1483-1520),
and the Bartolini (1520), by Baccio d’Agnolo (1460-1543).
In Rome the palaces were characterised by largeness of scale and the
frequent use of Ionic and Corinthian pilasters or columns, and square-
headed windows with triangular or curved pediments. The chief palaces in
Rome are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1506) by Bramante (1444-
1514), the Farnesina (1506), the Massimi (1510), and the Villa Ossoli
(1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), the Palma and the Farnese, by
Antonio Sangallo (1476-1546), the Borghese (1590), by Martino Lunghi,
the Laterano, by Fontana (1543-1610), and the Barberini, by Carlo Maderno
(1556-1629), Borromini (1599-1667), and Bernini (1598-1680).
In Venice the palaces were rich and varied; with the frequent use of
pilasters, semi-columns and circular-headed mullioned windows suggested
by the earlier Gothic palaces. The Renascence period commenced here with
the re-building of the court-yard of the Doge’s Palace (1486) by Antonio
Bregno, and completed in 1550 by Scarpagnino. Then came a beautiful
series of buildings, the chief being:—the Vendramini, the Trevisani, and the
Gradenigo Palaces, by Sante Lombardo (1504-1560); the Cornaro Palace
and the Library of St. Mark’s, by Sansovino (1479-1570), and the Grimani
Palace by San Michele (1484-1559).
Towards the close of the 15th century, the vigorous
FRENCH and beautiful Gothic architecture of France, with its
R E N A S C E N C E . rich traceried and mullioned windows, its niches
and canopies, its crocketed spires and varied
treatment of floral enrichment, lost its vitality; and was succeeded by the
Renascence style, which at first was purely Italian, but afterwards, with the
intermingling of Gothic traditions and craftsmanship, became a distinct
phase of the Renascence.

French Renascence may be broadly divided into distinctive periods: 1st.
The earlier or transitional, 1453-1515, when the influence of the
Renascence began to be felt. 2nd. 1515-47, François Premier. This period
is remarkable for the number of Italians engaged by Francis I. for the
embellishment of the Château Fontainbleau, the principal being Rosso,
painter; Serlio and Vignola, architects; Primaticcio and Penni, ornamentists,
Benvenuto Cellini, with his beautiful goldsmiths’ art; and Girolamo della
Robbia, who produced enamelled Terra Cotta. The work of these renowned
craftsmen necessarily had a marked influence upon the traditional French
art. Of the architecture of this period, there is the south-west angle of the
Louvre, commenced in 1548 by Pierre Lescot (1510-78), and enriched with
sculpture by Jean Goujon (1515-72), who also executed the sculptures that
embellished the beautiful Château Ecouen, by Jean Bullant (1515-60), and
the beautiful fountain of the Innocents at Paris, of which an illustration of
one of the panels is here given. The tomb of Louis XII., at St. Denis, by
Jean Juste (1518), is remarkable for the purity of its enrichments.
3rd. Henri Deux and Henri Quatre period, 1547-1610, when the building
of the Tuileries was commenced in 1564 by Philibert de Lorme (1500-78),
the building of the Louvre being continued by De Carreau and Duperac; the
Luxembourg being subsequently built by De Brosse, 1610. This period was
also represented by the exquisite Ceramics of Oiron or Henri Deux Ware,
and the fine geometrical interlacings and arabesques of the bookbindings of
Grolier.

4th period, 1610-43, under Louis Treize, when considerable
skill was shown in the carved and painted shell and scroll
ornament, and in the bookbindings of Le Gascon.

5th. Louis Quatorze period, 1643-1715, of which the palace
of Versailles and the Château Maison, by François Mansard
(1598-1666), are typical examples of architecture. The
decorative compositions of le Pautre (see annexed
illustrations), and the richly-decorated furniture, with
marquetry in tortoise-shell and brass, by André Boule (1642-
1732); the magnificent Gobelins tapestry, so liberally encouraged by the
Minister Colbert (1667); and the beautiful Rouen pottery; are characteristic
of the industrial and decorative arts.
6th. Louis Quinze period, 1715-74, when the Rococo style
was paramount, the vitality of the preceding periods being
lost. The pastoral scenes by the painter Watteau (1684-1721),
and the inlaid furniture of Jean François Ochen (1754-65),
for Madame de Pompadour, are typical of this period.
7th. Louis Seize, 1774-89. The arts of this period are more
refined and reserved in line, as evinced in the fine marquetry
furniture of Riesener and David Roentgen with the ormolu
mountings by Gouthière (1740-1810), for Marie Antoinette.
The last period, Empire Style, 1804-70, when purely classical forms and
Greek enrichments prevailed throughout the whole of the decorative arts.
The English Renascence period began during the
ENGLISH reign of Henry VIII., and was contemporary with
R E N A S C E N C E . that of France under Francis I. It was Torrigiano, a
contemporary of Michel Angelo, who about 1519

brought this new Renascence style into repute by erecting the tomb of
Henry VII., and that of the Countess of Richmond, in Westminster Abbey.
English Renascence was further developed
by Hans Holbein (1498-1554), who came
into this country in 1526, followed by
craftsmen from Flanders, Germany and
Italy. This intermingling of Flemish,
German and Italian styles with the
traditional Gothic of our own country,
distinguishes English Renascence from that
of France and Italy. The marked prevalence
of interlacing strap-work, which is so characteristic of Elizabethan and
Jacobean ornament, had its origin in Flemish sources.
Of English Renascence architecture, Caius
College, Cambridge, (1565-74), by Theodore
Hare, of Cleves, and Longleat House (1567-
79), by John Thorp, are the earliest examples
extant. The Wonderful Palace of Nonsuch (of
which no trace remains) was erected by Henry
VIII. about 1530-40, doubtless in the
Renascence style, as we know that it was
embellished with beautifully enriched stucco
ornaments and figures by Tolo del Nunziato. Robert Smithson built
Wollaton House in 1580. Hardwicke Hall and Haddon Hall are of the later
Elizabethan age (1592-97). Typical buildings of the Jacobean period are
Holland House (1607), Hatfield (1611), Bolsover (1613), Audley End
(1616), Crewe Hall and Aston Hall (1620). These are all enriched with
many beautiful examples of modelled plaster work. That at Longleat and
Hardwicke being executed by Charles Williams, and at Audley End, by
Bernard Jansen (1615).
English stucco-work of this period often consisted of geometrical panelling
similar in style to the Tudor fan-tracery and the pendentives of the
preceding century. These richly-moulded pendentives were connected
together by bands of pierced strap-work decorated with arabesques in low
relief. From 1615 to 1650 the panels were composed of purely geometrical
forms, such as circles, squares, lozenges and interlacing quatre-foils,

enriched with delicate arabesques, the ribs or mouldings frequently having a
repeating pattern impressed in the soft plaster.
The many fine friezes of this period were remarkable for their boldness of
conception and their skilful craftsmanship; frequently a double frieze was
used, the lower part consisting of delicate arabesques and interlacing strap-
work, while the upper part was of boldly modelled cartouche and delicate
arabesques. During the latter part of the 17th century, owing to French
influence, the stucco enrichment usually consisted of acanthus foliage and
festoons.
From Charles I., (1625), to Queen Anne, (1702), the purely Italian
Renascence prevailed; the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones,
(1572-1652), being a fine example of this period. St. Paul’s Cathedral
(1675-1710) by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) and his many beautiful
churches in London, mark a distinct epoch of English Renascence; the
tradition being carried-on by Vanbrugh (1666-1736) who built Blenheim
Palace and Castle Howard. Other architects of this period were Hawksmoor
(1666-1726), Kent (1684-1754), Gibbs (1674-1754), Chambers (1726-96),
who built Somerset House, and Robert Adam (1725-92), who carried on the
traditional method of stucco enrichment, but in a more rigid and formal
classic manner. His geometrical panelling of hexagons, octagons, and ovals,
was enriched with conventional renderings of the acanthus and olive leaf
arranged in small units and repeated without variation over the whole of the
surface. These enrichments were cast in plaster or compo and were
mechanical in treatment, lacking the beautiful decorative quality of the
modelled stucco of the early 17th century. The Wellington Monument in St.
Paul’s Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens, is distinguished from much of the
modern work by its strong vitality and architectonic treatment of the
composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its detail.
MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 20.

Of mediæval history as associated with the
M A H O M E TA N & decorative arts, the rise and development of the
MORESQUE. Arabs is the most remarkable. The wide
appreciation and liberal patronage of the arts by
the Khalifs; the influence of its religion and precepts upon contemporary
and later periods of art; the distinct individuality and geometrical
arrangement of its ornamentation; all had a most marked effect upon
tradition and craftsmanship.

The history commences with Mohammed, A.D. 570-632, who founded and
consolidated the empire, of which, under Omar, A.D. 635, Damascus became
the capital; in A.D. 638 Kufa and Bassora were founded in Persia. In A.D. 641
Egypt was conquered and the Mahometan capital, Fustât, founded. Persia
was conquered in A.D. 642, Spain invaded in A.D. 711, Bagdad in Persia
became the capital of the Arabian Khalifs in A.D. 762, and in A.D. 827 Sicily
was conquered; but it was not until the dynasty of Ibu-Tūlūn, A.D. 868-914,
that the history of Cairene art begins, of which the mosque of Ibu-Tūlūn in
Fustât, or old Cairo, is the earliest example. Under the Fatimy dynasty, A.D.
867-1171, Cairo was founded, and the arts, receiving further
encouragement, were now introduced into Sicily and Europe. In A.D. 997 the
Mahometan invasion of India took place. In A.D. 796-965 the mosque of
Cordova was built, and in A.D. 1236 the kingdom of Granada was founded
and the Alhambra was built by Mohammed ben Alhamar, A.D. 1248, and
Mahometan art, as exemplified in the architectural decorations, arms and
armour, woodwork, ivory, textile fabrics, and illuminated books, reached its
culmination under the Mamlūk dynasty, A.D. 1250-1516.
Thus the Arabs, from a roving tribe, became, by religious zeal and
conquests, the most powerful and wealthiest nation of mediæval times,
assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different
nations and provinces.
The term Mahometan Art includes Arabian, Moresque, Persian, Indian,
and Sicilian, all having the same characteristics yet distinguished by the
racial influence and custom. The Arabian is marked by its flowing,
interlacing, and symmetrical lines, geometrical arrangement (doubtless
derived from Byzantine sources), and its prevalence of inscriptions or texts
from the Koran. In Spain a more complex geometrical arrangement is
found, intermingled with a flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely
conventional type. This style is noticeable for its entire absence of any
natural forms and its abundant use of inscriptions, and glazed and
enamelled tiles, distinctly influenced of Persian tradition though purely
geometric and formal. These tiles cover the lower part of the wall, the upper
portion, as also the ceiling being decorated with arabesques of modelled
plaster in flat relief, of two or more planes, enriched with red, blue, white
and gold; this is typical of the Moresque style. The Sicilian work is
remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk and the prevalence in its

ornament of birds, animals, and heraldic forms, showing the continuity of
the traditions of Persia.
PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 21.

The early art of Persia was similar to that of Assyria
PERSIAN and Babylon, having the same forms, materials, and
O R N A M E N T. traditions. With the accession of the Sassanides (A.D.
223) came the introduction of the elliptical dome, so

typical of eastern architecture. This dome rested on pendentives which
occupied the angles of the square base. These pendentives and the elliptical
dome are distinctive features in Mahometan architecture.
The industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced by the traditional arts
of Assyria and Chaldea; this tradition was carried on with rare skill and
selective power by the Persians, culminating in the splendid period of Shah
Abbas A.D. 1586 to 1625. The vitality, beauty, and interest of detail,
combined with perfect decorative adaptation to material, are characteristic
of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and illuminated manuscripts of the 15th,
16th, and 17th centuries.
The Mahometan conquest of Persia, A.D. 632 to 637, by Abu Bekr, the
successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of
the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races,
yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no doubt that
the art of the Arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of Persia.

Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and colour,
and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such as the pink,
hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These are used with perfect
sincerity and frankness, and are essentially decorative in treatment,
combining harmony of composition of mass, beauty of form, and purity of
colour. It was doubtless owing to these qualities, together with the perfect
adaptation of ornament to material, that the Persian style so largely
influenced contemporary work, and especially the European textile fabrics

of the 16th and 17th centuries. The illustrations given are of some familiar
types of Persian adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their
significance, beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative
treatment. Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 21, are frequently
associated with the Persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the
Artists of Damascus. Many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from
the 10th and 11th centuries, are in the South Kensington Museum, of which
the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. They often
have Arabic inscriptions interspersed with the floral enrichments. Examples
of wall tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins of Rhages.
These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or hereditary
proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of Babylon, and
the later frieze of Susa, page 16, with its brilliant enamel and fine colour,
was continued by the Persians, and, passing to the Arabs, the tradition was
carried to Cairo, Spain and Majorca; thence into Italy, where enamelled
lustred ware was made, differing from the original Persian by its frequent
absence of utility, which was fundamental to the art of the Persians.
Mahometan ornament has four broad divisions, viz.: Arabian, Moresque,
Indian, and Persian; and they are characterised by strongly-marked
compartments or fields which are filled with finer and more delicate
enrichments. These compartments are most pronounced in the Moresque
with its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms
(figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, page 62). The Arabian style is somewhat similar, but
less formal. The Indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and the
introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, plate 23); while in
the Persian work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement, with
floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the introduction of the
human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger and birds. Note the
illustration in Textiles which is taken from a fine carpet in the South
Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, chosen with rare
selective power and judgment, are combined with the typical floral
enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, admirable spacing of detail
and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and appropriateness of treatment.
These are features that distinguish the industrial designs of Persia, and it is
doubtless due to the interest and vitality of their ornament that we owe the

remarkable influence of Persian art upon the contemporary and latter
craftsmanship of Europe.
PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 22.

INDIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 23.

The civilization of India dates from the remote past, but
INDIAN the oldest remains of its art and architecture are
O R N A M E N T. connected with the Buddhist religion, introduced by the
prophet Sakya Muni, B.C. 638. This influenced the arts
of India till A.D. 250, when the Jaina style was adopted. The examples of
Buddhist architecture consist of Topes (which were sacred or monumental
temples, either detached or rock-cut), and monasteries. The rock-cut
temples usually consist of a nave and aisles, and a semi-circular recess
containing a statue of the seated Buddha. The hall has square or octagonal

columns, with bracket capitals (fig. 1). The finest examples of these temples
are those at Ajanta, which are richly-decorated in colour with incidents of
Hindoo mythology. The fine temples at Ellora, which are cut entirely out
from the rock, are of the Jaina period, A.D. 250. The pagodas at
Chedombaram are of the Brahmin period, as is also the great hall of 1,000
pillars, which is 190×340 feet, containing the sacred image of the god Siva.
Alexander the Great conquered India B.C. 327, and doubtless left the
influence of the Persian tradition in India. This influence was still further
developed by the commercial intercourse of Persia and India, and by the
Arabian invasion of India in A.D. 711, when a Mahometan dynasty was
established, 711 to 1152. This largely controlled and influenced the arts
under the Mogul dynasty, 1525-1837, when the decorative arts and the
manufacture of the beautiful woven brocades and silks were fully
developed. The splendid carpets and rugs, printed cottons, metal work, and
fine enamels of this dynasty bear a remarkable tribute to the vitality,
originality of ideas, and the practical utility of the industrial arts of India.
Indian ornament has the typical Mahometan division of spaces, but is more
flowing and graceful than the pure Arabian style. These divisions are filled
with fine conventional floral forms, as the lotus, the date or hom, the iris,
the rosette and the pine. This pine is treated occasionally as a single flower,
but more frequently as a cluster of flowers, which still retains the distinctive
form of the pine (figs. 2, 4 and 6).
Typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the elephant, lion,
tiger, peacock, and the human figure, as accessories in the decorative arts of
India. They were applied with rare knowledge and skill, combined with an
artistic perception of applied art, showing a very strong affinity with
contemporary Persian ornament.
Indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural forms, than
the frank treatment of Persian ornament. Block printing upon silk and
cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection during the last century.
The inventiveness and significance of detail; the charm of composition of
line and mass, and the beautiful colour of these printed fabrics are a reflex
of the decorative feeling for beauty by the people of India.
CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNAMENT. Plate 24.

The early bronzes, enamels, porcelain and textile
C H I N E S E A N D fabrics of China are indicative of the perfection and
J A PA N E S E luxuriance of the decorative arts of that ancient
O R N A M E N T. Empire. This perfection is shown by a Splendid
technic and a fine appreciation of colour and
ornamentation, differentiated from the western nations by myths, traditions,
and the remarkable persistency of a few typical forms through many
centuries, doubtless owing to the profound ancestral worship and veneration
for the past. The Dragon was represented under many aspects, frequently

forming vigorous lines of composition (fig. 3, 4). The beautiful flora of the
country largely influenced Chinese art. The peony and chrysanthemum
(frequently highly conventionalized), are typical examples, forming the
elements of decorative design. Geometric forms, such as the hexagon,
octagon, and the circle, enriched with flowers or the fret, are largely used.
The many splendid examples of bells, gongs, and incense-burners in bronze
and iron:—the carvings in wood, ivory, and jade:—the beautiful woven
silks and embroidered fabrics, and the richness and purity of their porcelain,
all testify to the versatility and vitality of the Chinese decorative arts in the
past. Their architecture was usually of wood, distinguished by complexity
and quaintness of form rather than beauty of proportion and detail, but their
pagodas or temples were of brick encased with glazed tiles, the most
remarkable of these erections being the Nankin Pagoda of the Ming dynasty
(A.D. 1412-31), with its imperial yellow tiles.
The arts of Japan, though doubtless owing their origin to China, are
differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal treatment
of landscape, bird and animal life, and the beautiful flora of the country—
the “kiki” or chrysanthemum, the “botan” or peony, the “kosai” or iris, the
“yuri” or lily, the “kiri” or paulawina imperialis (somewhat resembling our
horse chestnut), the “ume” or plum, the “matsi” or fir, and the “taki” or
bamboo,—likewise the peacock, the crane, the duck, the pheasant and many
smaller beautiful birds, together with reptiles, insects, and fishes; all are
elements in the decorative arts, being rendered with remarkable fidelity and
delicacy of touch, united with a fine feeling for composition of line. It is
this literal treatment of natural types, the marvellous technic and especially
the significance of the forms chosen that constitutes the charm of the earlier
Japanese art. It is singular that the materials used by the Japanese should be
of little intrinsic value. Having no jewellery, they use little of the precious
metals; iron, bronze, enamels, wood and lac, being the chief materials
utilised in the decorative arts of Japan.
IVORIES. Plate 25.

doubtless owing to its beautiful texture, colour and adaptability
I VO RY, for delicate carving, has been in use from a remote period.
Egypt, Assyria, and India have each contributed many beautiful
examples of fine craftsmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the
centuries preceding the Christian Era. Of Solomon we read in I Kings, 18,
x: “Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the
best gold.” This traditional use of ivory was most probably derived from
Egypt, the source of so many of the decorative arts.

In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of Athene
Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This statue of the
standing goddess, 40 feet high, was of gold and ivory (called
chryselephantine sculpture), the drapery being of beaten gold and the
exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory. A seated
chryselephantine figure of Jupiter, about 58 feet high, in the temple of
Olympia, was also by Pheidias. Pausanias the Roman traveller enumerates
some ten chryselephantine statues which he saw in his travels, A.D. 140.
The Roman period is noted for the many beautiful Consular diptychs, which
may now be seen in our national museums. They consist of two ivory leaves
usually 12 by 5 inches, the inside having a slightly sunk plane covered with
wax for writing upon, the outside being enriched with delicate carved
reliefs (figs. 7, 8, and 9). These diptychs were given by new consuls on their
appointment, to their friends and officers of the state. The consul is usually
represented seated on the cushioned curule chair, or chair of state, and his
name is generally written across the top of one leaf.
The Byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory, of
which an illustration is given in fig. 6; the ivory throne of Maximian,
Archbishop of Ravenna, A.D. 546-556, is also of this period. A beautiful
treatment of ivory was used in the 13th and 14th centuries by the Saracens
of Egypt; they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of ivory upon
ebony; in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal, hexagonal, or star-
shaped, and carved with delicate arabesques, the framing of the panels
being of cedar or ebony. In India ivory carving reached a high degree of
perfection, especially in the many ivory combs, with pierced and relief
work representing the figure of Buddha surrounded with foliage and richly
caparisoned elephants.
In the Carlovingian period, 8th to 10th centuries, ivory was largely used for
coffers or small chests. During the early Gothic period in Italy and France,
ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, statuettes and triptychs were made
in large numbers; and the ivory combs and mirror cases of the Renascence
period have fine reliefs of legendary or allegorical subjects. Of pictorial
ivories the modern Japanese craftsmen show the highest technical skill,
combined with a keen perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories
lack the beauty and dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of
the early and Mediæval ivories.

MOSAICS. Plate 26.

The durability, range of colour, and appropriateness of
M O S A I C S . material and treatment to architectural conditions, has
placed the art of Mosaic as the chief decorative enrichment
of architecture. Its antiquity is unquestionable, for in the Book of Esther, i,
6, we read “of a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble.”
Mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of variously-
coloured materials, fitted together, and is broadly divided into three classes:
(1) Opus Tesselatum, or clay mosaic; (2) Opus Lithostratum, or stone

mosaic; (3) Opus Miserum, or glass mosaic. These divisions are again sub-
divided into: (1) Opus Figlinum, or ceramic mosaic, formed of a vitreous
composition and coloured with metallic oxides; (2) Opus Signinum, small
pieces of tile; (3) Opus Vermiculatum, sub-divided into (a) Majus, black and
white marble, (b) Medium, in which all materials and colours were used,
and (c) Minus, of minute tesseræ, principally used for furniture inlay; (4)
Opus Sculpturatum, slabs of marble hollowed out and filled in with grey or
black marble; (5) Opus Alexandrinum, inlay of porphyry and serpentine;
and (6) Opus Sectile, formed of different laminæ or slices of marble of
various colours.
It was in Rome that the art of Mosaic was brought to its greatest perfection,
during the 1st and 2nd centuries, A.D., and many splendid examples of this
period are now in the museums of the Vatican and at Naples. The finest
example came from the House of the Faun, Pompeii, and represents the
battle of Issus, between Alexander and Darius. This mosaic, of the 3rd
century B.C., is probably a copy of a Greek painting.
Many fine Roman mosaics have been found in England at Cirencester,
London, Lincoln (fig. 6), Leicester, and at Brading in the Isle of Wight.
The tradition was carried on in Italy at Ravenna and Venice, where the Opus
Miserum reached its culmination. Of the Ravenna mosaics, those of the
Baptistery, A.D. 450, and of S. Apollinare are typical examples of the earlier
Byzantine mosaics, having dark green and gold back-grounds with tesseræ
about ⅜ inch square. The beautiful frieze of male and female saints in S.
Apollinare extends along both sides of the nave, and is 10 feet high. The
vaulting and domes of St. Mark are entirely covered with the characteristic
11th century Byzantine gold ground mosaic, formed by fusing two pieces of
glass together with gold leaf between. At Santa Sophia, Constantinople,
other fine mosaics exist of the 6th and 7th centuries. In Italy under the
Cosmati (a family of mosaicists of the 13th and 14th centuries), fine
geometrical inlaid mosaics were used for the enrichment of marble tombs
and altars; some good examples of this style are in Westminster Abbey on
the tomb of Edward the Confessor (finished under Henry III, A.D. 1270).
GREEK CERAMICS. Plate 27.

It is difficult in the 19th century to realise the importance
GREEK of vases in ancient life. To the Greeks a vase was a
C E R A M I C S . receptacle for food, liquid, or storage, and for the
adornment of the home. It was used in the daily life of
the living and buried with the dead. Most of the finer Greek vases have
been found in Etruscan tombs, but of Greek workmanship, imported from
Greece or Grecian Colonies. Some black unglazed Etruscan vases have
been found, but painted vases of Etruscan origin are rare.

Early Greek pottery, dating probably from the 10th century B.C., has been
found in Greece, the Colonies of Rhodes, Cyrene in Africa, and Naucratis in
the delta of Egypt—these, showing an historic development, are arranged in
groups, each with its distinctive characteristic:—(1st) Primitive vases,
simple in shape, handles small or absent, decorations in simple line,
punctured or incised, or in raised slip. (2nd) Mycenæ or Colonial (B.C. 900-
700) vases, often covered with a creamy slip; the designs painted in brown
and black, being derived from geometric patterns with marine and animal
forms. (3rd) Dipylon or Geometric (B.C. 700), with fret pattern enrichment,
and panels with rude figures of men and animals in black and brown. (4th)
Phaleron Ware (B.C. 700-550), with continuous bands of animals, probably
derived from Phœnicia or Assyria (fig. 4). Among the animals depicted, are
placed portions of the fret pattern, a survival of the previous style. The
details are incised through the black or brown figure, showing the colour of
the clay body. A development of this Phaleron Ware was the introduction of
the rosette, taking the place of the fret pattern, between the figures or the
animals. (5th) Black Figure Period (B.C. 600-480), vases, fine in profile,
and with good handles, the body of the vase, in red ware, being painted with
subjects of Grecian mythology in black, and the details incised; the faces,
arms, and legs of the female figures afterwards painted in white or red slip,
and fired at a lower heat. The Amphora (fig. 5) was the chief form of this
black figure period, some fine examples are signed by Exekias and Amasis.
(6th) the Transitional period (B.C. 500-470), when the black silhouette
figures on a red ground gave way to the Red Figure Period on a black
ground. Artists of this style were Epiktetos, Pamphæios, Nicosthenes, and
Pythos. Many of the vases by Nicosthenes resemble contemporary metal
work in their shape and handles. The 7th group (B.C. 470-336), also red
figures on the black ground, was the period when Greek fictiles reached
their highest perfection, the chief form employed being the Kylix. A fine
series of these Kylikes, signed by Cachrylion, Euphronios, Duris, Pethenos,
and Hieron, are in the British Museum.
A vase produced specially for funeral purposes was the Athenian Lekythos,
the body of which was covered with white slip, then painted in polychrome
with subjects of singular appropriateness.
CERAMICS. Plate 28.

The antiquity of Ceramic Art and its scientific and artistic
C E R A M I C qualities, render this subject one of considerable interest to
A RT. art students.
The plasticity of clay and its hardening qualities under the influence of
intense heat, its adaptability to the most refined and appropriate forms, its
affinity for the beautiful glazes and enamels so often associated with
pottery, and its splendid traditions of craftsmanship, of colour, form and
decorations, so beautiful and varied in character,—all combine to invest the
subject with a charm or fascination of its own. Intrinsically valueless in its

natural state, it is capable of being rendered almost priceless by scientific
workmanship and artistic skill. The history of this material, and of its easy
adaptation to the most refined and intricate, as well as the simplest of forms,
affords invaluable lessons for present day artistic students.
Pottery clay may be classified under three divisions or headings: (1)
Earthenware. (2) Stoneware. (3) Porcelain. Under the first are grouped the
largest number of Ceramic Wares. The pottery of Egypt, the faience of
Assyria and Persia, the Greek and Etruscan vases, the famous red ware
from the Isle of Samoa, and its counterpart the Roman Samian ware, the
beautiful maiolica of Spain and Italy, the pottery of Rouen, St. Porchaire,
Delft, and most of our English pottery are earthenwares; the paste or body
consists of natural clays selected for their plasticity, their hardening
qualities, their fusibility or their colour, and when burnt have a porous
opaque body, usually dull in colour. This dulness was usually overcome by
coating the ware with a slip of fine white clay, which, whilst not possessing
inherent qualities to form pottery by itself, would adhere to the coarser
coloured body of the earthenware, thereby forming a smooth white ground.
The early Greek vases of Nancrates, the later Lekythos of the Greeks, the
faience of Persia, the Mezza Maiolica and the Sgraffito of the early Italian
Renascence, and our English slip ware are examples of this method of
giving a smooth white surface to coarse coloured earthenware. A similar
result to the slip covering was also produced by the use of a silicious glaze,
rendered white and opaque by the addition of oxide of tin. Early Assyrian
faience, Della Robbia ware, the Maiolica of Spain and Italy, and the wares
of Delft and Rouen are earthenwares coated with a tin enamel.
The silicious glaze here referred to is prepared by fusing silicious materials
with soda or potash, and is known as Vitreous, or glass glaze. Plumbeous,
or lead glaze, is produced by the addition of oxide of lead to the silicious
glaze, rendering it more fusible, and still transparent. A white opaque
enamel formed by using oxide of tin with the vitreous glaze, is termed
Stanniferous, or tin enamel. These different processes of covering the
porous body of the earthenware largely influenced the decorations and
scheme of colouring.
The beautiful faience of Damascus and Rhodes is covered with the silicious
slip or glaze, the colours being rich blues, produced by cobalt, turquoise and

green, by cobalt and copper, and purple by the use of manganese; and then
covered with an Alkaline glaze.
In the Rhodian Ware the same scheme of colour prevails, except that the
purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body, called Rhodian red,
produced from Armenian bole. On the Italian Maiolica, with its tin enamel
and plumbeous glaze, there are fine blue, turquoise and green, but red is
very poor in colour, and is generally replaced by rich yellow from
antimony, and orange from iron. This white tin enamel was undoubtedly
introduced into Europe by the Moors, as some tiles in the Alhambra date
from 1273-1302.
A large number of bowls and dishes, called Samian Ware, of Roman
importation, have been found in England. The paste is usually of a fine
sealing wax red, with a good glaze. These bowls are enriched with a series
of horizontal bands, containing the festoon, the scroll, birds, animals, and
figures. The bands or friezes are often divided by the traditional egg and
tongue moulding (fig. 1). Clay moulds, impressed with stamps, were made
and then fired. The red paste having been pressed into the mould, the
interior was smoothly turned in the lathe. A mould of this character was
found at York in 1874, so it is possible that some of this ware was made in
England, by Roman potters. Roman pottery has also been found at Castor,
near Peterborough, doubtless made at the former place, kilns for firing
having been found on the same site. This Castor ware is usually brown,
with a black glaze, being ornamented with indented tool marks, and raised
slip patterns of pipe clay (fig. 3). Many Roman dishes and vases of a dark
grey colour, ornamented with incised lines and raised bosses of clay, have
been found in the Upchurch Marshes in Kent. Little artistic pottery of the
mediæval period however is known to exist. Early in the 13th century
beautiful encaustic tiles were made for the great monasteries, abbeys and
cathedrals.
About 1500, the production of tiles was introduced into Holland, quantities
of small blue and white ones decorated with scriptural subjects, being made
at Delft, and thence exported to England for the lining of fire places, &c.
Some fine painted tiles or “Azulejos” were made at Valencia about the 17th
century.

In the 16th century, the porcelain of China was introduced into Europe by
the Dutch and Portuguese traders, and much of the Delft and Rouen ware
subsequently produced, was in imitation of this oriental porcelain. “Delft”
ware which takes its name from the small town of that name in Holland,
dating from 1500 A.D., is a ceramic coated with stanniferous enamel,
decorated with a full and liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel ground,
and then glazed with a plumbeous glaze. Some of this Delft ware is very
fine in quality, the cobalt blues under the glaze being remarkably soft and
rich in colour. Early examples were decorated with historical subjects, often
containing numerous figures, the middle period being notable for its
imitation of Chinese porcelain, and the application of coloured enamels on
coloured grounds. Vast quantities of this kind of ware were manufactured
up to 1760 and exported to all parts of Europe. The production of Delft
ware was first introduced into England at Lambeth by some Dutch potters
in 1676, being subsequently extended to Fulham, Bristol and Liverpool.
The use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into France by Girolamo
della Robbia, son of Andrea della Robbia, during the reign of Francis I.,
1516, and enamelled ware similar to the later productions of Urbino was
made at Nevers, where also was produced a fine ware decorated with
Persian Motifs in yellow and blue. At Rouen, also, a fine earthenware
covered with tin enamel was manufactured, the decorations consisting of
the lambrequins or scallop pattern, symmetrical in arrangement, and
converging to the centre of the plate or dish. The ornament was based upon
Chinese examples, influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of
France. The decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze painting,
i.e., after the white enamel was fired, finer and more delicate detail being
obtained by this process, but at the cost of the purity and liquid softness of
colour which is so characteristic of Delft and Oriental underglaze painting.
In Rouen ware, the ground is generally white, but some fine examples at
South Kensington have a soft yellow ground, a rich Indian yellow being
sometimes introduced with the blue decoration. It was under the directions
of Louis Poterat, 1673, that this most beautiful faience was perfected.
Bernard Palissy, 1510-90, by repeated experiments discovered the
stanniferous or tin enamel. His first productions were Jasper ware, warm
and brilliant in colour and richly enamelled. In the second period, rustic
dishes elaborately decorated with carefully modelled fishes, reptiles, and

plants or natural foliage, covered with an enamel of great brilliancy and
purity, were the chief productions. The later pottery of Palissy consisted of
salt cellars, inkstands, ewers, &c., the elaborate figure decorations of which
were probably executed by some contemporary artist.
Henri-Deux or St. Porchards ware, now more properly described as Oiron
ware, originated at St. Porchard in 1524, perhaps by the hand, certainly
under the patronage of Hélène de Hangest, widow of A. Gouffier, a former
Governor under Francis I. This Oiron ware, of a pale straw colour, is
enriched with inlays of yellow, blue, green, and brown coloured pastes, the
interlacing and arabesque ornamentation carried out under the direction of
Jehan Bernart and François Charpentier, being similar in type to the
contemporary bookbinding of Grolier and was probably executed with
similar tools.
Many early examples of Staffordshire slip ware are to be found in England,
consisting chiefly of candlesticks, cups, tygs, posset pots, piggins and
plates, the slip decorations being in yellow, white and brown. This ware was
made at Wrotham as early as 1649, and by Thomas Toft, at Shilton, 1660
(fig. 9). Marbled, combed and tortoise-shell ware were formed by using
colour slips or clays. Agate and onyx ware were formed by layers of
different coloured clays, crossed, cut, and pressed into moulds. These
methods were perfected by Thomas Wheildon, 1740-98, and Josiah
Wedgwood, 1730-95, who perfected both the Queen’s and the variegated
ware. Queen’s ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for dinner and
dessert services, being decorated with painted flowers in enamel.
In 1781, Wedgwood introduced his famous Jasper ware, and Jasper dip or
washed Jasper. This latter ware was dipped into admixtures of metallic
oxides, producing blue, lilac, pink, sage green, olive, yellow, and black
colours as desired. The decorations in low relief, are of the purest white
(fig. 10) and in the traditional classic style, the figures being arranged as
cameo medallions, or in bands with the scroll, the festoon, and the vine in
delicate relief. Many of these beautiful cameos were designed or modelled
by Flaxman, 1755-1826; Pacetti and Angelini, 1787; Bacon, 1740-99;
Hackwood, 1770; Roubiliac, 1695-1762; Stothard, 1755-1834; Tassie,
1735-99; and Webber, 1782.

Stone-wares differ from earthenwares, owing to the presence of a larger
percentage of silicia in the plastic material, which, being fired at a greater
degree of heat, vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of glass, thus ensuring
a closeness and hardness of material not possessed by ordinary earthenware.
Stoneware is usually glazed during the firing by throwing common salt into
the kiln, which being volatilized, re-acts upon the silicia in the body,
forming with it a silicate of soda or glass, having a minute granular texture.
The usefulness and the artistic character of stoneware was perfected by the
Flemish and German potters of the 16th century.
The principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white “Canette” of
Siegburg, near Bonn, and the pale brown or grey ware of Raeren, near Aix-
la-Chapelle, with its incised and stamped enrichments, sometimes with blue
decoration. Frechen, near Cologne, probably supplied the “Bellarmines” or
“Grey beards,” largely imported into England under the name of “Cologne
Pots.” Examples of this Frechen ware were frequently ornamented with a
raised scroll of oak leaves. Grenzhausen, in Nassau, produced a beautiful
grey ware, having delicately moulded reliefs filled in with blue and purple.
Many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of William III., Queen Anne,
and George I., were imported into England from the Nassau kilns.
A peculiar kind of stoneware, also termed “Cologne ware” was produced at
Fulham by John Dwight, about 1670. Some fine jugs and a few cleverly
modelled unglazed statuettes, believed to have been made at this place, are
to be seen in the British Museum (fig. 11).
Another peculiar red stoneware, porcelain, or Red China as it was called,
was made near Burslem by the Brothers Elers, 1688-1710, the
ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper moulds
upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware. Fine examples,
characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments are exhibited
in the Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street. Astbury, 1710-39, continued the
traditions of Elers, producing a fine white stoneware, which largely
influenced the Staffordshire pottery of that period. A stoneware was also
made at Nottingham from 1700 to 1750.
Porcelain is technically known under the terms “hard paste” (“pâte dure”)
and “soft” (“pâte tendre”). Hard porcelain is made from clays containing
much aluminia and felspar or decomposed granite, having but little

plasticity, which necessarily influenced the shape or profile of the vessel.
The beauty of form, which is so typical of the Greek earthenware vase, is
absent in porcelain, where the cylindrical or octagonal form is principally
used. “Pâte tendre” is a soft and vitreous porcelain, having a great affinity
for the beautiful coloured glazes and enamels used in the early examples of
Sèvres.
Porcelain was known in China about 200 B.C., and it was in common use
during the 16th century. During the Ming dynasty, 1568-1640, porcelain
reached its highest development in the perfection of its body,
ornamentation, colour and glazes, blue and turquoise being the chief
colours of this period; this limited range of colour was owing to the intense
heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard porcelain.
It is uncertain at what date Chinese porcelain was first brought to Europe.
Amongst the earliest known pieces in England are some bowls given by
Philip of Austria to Sir Thomas Trenchard in 1506. But whatever the date, it
was inevitable that attempts should be made to imitate this beautiful
ceramic. Florentine or Medician porcelain was made 1575-80. It was not
however until 1690 or 1700, that a similar manufacture was established at
Rouen and St. Cloud. In 1709, Bottcher commenced making hard porcelain
at Meissen, in Saxony, subsequently producing some excellent examples
about 1715. This was the commencement of the well-known Dresden china.
In 1768, the manufacture of hard porcelain was adopted at Sèvres, replacing
that of “pâte tendre” which had been in use from 1670. Both “pâte dure”
and “pâte tendre” were made at Buen Retiro in Madrid, A.D. 1759, all the
porcelain manufactured for the first 20 years being kept for the exclusive
use of the Royal family. There are some finely modelled Buen Retiro tiles
in the Royal Palace at Madrid.
About the year 1740 the manufacture of porcelain was established at Bow,
Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, and Worcester. The shapes and
ornamentation of these English porcelains, having no traditions beyond the
oriental influence, were of a low artistic order, being simply copies of
natural forms, without any controlling influence as regards design or
harmonious arrangements. A lavish use of gilding was also characteristic of
this period, the ornament being very largely misapplied. This continued to
grow worse until the middle of the last century, when it reached its
culminating point of absurdity and extravagance of form and decorations.

The best examples of English porcelain of this period are obviously copies
of oriental porcelain, chiefly Persian and Chinese. A great advance in the
technic of the porcelain produced in this country took place after the
discovery of Kaolin, in Cornwall, by William Cookworthy, 1755.
Transfer printing over the glaze was adopted at Worcester about 1757, the
transfers being taken from copper plates engraved by Robert Hancock, a
pupil of Ravenet, who was employed at the Battersea enamel works, about
1750. Sadler and Green in 1756 also adopted over glaze printing on the
Liverpool delft. About 1770, under glaze printing on the biscuit ware
superseded the over glaze process.
Of early English porcelains, those of Derby are, perhaps, the most refined in
form and in treatment of decoration, the plates, cups, and saucers having
borders of blue or turquoise, with enrichments of festoons, leaves, and
flowers; many of the cups were pressed with fluted, ribbed, or imbricated
patterns. The Derby works were founded in 1757 by William Duesbury,
who in 1769 purchased the Chelsea works and carried on the two
simultaneously until 1784, when the Chelsea plant was transferred to
Derby. From 1769-73 the ware called “Chelsea-Derby” was produced, and
between 1773-82 “Crown-Derby” was introduced.
Porcelain of an excellent quality was made at Nantgario about 1813, and at
Swansea 1814-17, the decorations in enamel colours consisting of a natural
rendering of flowers, birds, butterflies, and shells.
Porcelain was also made about 1800 at the Herculaneum potteries at
Liverpool. Rockingham, in Yorkshire, produced during the years 1759-88 a
brown china, which, however, was but a fine earthenware, of a hard and
compact body, covered with a rich brown or chocolate glaze. In 1820,
porcelain was made at Rockingham, comprising dinner and dessert services,
richly enamelled and gilt, together with vases, flower baskets, and busts in
white biscuit ware. In 1832, a dessert service of 200 pieces was made for
William IV. at a cost of £5,000, the decorations consisting of natural fruit
and flowers, with landscapes and the royal arms in enamel colours.
In some of the earlier Rockingham ware the outlines of the flowers and
butterflies were in transfer printing, and the colouring was added by hand.

The illustrations given on plates 21, 27, 28 and 29, show the universality of
the potter’s art, which may be traced through many beautiful examples
differentiated by racial customs and material.
The beauty of form in the Greek vase (plate 27) was but the natural
outcome of a fine earthenware in the hands of an artistic people, with
traditions and architecture of the highest order. In Persian pottery, form is
subservient to colour, blue, turquoise and white being used in charming
combination, together with a frank yet decorative treatment of natural
forms.
The Hispano-Moresque and Italian Maiolica (plate
29) are remarkable for the technical excellence of
their white enamel, rich blue, yellow and orange,
the iridescence of their gold and ruby lustre, and
their high technical skill in painting.
English earthenware of the 17th and 18th centuries,
though traditional, showed a remarkable diversity
in treatment and conception. The picturesque platter
of the Toft school, with its quaint enrichment of trailing lines and heraldic
forms in coloured slip, the fine red stoneware of Elers, with its graceful
enrichments in delicate relief, and the varied and beautiful jasper ware of
Wedgwood mark a distinct phase of the potter’s art, and bear a tribute to the
vitality and personality of the founders of the “Potteries.”
MAIOLICA. Plate 29.

Maiolica or Italian faience is an earthenware, coated with
M A I O L I C A . a stanniferous or tin glaze, termed enamel. This is
formed by the addition of oxide of tin to a silicious glaze
or slip, thus rendering it white and opaque, hence its name, enamel.
The origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to Persia. From Persia
the art was carried by the Arabians to Fustat, or old Cairo, which was
destroyed 1168 A.D., and amongst the ruins many fragments of gold and
copper lustered ware have been found. This enamelled ware was introduced

into Spain in the 13th century, and perfected there by the Moors, giving rise
to the Hispano-Moresque ware. This ware was enriched with central
heraldic arms, surrounded by concentric bands of foliage, arabesques, or
inscriptions in blue, with a copper lustre. This Hispano-Moresque ware was
manufactured chiefly at Malaga, Talavera, Triana and Valencia, and dates
from the Moorish occupation of Granada A.D. 1235-1492.
In the island of Majorca, from which this beautiful ware derives its name,
fine examples were manufactured at an early date by Persian and Arabian
potters. After the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans, A.D. 1115, many of
these examples were introduced into Italy, the art being subsequently
cultivated in some of the smaller central states. The early Italian Maiolica
was usually covered with a thin white “slip” or engobe of clay which served
as a ground for the coloured patterns. It was then coated with a lead glaze
and was known as mezza or mixed maiolica. In some examples the design
was scratched or engraved through the upper layer or white engobe,
showing the darker body underneath. This type of ware, known as
“sgraffito” was also glazed with the lead glaze, forming, when fired, the
beautiful iridescent lustre.
No remains of a tin enamel of Italian workmanship have been found in Italy
prior to the time of Luca della Robbia, 1400-1481, who discovered an
enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence. The secret of its composition
was kept by him, his nephew Andrea, and his great-nephews Giovanni,
Luca and Girolamo, until 1507. The Mezza Maiolica was then superseded
by the true Maiolica or the tin enamelled wares of Caffaggiolo, Castel
Uurante, Urbino, Pesaro, Faenza, Forli, Diruta, Siena and Gubbio, with
their remarkable brilliance of blues, greens, yellows and orange. The
Gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and golden lustre and was signed
by Maestro Georgio (Georgio Andreoli, 1492-1537). The same artist also
lustred many wares made by the potters of Urbino and Castel Durante.
Other examples of Urbino ware are signed by Niccola da Urbino, 1490-
1530, Orazio Fontano, 1540-70, Francesco Xanto Avelli, 1530-40. Faenza
ware was produced at the Casa Pirota Botega, and Siena ware was signed
by Maestro Benedetto.
The chief characteristics of Caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures in
white, grey or yellow on a rich dark blue ground. Urbino has small
medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white ground,

called Raffaelesque, being from designs by Raffaelle del Colle. Faenza has
a yellow ground with blue arabesques.
In brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin
enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited, consisting of
blue, turquoise, yellow and orange. These colours are of great depth and
translucency, and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of China,
Persia and India.
Gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called
“Gadroons,” a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby lustre
of Maestro Giorgio. This Gubbio tradition was continued by Giorgio’s son,
Vincentio, called Maestro Cencio, and many beautiful lustre works are
signed by him.
This lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke
during the firing in the kiln; the smoke, being carbon in a highly divided
state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze, forming a thin film
of metal upon the surface, the beautiful iridescent lustre resulting from the
relative thickness of the film.
Castel Durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders, with
delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process called “Lavoro
di sopra bianco” or “bianco sopra bianco.”
Faenza Maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground covered
with a dark blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in
blue, heightened with white “Sopra Azzurro.”
A frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions
painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions, and doubtless intended
as lover’s presents. They are known as “Amatorii Maiolica.”
Terra Cotta is usually made from pure clay, which will burn to
T E R R A a white or yellow colour, or from impure, which will burn to a
C O T TA . red colour, owing to the presence of oxide of iron. Pure clay is
a hydrous silicate of alumina, containing 47 parts per cent. of
silica, 40 of alumina, and 13 of water. Clay, in this proportion, is the
Kaoline or china clay. Fire clay, which is found in the coal measures, has a
larger proportion of silica than Kaoline, and from it much of the terra cotta
is made. When first dug out, it is hard and compact, and of a greenish grey

colour, deepening to black. It is often weathered before using. This causes it
to “fall” and facilitates grinding. Old fire clay, previously burnt (“grog” as it
is called) is added to the new clay to counteract the excessive shrinkage to
which all close-grained clays are liable. The coarser the clay, the less the
shrinkage. The colour of the clay varies according to the quantity of lime,
iron, or bitumen it contains. Pure clay contracts as much as one-eighth from
the size of the mould; one half of this contraction takes place in drying, the
other half in burning. Clay mixed with “grog” will contract about one-
twelfth.
The moulds for terra cotta are usually piece moulds, made of
plaster of Paris, which absorbs much of the moisture of the
clay. Sheet clay about two inches thick is used. This is
carefully pressed into the mould and supported by webs of
clay of the same thickness. It is essential to the clay to be
uniform throughout, or the shrinkage would be unequal. It is
then placed upon a flue to dry from two to six hours, when the
clay will have contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be
taken off. It is then dried for a further period and burnt in a
kiln. For fine work, the kiln is “muffled”—the “muffle” being a lining of
bricks to keep the clay from actual contact with fire and smoke. The dry, or
semi-dry process, is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds, which
obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process. Encaustic tiles are
made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised pattern with
“slip.” Many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary earthenware,
that is, painted and glazed.
Terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially by the
Assyrians, whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon Assyrian
history. With the Greek, terra cotta was extensively used for “antefixa,” and
the many beautiful Tanagra figures now treasured in our museums show the
exquisite modelling by the Greeks, in such a material as terra cotta.

TERRA COTTA BY ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.

This material was used by the Etruscans for their sarcophagi and recumbent
figures. The Pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. It was used for
votive statues and offerings, and for lamps, some of which were dipped in
molten glass.
During the revival of art in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, terra cotta
was extensively used by the Della Robbia family. Luca della Robbia,
1400-82, produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs coated with the white
tin enamel and enriched with coloured enamels. Among his numerous
works were the following:—The marble Cantoria in the cathedral; five bas-
reliefs in marble on the Campanile at Florence; his two first terra cotta
reliefs in the tympanans of the doorway, and the doors of the sacristry of the
cathedral at Florence (1443-46); with the two kneeling angels holding
candelabra; the splendid monument to L’Evêque Federighi (1455) with its
beautiful recumbent figure, in the church of S. Trinità, Florence; and the
many fine medallions enriched with heraldic forms executed for the church
of Or San Michele and the palace Quarateri in Florence. Fine examples are
the medallions with the arms of King Renè D’Anjou, now in the South
Kensington museum.
In Santa Croce at Florence, there are a series of medallions of the four
evangelists and the twelve apostles, and in the South Kensington museum
there are twelve medallions representing the months. Many splendid
examples of Luca della Robbia’s work are now treasured in the national
museums.
Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) the nephew of Luca carried on the
traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill; among his early works

are the medallions for L’Hospital des Innocent, or the
Children’s Hospital. The Adoration and the Annunciation
were familiar subjects with Andrea, the illustrations given of
the Annunciation in the Children’s Hospital, and the Virgin
and child in the national museum at Florence being typical
examples of his work. There is a splendid “Adoration” by
Andrea in the South Kensington museum.
Giovanni della Robbia (1469-1527) son of Andrea
continued this splendid tradition: his principal works being
ENAMELLED TERRA COTTA the Lavabo in S. Maria Novella, the tabernacle in S.
ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA.
Apostles, and the virgin and saints in Santa Croce, all in
Florence. Many other beautiful works still remain which attest to the
remarkable traditions of craftsmanship of the Della Robbia family.
Girolamo, brother of Giovanni, carried this tradition into France under
Francis I.
Of the many decorative arts, enamelling is one of the most
E N A M E L S . beautiful, having a singular charm of limpid or opalescent
colour of great purity, richness and durability, and being
capable of a most refined and varied treatment for the enrichment of metals.
Enamel is a vitreous or glass compound, translucent, semi-translucent or
opaque, owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides, or sulphides, a
fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin. These enamels require
different degrees of heat in order to fuse them and to cause their adhesion to
the metal. Enamels are divided into three classes, Cloisonné, Champlevé
and Painted Enamels.
Cloisonné enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed by
soldering thin, flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper, the cloisons, being
filled with the various enamels, in powder or in paste, then, in order to
vitrify the enamel, exposed to heat in a kiln, if upon a flat surface, or by the
aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface.
Cloisonné was in use from the early dynasties in Egypt, many fine large
pectorals having been found in the tombs. These usually have the form of a
hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined cloisons, which were
filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass, and this undoubtedly was

the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonné enamel. Byzantine enamel is
invariably cloisonné and one of the most beautiful examples of this period
is the Pala d’Oro of St. Mark’s at Venice, A.D. 976. Perhaps the Chinese and
Japanese have carried this cloisonné to its greatest perfection in softness of
colour and beauty of technic. The earliest Chinese cloisonné is of the Ming
dynasty, 1368-1643; this has heavy cast metal grounds with low toned
colours and deep reds and blues. Under the Thsing dynasty, which
commenced in 1643, the colours became brighter and the designs more
refined.
Early Japanese cloisonné or “Shippo” was doubtless derived from Chinese
or Persian sources, and it is characterised by extremely thin beaten copper
grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground in place of the dark
blue of the Chinese cloisonné.
The Japanese cloisonné reached its culmination during the last century,
when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels were
produced, remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and translucent colour.
Gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels were frequently inserted
in iron or silver objects by the Japanese of this period.
An early example of English cloisonné is the jewel of King Alfred, now in
the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford: this has a rich setting of opaque and
translucent enamels. A fine Celtic cloisonné treatment may be seen in the
Ardage chalice, where the cloisons were cut out of a plate of silver and
embedded in the enamel while soft. These Celtic craftsmen also had a
beautiful treatment of enamelling by engraving or pressing a pattern in
intaglio, or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground, and then filling these
intaglios with other enamels.
A most exquisite kind of enamel called “Plique à Jour,” was used by the
Byzantines; this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled with
translucent enamels.
Champlevé enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping out the
cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary between each
cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels as in the cloisonné
method. This Champlevé method was practised in Britain before the Roman
conquest, and was probably derived from the Phœnicians, who, centuries
before the Romans came to England, had traded with Cornwall for tin. The

beauty of colour and perfect adaptability of these early enamelled brooches,
fibulæ and trappings of horses of the early Britons and Celts, are
remarkable, showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony of line and mass.
A splendid bronze Celtic shield (fig. 4, plate 13), now in the British
Museum, is enriched with fine red bosses of enamel. These Champlevé
enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy appearance
caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during firing. Champlevé
enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to enhance the beautiful
art of the goldsmith during the Middle Ages; the Chalice, the Paten, the
Reliquary, the Thurible, the Crozier, and the bookcovers of the Churches,
especially, were enriched with beautiful enamels. Classed among the
Champlevé enamels is that method called Jeweller’s Enamel or “Baisse
Taille,” in which the plate is engraved in low relief or beaten up in repoussé
and then flooded with translucent enamel. The Lynn cup of the time of
Richard II. is one of the oldest pieces of corporation plate and is covered
with fine translucent blue and green enamels.
In India, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, Champlevé enamel soon
attained a remarkable perfection of technic and purity and brilliance of
colour almost unknown to the Western nations. The Champlevé enamels of
Jaipur have most beautiful lustrous and transparent blues, greens and reds
laid on a pure gold ground. Pertubghur is renowned for the fine green or
turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of gold; while the enamel was still soft
a plate of pierced gold was pressed into the enamel. This pierced plate was
afterwards engraved with incidents of history or hunting. In Ratain, in
Central India, a similar enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the
Pertubghur green.
The fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our English
cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the Champlevé process, the
cloisons, being usually filled with a black Niello, but occasionally the
heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels. During the 11th and
12th centuries, Limoges was renowned for its fine Champlevé enamels, but
early in the 15th century Painted Enamels were introduced and Limoges
became the centre of this art, called late Limoges or Grisaille Enamel. The
enamel colours were now used as a pigment, and were painted and fired
upon a copper plate. The enrichments in grisaille, or grey and white, were
used upon a black, violet or dark blue ground, the grisaille afterwards being

enriched with details of fine gold lines. These
Limoges enamels have a splendid technic, but
they lack the charms of the luminous colour and
judicious use of enamels of the early Champlevé
period. The most renowned masters of the
painted enamels of Limoges were Penicand,
1503, Courtois, 1510, Pierre Raymond, 1530-
1570, and Leonard Limousin, 1532-1574. About 1600-1650, Jean Toutin
and his pupil Petitot produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque
enamels upon gold, remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling.
In 1750, painted enamel was introduced into England and produced for
about 30 years at Battersea by Janssen. The enrichment consisted of flowers
painted in natural colours on a white ground. A similar enamel was also
produced at Bilston in Staffordshire.
The finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the
enamel is used in small quantities, such as in the Celtic
jewellery, the bookcovers, and the Church and
Corporation plate of the Gothic and early Renascence
period, and the early Byzantine cloisonné, such as the
Hamilton brooch in the British Museum, and the Pala
d’Oro of St. Mark’s, Venice, which was made at
Constantinople for the Doge Orseolo in 976 A.D., and has 83 panels of fine
cloisonné enamel set in a framework of gold.
The “Plique à jour,” the “Baisse taille” and the Pertubghur enamels are fine
examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or opalescence
and richness of colour.
The Japanese cloisonné with its literal treatment of natural forms, and the
painted enamel portraits of Francis I. and contemporary princes by Leonard
Limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack the depth and purity of
colour obtained by the early methods. Frequently, however, the Penicauds,
Nardou, and Jean I. and II. obtained some richness in the painted enamels
by the use of “Paillons” or pieces of metallic foil which were afterwards
flooded with translucent enamel.
GLASS. Plate 30.

The purity of glass, its adaptability to colour, and its remarkable
G L A S S . ductility while hot for blowing, twisting or drawing into
threads, differentiates it from all other materials and methods of
treatment. Its tradition dates from the remote past, for glass-blowing is
represented on the tombs at Thebes, B.C. 2500. It was also used in Egypt for
vitreous pastes for bronze and gold cloisonné jewellery, and for the small
bottles or Stibium, with chevron patterns, in yellow, turquoise and white on
a coloured ground. Similar patterns, colours and forms were used by

Phœnicia and her colonies, the usual forms being the Alabastra and
Amphorae. Many remains of bowls were found in Assyria, one (now in the
British museum) of transparent green glass, having the name of Sargon, B.C.
722. Greece seems to have imported most of her glass from Phœnicia, but
the Romans carried on the tradition, producing fine Mosaic or Millefiori.
This was made by fusing rods of white and coloured glass together, then
drawing it out to fine threads and slicing it transversely; the section is then
placed in a mould and a bubble blown, uniting the mosaic, which is then
blown into various shapes. The Romans also used the interlacing of white
and coloured rods called Laticinio, but they excelled in the Cameo Glass, of
which the Portland vase is the finest known example. This vase is of dark
blue glass, covered with white opaque glass, which was ground away with
the wheel, leaving the figures in delicate relief. It was found in 1644 in the
sarcophagus of Alexander Severus, A.D. 325, the subject of its relief being
the myth of Peleus and Thetis. Another Roman example of cameo glass in
the British museum is the Auldjo vase or Oinochoè with beautiful reliefs of
vine leaves. Frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into moulds,
and a good example of this treatment is in the South Kensington museum
(fig. 6). The tradition then declined until the 14th century, when the
Venetians in the island of Murano, perfected the art of glass making.
The earliest examples of Venetian Glass were massive, richly gilt and
enamelled in colours; one fine example in the British museum is signed by
its maker, “Magister Aldrevandini.” In the 15th and 16th centuries the most
delicate and beautiful blown glass was made, often uncoloured and with
enrichments of knots and wings in blown and shaped blue glass. The
Venetians used with equal skill all the old methods of glassmaking; the
Millefiori; the Laticinio or threads of opaque white enclosing pattern;
Reticelli, a network of white lines enclosing at the intersections a bubble of
air; and the beautiful Vitro di Trina, filigree or lace glass, formed by canes
or threads of white or coloured glass being placed in a mould, a bubble
being then blown in, and the glass afterwards taken from the mould and
blown or twisted to the shape required. The artistic bronze mirrors of
ancient and mediæval times now give way to the glass mirrors of the
Venetians, A.D. 1500.

STAINED GLASS. Plate 31.

with its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic qualities to
S TA I N E D metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving fine blues, silver, pale
G L A S S and deep yellows, pink from iron and antimony, and ruby
from gold and copper, which also yields fine greens. When
these oxides are mixed with the glass, in its fused state, it is termed pot
metal, but if the coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only,
it is termed flashed or cased glass. Ruby, owing to its depth of colour, is

usually cased glass. Fine blues are often flashed, and splendid effects are
produced by flashing ruby over yellow, or blue pot metal glass. Cased glass
is of the greatest value owing to the variety of tint that can be produced on a
single sheet of glass, and also that the colour may be removed by grinding
or by the use of fluoric acid.
The rationale of the glass painter is—1st, The scheme of composition and
colour shown on a small scale. 2nd, A full sized cartoon in charcoal or
monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and showing the lead
lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the window. 3rd,
A tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only, called the cut line, on which
is cut the selected pieces of glass. 4th, Tracing all details from the cartoon,
with brown enamel on each piece of glass, the pieces after firing being then
fixed in the leading, and kept together with H shaped leads. A diagram is
given here showing the leading of an example of 13th century glass.
The brown enamel, which is used entirely for outline, detail
or shading, is a fusible glass in combination with opaque
manganic or ferric oxide, and tar oil. With this enamel,
smear shading or stipple shading is worked. This may be
removed as required, before firing, by means of a pointed
stick or quill, so as to give the details of embroidery, or of
heraldic forms.
Silver stain (oxide of silver) introduced at the beginning of the 14th century
is largely used in stained glass, and usually on the back thereof. According
to the different degrees of heat in the firing, a pale yellow or deep orange of
great transparency is produced.
Coloured glass was made by the Egyptians 4000 years ago, but the earliest
stained glass windows recorded, were those of Brionde A.D. 525. None
however are known to be in existence prior to those of St. Denis A.D. 1108.
Other examples are found in Norman windows, with small medallions of
figures and ornament of a decided Byzantine type, extremely deep in
colour, being, by its style of treatment, termed mosaic glass. The 13th
century, or early Gothic period, has single lancet lights, with medallions
containing small figures surrounded by the typical 13th century foliage; or
the windows were entirely of ornament in grisaille, arranged symmetrically,
having narrow bands of ruby or blue, with wide borders. These grisaille

windows are of a greenish white glass, with the ornament in outline, and the
ground hatched with brown enamel in fine cross lines (fig. 1-2). The north
transept window at York cathedral, called the five sisters,
is typical of this grisaille glass. The finest examples
however, are at Salisbury and Chartres cathedrals. Later
in the period, single figures were introduced under a
simple canopy or gabling, plain or crocketed, with an
ordinary trefoil arch. 13TH CENTURY GLASS. CHARTRES
CATHEDRAL.
“Quarry glass,” square or diamond in shape, with brown
enamel details, was frequently used, where simple masses were desired.
In the 14th century, the figures were larger and placed under canopies in
each light of the mullioned windows, such figures in rich colours forming a
bright belt across the window, surmounted by the canopies, cusped and
crocketed, and in strong yellow pot metal, or yellow-cased glass. The
borders were narrow, with a somewhat natural rendering of the rose, the
maple and the oak.
In the 15th century, a further change took place, figures
became more numerous and the canopy or shrine larger,
and chiefly in white glass, with the crockets and finials
tipped with yellow stain. The coloured border of the
earlier glass is entirely absent, its place being taken by the
shaft of the canopy, and the crockets, finials and
ornaments are square in treatment and based chiefly on
the vine leaf.
Fairford church, perhaps, contains the finest series of late Gothic glass A.D.
1500-30. Like the contemporary architecture of the 16th century, the
Renascence now influenced stained glass. The canopy still survived, but
was horizontal or pedimental in form, with purely classical columns and
details. Good examples of this period are the windows of King’s College
Chapel, Cambridge (1520), where rich Renascence work is introduced into
late Gothic mullioned windows. About 1540, transparent enamels were
introduced with skill and reticence, but gradually glass painters began to vie
with pictorial oil painting in effects of light and shade, the ground work or
material losing that beautiful translucent or transmitted colour, which is the
chief glory of stained glass. An example showing the degradation of this art

is the west window of New College, Oxford, painted by Jervas, 1777, from
designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds.
The ornamentation of stained glass naturally followed contemporary
architecture in the treatment of style, differentiated only by the technical
necessities of material. For instance, in the early English glass (plate 31),
the details of the ornament have the characteristic spiral arrangement and
the trefoil foliage of contemporary architectural ornament, only the foliage
is treated more in profile, as being more suited to the technical necessities
of leading and brush work.
Most of the detail, however, shows a strong affinity to French contemporary
ornament, this doubtless was owing to the influence of French
craftsmanship and tradition in the stained glass of that period.
In the 14th century, the English craftsman attained a thorough mastery over
his materials, and consequently the type of ornament followed English
contemporary architecture more closely.
To sum up, stained glass changed through the different periods from the
rich coloured mosaic of the Normans—the equally rich coloured medallions
and grisaille glass of the early Gothic—the decorated Gothic, with glass in
lighter colours, and a prevalence of yellow stain, culminating in the later
Gothic period, when largeness of mass, lightness, and silvery colour, were
the characteristics. A beautiful treatment of stained glass, dating from the
15th century was used by the Arabians; this glass, which has a singular
gem-like quality, and without enamel or stain, was let into a framework of
plaster, which had been cut and pierced with geometrical or floral patterns.
Modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in design and
material under Burne Jones, Walter Crane, Frederic Shields and Henry
Holiday, with glass such as that produced by Morris, Powell and Sparrow,
and the American opalescent glass of La Farge and Tiffany.
The individuality of their work, appropriateness of treatment, based upon
the splendid tradition of the past, mark a distinct epoch in history of stained
glass.
Splendid heraldic glass by A. W. Pugin may be seen in the Houses of
Parliament, Westminster; and in the hall and staircase of the Rochdale Town

Hall, there is a fine series of windows by Heaton, Butler, and Baine,
remarkable for dignity of style and unity of conception.
GOLD AND SILVER. Plate 32.

Of all treasure trove, those of gold and silver are the most
G O L D A N D valuable, showing us the riches, culture and the decorative
S I LV E R . arts of the people who centuries ago used these beautiful
objects of jewellery or of utility. One of the earliest and
most valuable of these treasures was found in 1859 with the mummy of

Queen Aah-Hotep, 1800 B.C. (Cairo Museum), and consisted of: bracelets,
armlets, rings, chains, a diadem (fig. 1), a small model of a twelve-oared
war galley, and a poniard, all of exquisite workmanship, and of pure gold,
enriched with jasper and turquoise vitreous pastes. At Petrossa in 1837
(Bukarest Museum), twenty-two beautiful gold objects were found, but only
twelve were recovered, consisting of two neck-rings or Torques; a large
salver, hammered and chased; a ewer; a bowl with figures in repoussé; four
fibula enriched with precious stones; a gorget; and two double-handled cups
(fig. 4) all of which are Byzantine work of the 5th century. At Guarrazar in
Spain, ten gold votive crowns of Gothic workmanship were found; one
inscribed with the name of King Suintila, 630 A.D., is now in the museum at
Madrid, the others in the Hôtel Cluny, Paris, the largest having the name of
King Rescesvinthus, 670 A.D. in pendive letters (fig. 3). Of silversmith’s
work, the most important is the “Treasure of Hildesheim,” found in 1868
(now in the Berlin Museum) consisting of thirty objects, cups, vases, and
dishes, beautiful in contour and admirably enriched with delicate repoussé
work of the Greco-Roman period (fig. 5). The British Museum contains
many fine examples of Greek and Etruscan goldsmith’s art; some early
Greek work has the typical Mycenæ spiral enrichment. Beautiful Greek
plaques of the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. were obtained by pressing the gold
into stone moulds, and were afterwards enriched with threads of gold or
“filigree,” which developed later into the Byzantine filigree work.
The beautiful Etruscan Fibulæ are enriched with minute globules of gold
soldered on, a process brought to a remarkable degree of perfection by the
Etruscans in the 7th, 6th and 5th centuries B.C. Of the gold and silver vessels
used by Solomon in the temple, we have the description in the Books of
Kings and Chronicles, but no trace of the originals, except that on the Arch
of Titus, 79 A.D., we find a representation of the seven-branched golden
candlestick (fig. 9). Of the Mediæval period, many fine examples of church
and corporation plate are still treasured in our museums. They are of great
intrinsic value, of beautiful workmanship, chased and engraved, and
enriched with cast and repoussé work and the choicest enamels. Of the
craftsman or goldsmith we know but little, but his delicacy of touch, his just
appreciation of appropriateness of treatment to his material, and the singular
grace and charm of his design are a tribute to his culture and personality.
Cellini produced many beautiful works, yet perhaps not more beautiful than
his many contemporary goldsmiths. In our museums there are some

charming specimens of engraving upon silver, filled in with black enamel
called Niello, by Maso Finiguerre, about 1450, who produced some early
prints from an engraved plate.
BRONZES. Plate 33.

Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a
B R O N Z E . remote period in the history of the arts. Its adaptability for
casting, its durability, utility and colour have rendered this
material one of the most useful and valuable. Of the many fine examples of

the early Egyptian and Assyrian bronze now in the British Museum, the
most beautiful are the bronzes of Siris, two fragments of armour, with
reliefs in repoussé (fig. 4). The many Greek statues in the round, of their
Gods and heroes, show the most skilful technique and beauty of form. The
Etruscans were clever workers in this material, and they used a most
expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates their decorative
bronzes from those of Greece, with their delicate low reliefs. The bronze
mirrors (fig. 2) and the Cista are typical examples of the Etruscan treatment.
The finest known cista is that called the “Ficoroni Cista,” by Morios
Plantios (3rd century B.C.) and is now in the Collegio Romano; a
description, with illustrations of this example is in the “Magazine of Art,”
April, 1884. Descriptions of this cista and of the many fine examples in the
British Museum are given in “Murray’s Handbook of Greek Archæology.”
Of small decorative bronzes, Naples Museum alone has over 13,000
examples, consisting of candelabra, tripods, tables, chairs and couches,
which, eighteen centuries ago, were used by the wealthy Roman citizens.
Of bronze equestrian statues, the most renowned are those of Marcus
Aurelius, at Rome, A.D. 175; Bartolomeo Coleone, at Venice, A.D. 1488, by
Andrea Verrocchio; and Alessandro Leopardo; and that of Gattamelata, at
Padua, 1453 A.D., by Donatello.
A remarkable bronze figure of the Renascence period is that of Perseus, by
Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1570, at Florence, and the figure of Neptune on
the fountain at Bologna by Giovanni da Bologna, 1524-90.
The bronze doors of San Zenone, at Verona, (see plates 1 and 3 in “Aratra
Pentelici” by John Ruskin), and those of the Baptistery, at Florence, by
Andrea Pisano and Ghiberti (see Renascence) are typical examples of early
Renascence bronzes. The casting of these Bronzes was by the “Cire Perdu”
method, that is, by forming a core of firm material nearly the size and shape
required, then covering with sheet wax and finishing with the detail
required, with sticks of wax projecting to form vents for the escape of steam
in casting. The wax is then brushed over with a composition of fine clay
and ground crucibles to some thickness and the mould thus formed is
connected with the inner one by bronze rods. The wax is then melted out,
leaving a cavity Into which the liquid bronze is poured, the core and mould
being afterwards removed. Bronze is also cast in piece moulds taken from
the model; the piece mould is then lined with sheet clay and put together

and the core run in. The clay is then removed and the bronze run in as in the
former process. The sand process for casting has now reached a high degree
of perfection in which the core and mould are formed by pressure in a fine
tenacious sand.
WROUGHT IRON. Plate 34.

The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability and
comparative cheapness, have rendered it one of the most useful metals in

the applied arts. Used from an early period for implements
W R O U G H T of war and the chase, it gradually became associated with
IRON. architecture and furniture, reaching in the 15th and 16th
centuries a remarkable degree of beauty and skilful
craftsmanship that has never been excelled. Many fine Norman hinges of
wrought iron are still in existence, having a straight central bar or strap,
with small scroll terminations; these central straps were strengthened with
crescent-shaped pieces, terminating in small serpent forms, probably a
survival of the Viking traditions. This form of hinge was succeeded by the
Early Gothic hinge, which was a series of spirals springing from the straight
bar or strap, the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals
were enriched with the three-lobed foliage or trefoil, typical of the Early
Gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of Notre
Dame, Paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with birds,
dragons and small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped characteristic may
be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of Leighton Buzzard Church,
Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the Eleanor grill in Westminster
Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In the 14th and 15th centuries,
when panelled doors took the place of the earlier doors, this Early Gothic
style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5) so that we find no trace of it in that
period, but the art of wrought iron was continued with the hammered and
chiselled hinges and lock plates of the most varied and delicate
workmanship, which enriched the beautiful Gothic chests of the 14th and
15th centuries. The simple wrought screen, which was so largely used in the
13th century was now elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of
quatre-foil grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of
foliage, cupids and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at
the cathedrals of Orvieto, Prato and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350,
and at Santa Croce, Florence, 1371; but it was in Spain and France that the
screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or “Réjas” in the
cathedrals of Seville, Toledo and Granada have a fine range of turned and
chiselled vertical bars some 30 to 50 feet high, with an elaborate frieze and
cresting.
Beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in France about 1658,
for the Louvre and the Royal Chateaux of Anet and Econeu. There are some
fine wrought gates at Hampton Court by Jean Tijon, who published some

drawings of them in 1693, and many good simple gates of the last century
are still in position in many parts of the country.
The wrought iron gate piers in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, with their
architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and massive buttresses,
in filed, bolted and riveted, are splendid examples of Flemish workmanship,
and are probably by Quintin Matsys (1450-1529).
The adaptability and universality of wood for domestic
F U R N I T U R E . and public purposes, its susceptibility to carving and
enrichment, its beautiful texture, grain and colour, have
made it one of the most useful of materials in the constructive and
decorative arts.
The many chairs, tables and chests of ancient times, and the beautiful choir
stalls, cabinets and screens of the middle ages are a tribute to the vitality,
inventiveness and artistic perception of the old craftsman.

The universality of the chair has tended to preserve the form through many
centuries. The chair has undergone various modifications, from the ornate
Egyptian one to the Assyrian example with the supports of fir-cones. In the
Greek example, the beauty and simplicity of profile is remarkable, while the
Chair of St. Peter, 1st century A.D., is purely architectonic with enrichments
of gold and ivory.
The Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey, of
the time of Edward I., is one of the earliest in
England, offering a strong contrast to the chairs
of the 18th century by Chippendale and
Sheraton.
A Venetian chair of the 16th century shows a
skilful but inappropriate treatment.

The Arabians at Cairo, in the 15th century, produced some
beautiful geometrical wood panelling, frequently inlaid with
ebony and ivory, and having a marvellous intricacy of line and
detail.
In Italy, during the 16th century, many beautifully carved
cassone or chests, in walnut, enriched with gilding, were
produced, similar to the one here figured from South Kensington
Museum.
In Italy the beautiful carved choir stalls of the 16th century were
frequently enriched with Intarsia, a light wood inlay upon a
dark ground, this intarsia being afterwards slightly etched and black rubbed
in, or scorched with hot sand or irons. The choir stalls at St. Organo,
Verona, and the Certosa, at Pavia, are fine examples of Intarsia.
In the Renascence of France we meet with many
examples of beautiful furniture, great skill, taste
and ingenuity being brought to bear upon this
work. Jean Goujon, Bachelier and Philibert de
CASSONE OR CHEST S K M ITALIAN 16TH CENTURY
l’Orme were famed for their wood carvings in
the 16th century.
In 1642, André Charles Boule introduced a veneered work composed of
thin tortoise-shell and brass, frequently chased or engraved; this is now
termed Boule work. In some of the later work the shell is laid on a
vermilion or gold ground, which greatly enhances its effect. In the 18th
century, Boule work was still made in France, but new methods and new
men came to the front, amongst others were Riesener and David Roentgen,
who produced splendid Marquetry of flowers, festoons and diaper patterns
inlaid in various coloured woods. Both these men worked in mahogany and
ebony, and their lighter marquetry was frequently shaded by scorching with
hot sand. These pieces of furniture were usually enriched with gilt, bronze
or metal mountings by Gouthière, a contemporary craftsman. A beautiful
mode of enriching woodwork was introduced by Vernis Martin, 1706-70;
this was the use of a gold and green lac, which was transparent and brilliant,
and similar to the beautiful lac work of Japan.
Of English men of this period, Thomas Chippendale produced some good
furniture and published a book of designs in 1764, which undoubtedly

influenced much of the furniture of that period; Mathias Lock was
another noted cabinet maker. In 1789, A. Hepplewhite published a
book on furniture, and, in 1795, Thomas Sheraton published a work
on the same subject.
The beautiful panelling and carved mantels of the
many fine halls of the time of Elizabeth and James
are characteristic of English work. Contemporary
with this are the beautiful English panelled chests
with quaint imagery and enrichments, and the
curious Jacobean bed-foot with its pierced
pedestal and baluster pillar.
With Grinling Gibbons, who died in 1721, wood carving
reached its culmination for delicacy and skilful
craftsmanship.

TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 35.

The utility, universality, construction, texture,
T E X T I L E S . ornamentation and colour of textile fabrics are full of
interest and suggestiveness, for in the remarkable
development of textile fabrics we may trace the continuity of style and
tradition, the intermingling of races and customs, and the grafting of
religious ideas with the wealth and luxuriance of the past.
All fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles. They are broadly divided
into three classes: 1st, plain fabrics in which the warp and weft alternate

equally; 2nd, those fabrics in which a pattern is produced by the warp and
weft intermingling in different proportions or colours, figured cloths and
tapestries being included in this class; 3rd, those fabrics in which the plain
textile No. 1 is enriched with the needle or by printing, termed embroideries
or printed fabrics.
Owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics are
in existence. The oldest examples are found in the tombs of Egypt, where,
owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of the early dynasties still
remain. They are usually of fine linen and without enrichment, yet upon the
same tombs are many painted patterns that undoubtedly show a woven
origin. The oldest figured fabrics found in Egypt are of the 6th century A.D.,
and they show a remarkable similarity to the early patterns of Persia and
Byzantium, for it was in India, Persia and Arabia that textiles reached their
perfection of workmanship and their wealth of material. This splendid
tradition was carried from Persia and India to Byzantium in the 5th century,
and in the 8th century the Arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of
Persia, India, Egypt and Spain and brought the art of weaving to its
culmination during the 14th and 15th centuries.
The ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and periods
are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by racial influence,
climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of the people. Yet the
traditional Eastern origin may be traced through many textile designs, for
there is no doubt that India, Persia and Arabia influenced the designs of
textile fabrics more than any other nations. This was due no doubt partly to
the Eastern weavers carrying their art and traditions with them to various
parts of Europe, and also to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but
principally to the beautiful and interesting designs which were perfectly
adapted to the process of weaving. It is due no doubt to this frank
adaptation of natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical
necessities of woven fabrics, that has rendered this Eastern influence so
persistent through many centuries in different parts of Europe. It is
remarkable that even in Italy during the whole of the Renascence period,
with the characteristic scroll forms and acanthus foliation of its architecture
and decorative arts, the textiles are quite distinct in style, having the
characteristics of the Sicilian, Persian and Indian ornament.

Among the earliest figured fabrics must be placed those of Assyria, of
which representations may be seen in Layard’s Book on Nineveh. The
patterns consisted of symmetrically placed winged figures with the Hom or
Tree of Life and the rosette, which was used as a symbol by Zoraster. It is
probable that many of these patterns were embroidered, as the Babylonians
were reported to be skilful in the art of embroidery, but it is also certain that
some of the patterns were woven. The figured fabrics found in Egypt only
date from the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., and show a marked Byzantine and
Persian influence (figs. 1-7, plate 35). Characteristic Byzantine examples
have medallions and symmetrically placed figures and ornament of the
“Hom.” At Alexandria and Antioch, many fine green and gold silk fabrics
with ornament in brown outline were produced from the 6th to the 10th
centuries.
Under the Saracens, textile fabrics reached their highest development;
splendour of colour, beauty and perfection of material and the singularly
interesting beauty of the designs being the chief characteristics.
The conquest of Persia, in 632 A.D., by Abu Bekr, the successor of
Mahomet, the establishment of Bagdad in 762 as the capital of the Arabian
Khalifs, and the invasion of India, in 711, gave a remarkable impetus to the
decorative arts, more especially the arts of dyeing, weaving and embroidery.
These arts culminated in the splendid period of the Fatimy Khalifs, 909-
1171 A.D. Though Mahomet forbade his followers to wear silk, it was
largely used by the Saracens and, to evade the injunction, cotton was
frequently interwoven with it, and, in India especially, the fabrics often
have a cotton warp as a foundation for the weft patterns of coloured silks
and gold thread. Many fine examples of Saracenic fabrics of the 11th to the
15th centuries are now in our national museums. The larger portion are
from Sicily, and are termed Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic. They have bands
of birds, animals, foliage and inscriptions in blue, green and gold on a red
ground. If wholly of silk the fabric was termed Holosericum, and if of silk
and gold, Chrysoclavum fundatum. Drawn gold thread was not used in early
fabrics, but gold leaf laid on paper or skin and then rolled round a fine
thread of silk was largely used by the Saracenic weavers. The patterns in
some of the later Sicilian fabrics of the 13th and 14th centuries have a
purple ground in twilled silk, with birds and foliage formed by a weft of
gold thread. These patterns were usually symmetrical in arrangement, no

doubt partly due to the traditional art of Assyria, but also to the simple
necessities of weaving, for in the early looms the turnover of the pattern
was frequently used. The Saracenic fabrics produced in Spain are called
Hispano-Moresque and are distinguished by splendid crimson or dark blue
conventional patterns of silk upon a yellow ground of a fine quality, and a
frequent use of strips of gilded parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread.
In this period, many fine velvets raised on a satin ground with gold
Plate 36.

Plate 37.

and silver threads, were made. In the 12th century, Roger II., the Norman
King of Northern Sicily, took Corinth and Argos, and carried many weavers
and embroiderers from Greece to Sicily, and established them at Palermo,
where they quickly assimilated the Sicilian style and produced many fine
fabrics during the 13th and 14th centuries.
The crusades now began to influence the arts; in 1098, Antioch was taken
and the spoil distributed through Europe; in 1204, Constantinople was taken

by Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and the Venetian Doge, Dandolo, and the
vast spoil of textiles distributed. It was doubtless under the influence of the
crusades that the Sicilian weavers of the 13th and 14th centuries produced
the many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged lions, foliated crosses and
crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds linked together, and with the
introduction of armorial bearings. Early in the 14th century, this splendid
tradition was introduced into Italy, and at Lucca many beautiful fabrics
were produced, having the same characteristics and technique as the
Sicilian fabrics.
The cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of Richard II. in Westminster
Abbey has a pattern of foliage with couchant harts and rayed stars, and was
most probably copied from the original silk made for Richard at Lucca or
Palermo.
The beautiful materials and designs of Indian textile fabrics are indicative
of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a remote antiquity.
Though influenced at various times by Greek, Persian and Arabian
traditions, India still preserved an indigenous ornamental art of remarkable
freshness and vitality, the designers choosing their own flora and fauna with
rare selective power and adaptive qualities. With an instinctive feeling for
ornamental art, aided by the splendid colourings of the native dyes, they
produced textile fabrics of silks, brocades, and gold and silver lace
remarkable for richness and perfection of material, beauty of design and
harmony of colour. The Indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment
differentiated from the cypress of Persia (fig. 1, plate 22), by the spiral at
the apex. This typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail
(figs. 4, 5 and 6, plate 23). The splendid carpets of India were doubtless
influenced by the Persian tradition and they follow the same methods and
ornamental arrangements, adapting, conventionalizing and emphasising
plants, flowers and seeds, and rendering them with a fine feeling for form
and colour. Block printing was largely used for silks and cottons, and many
splendid examples are now treasured in our museums; an illustration of a
printed cotton Palampore from South Kensington is given here, showing the
beautiful floral treatment, diversity of detail, and contrast of line and mass.
The gold and silver Brocades or “Kincobs” of Ahmedabad and Benares,
with patterns of animals, flowers and foliage richly spangled; the delicate

muslins of Dacca, the gold and silver primed muslins of Jaipur, and the
woollen
Plate 38.

shawls of Kashmir, with the well-known pine pattern, are splendid
examples of richness of material, delicacy and skilfulness of technic, and
beauty and appropriateness of ornamentation.

The Pile carpets of Persia, especially those of Kurdistan, Khorassan,
Kirman, and Ferahan, are the finest in the world, being magnificent in
colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful flora, with
birds and animals interspersed with the ornament, giving a largeness of
mass and interest and vitality of detail. The illustration on the opposite page
is from a fine 16th century Persian carpet, and is a good example of their
methods and traditions. The hyacinth, tulip, iris and the pink, are frequently
introduced, together with the hom or tree of life. An illustration is given
(fig. 2, plate 22) of a Genoa fabric but of Persian design, showing the
typical “pink” with its simplicity and beauty of line. This traditional art of
Persia had a most marked influence upon the textile fabrics of Europe from
the 12th to the 17th centuries. This was no doubt due to many causes, but
the perfect adaptability to the process of weaving, the interest,
inventiveness and beauty of the ornament, and the singular frank treatment
of form and colour, doubtless appealed to the craftsmen of Europe, and
hence we find many Persian designs produced in Sicily, Spain, Italy, France
and Flanders.
The finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the
looms of Florence show a distinct Persian influence in their
bold artichoke and pomegranate patterns of the 16th and
17th centuries. In Genoa, similar patterns in many coloured
velvets were produced, and it is singular how largely this
persistency of type prevails in all countries.
In 1480, Louis XI. introduced the art into
France, when looms were established at PATTERN, DOUBLE MULLION
ITALIAN.
Tours, and in 1520 they were established at
Lyons by Francis I., and the art of weaving rapidly spread.
The earliest fabrics of these looms have patterns similar to
the Persian and Italian fabrics; but soon the vase pattern,
which no doubt had its origin in Byzantine textiles and
which had been used by the Persians and Italians, began to
SILK ITALIAN 16th CENTURY influence French designs. However, this rapidly gave place

towards the middle of the 17th century to the imitations of
ribbons and laces in textile fabrics, together with a more naturalistic
treatment of floral forms, and the beauty, suggestiveness and interest of the

early patterns now gave way to prettiness, affectation and a naturalistic
treatment which culminated in the period of Madame Pompadour.
The remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the weaving of
figured fabrics was introduced by Bonchon, 1725, and continued by Falcon
in 1728, by Vancanson in 1745, and perfected by Joseph Marie Jacquard,
1752-1834.
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by Louis the XIV., caused
large numbers of weavers to come to England, bringing their art and
tradition with them, and many established themselves at Spitalfields which
soon rose to some importance. The patterns, necessarily, were purely
French in treatment, consisting of natural arrangements of flowers; a sketch
is here given of a Spitalfields design for silk damask.
The textile fabrics of Flanders reached a high degree of
perfection in the 16th and 17th centuries, Bruges being
famous for its silk damasks and velvets, the patterns
showing the traditional Persian or the pomegranate and
artichoke type of the Florentine textiles. Block printing
had been introduced into Flanders in the 15th century and
many fine patterns with Indian motives were produced up
to the 17th century.
At Ypres, fine diapered linen was
FLOWER VASE PATTERN

manufactured, and Ghent was famous for its woollens,
but the remarkable prosperity of Flanders was destroyed
by the Spanish occupation (1556-1648).
Then large numbers of Flemish weavers
came to England and settled in many parts
of the country, bringing their traditions and
craftsmanship, which have undoubtedly had DESIGN FOR A SPITALSFIELD SILK
a most marked influence upon the FABRIC DATED 1739 SKM
production of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in England.
Tapestry, of which many fine examples of the 16th and 17th
centuries are treasured in our museums and palaces, differs
SINGLE MULLION
PATTERN
from most woven fabrics in its method of production, which
consists of interweaving and knotting short pieces of coloured

wefts, which form the pattern, to a strong warp, a ground weft being thrown
across each pick to bind the material well together;
TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 39.

this is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture of the Indian
and Persian carpets. It was during the 14th and 15th centuries, at Arras in
Flanders, that storied tapestries were brought to their culmination and the
tapestry workers became a most powerful guild. From about 1480, Brussels
produced many magnificent hangings from designs by the great masters of

the Italian Renascence. Raphael’s famous cartoons which are now in the
South Kensington Museum are the original designs for the ten tapestries
manufactured at Brussels for Pope Leo X. for the enrichment of the Sistine
chapel in the Vatican; the seven cartoons, three being lost, were purchased
by Charles I.
Many of the great Flemish painters also designed for the Brussels tapestries,
such as Van Orley, Van Leyden and Jan Mabuse.
Francis I. caused tapestry looms to be set up at Fontainbleau in 1339, under
the direction of the Italian, Serlio, but it was not until the Gobelin tapestry
manufactory was established in 1603 in the Faubourg Saint Marcel by the
Fleming, Marc de Comans, and François de la Planche, that French tapestry
reached any importance. Under the Minister Colbert in 1667, the Royal
Gobelin manufactory produced many fine tapestries designed by the head
of the establishment, Charles le Brun.
About 1590, some carpets called Savonnerie were made in the Louvre, the
technique being somewhat similar to the Persian carpets but the patterns
were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment; fine tapestries were also
produced at Beauvais and Aubusson. Tapestry had been manufactured in
England as early as the reign of Edward III., but it was not until the time of
James I. that it assumed any importance, when a tapestry manufactory was
established at Mortlake by Francis Crane.
Some fine Flemish tapestries are in the South Kensington museum and
eight large pieces by Bernard Van Orley are in the Great Hall of Hampton
Court. The coloured cartoons by Mantegna in Hampton Court, representing
the Triumph of Cæsar, were to be reproduced in tapestry for the Duke of
Mantua. There are some fine Gobelin and Beauvais tapestries in Windsor
Castle which were gifts from the Court of France, and they all show the
most consummate technique, beauty of material and harmony of colour.
The well-known Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a
white linen ground. It is 214 feet in length and 22 inches in width and
divided in 72 compartments with incidents representing the Norman
invasion of England by William I.
Though reputed to be the work of Queen Matilda, the probability is that it is
the work of English hands some few years after the invasion. This

embroidery or tapestry is still preserved in the cathedral of Bayeux.
The remarkable civilization of the Incas or Peruvians, is shown in the many
splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our museums. Of
these relics of a vanished civilization, the textile
PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 40.

PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 41.

fabrics are, perhaps, the most instructive and interesting. The high technical
skill of the craftsmanship, the fine spinning of the wool and cotton, and the
perfection of the dyeing of the yarn, together with the skilful weaving of the
figured cloths and tapestries are a tribute to the vitality and civilization of a
people remote from all Asiatic or European influences.
Many of the fabrics are of double cloth, of deep brown and pale straw
colour, and show the same colour and pattern on both sides of the cloth.
Some of the fabrics are tapestry woven, having short strands of coloured

wool inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle, and they somewhat
resemble the Gobelin tapestry in their method of production.
A few of these Peruvian cotton fabrics are ornamented by means of tied or
knotted work, identical with the Bandhana or knotted work termed Chunti
Cloth, of the North-west province of India. These knotted patterns consist
of simple spots arranged in square, zig-zag or curved lines. The pattern is
first marked with a red earth on the plain fabric; then the pattern or spots are
tied up tightly with cotton thread and the whole dipped in the dye which
only acts on the untied portions of the cloth; a white pattern on a coloured
ground is thus produced, both sides being alike.
These Peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the beautiful flora
of Peru as elements for decoration. The fylfot or fret is a frequent form of
enrichment (plates 40-41.) The wave scroll so typical of Greek work is also
a remarkable element in Peruvian ornament, and illustrates the singular
development of the same ideas and aspect of form among people so remote
from each other as the Greeks and Peruvians.
But the patterns that sharply differentiate Peruvian examples from all other
styles are the conventional treatments of figures, birds, fishes and animals.
The llama is conspicuous in many patterns, but the bird forms are the most
remarkable, having many variations of type and treatment. Illustrations are
given in plates 40 and 41, all taken from the Smithies Loan Collection at
Manchester. Other examples of these interesting fabrics may be seen in the
Smithies collection at South Kensington, showing the wonderful diversity
of the treatment of pattern designing by a people so remote as the
Peruvians.
It is difficult to fix any date for these Peruvian examples, but as it is known
that during the reign of Inca Pachacutic (circa 1390), the ceramic art was at
its best, we may assume that the sister art of weaving reached its perfection
about the same period, and continued until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th
century.
FRETS. Plate 42.

The remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity and
F R E T S . rhythm of detail, its adaptability and usefulness for surface
enrichment, have made the fret one of the best known forms of
ornamentation. It was used in the surface decorations of the tombs of Egypt,
the temples of Greece, and the civic and domestic buildings of Rome.
The Greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys was used on
the simple abacus and plain fascias of the Dorian architecture, in bands
upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form when used in the interior

of the red-figured circular cylix. The Romans, without imparting freshness,
used the same right-angled key pattern, chiefly as borders for mosaic
pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their architecture. The
Byzantine using the same type in conjunction with the cross and circle gave
more significance to the fret.
The Arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line together with the
right-angled key, obtaining a wonderful degree of complexity and richness.
The Celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one, but the recurrent angle is rounded
to a curve.
Chinese and Japanese frets are usually right-angled, and are used in great
profusion, often in a secondary field or background.
The Japanese key or “Fret diaper” is used in the greatest
profusion; it is used alike on silks and brocades,
damascened in metal, in cloisonné enamel and in
lacquered work, and is frequently arranged in irregular
shaped compartments or medallions.
The Greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the
Japanese, who generally use the disconnected or irregular
WALL MOSAIC OF COLOURED
MARBLES

fret. A similar irregular fret border was used by the
Peruvians (plate 41), by the Mexicans, and by the natives of Polynesia.
The Assyrian and Byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret, but additional
interest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in the principal
interstices of the fret (fig. 5, plate 11.)
Plate 43.

in architecture and ornament has always been
C O N T I N U I T Y influenced by tradition, racial influence, and the
OF STYLE myths and religious beliefs of the people, and it
developed with the progress of the nation, often
culminating in some great epoch. Frequently the continuity was carried on
by some contemporary or succeeding race, modified by different conditions
and environments, yet still retaining the style in its general characteristics,
or, this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for a time, only to spring
into new life, endowed with fresh vitality and beauty, culminating again in

splendour. Then fresh religious ideas and conditions engrafted their
symbolism and traditions upon the style, thus forming a new period in the
history of art.
Ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft, and in its
primitive state was used symbolically. The ornament of Polynesia and
Melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation. Isolated as
these islanders were from the influence of Eastern or Western art, and with
but little communication among the various islands, the ornamental art of
these people has its own traditions and characteristics, each province or
group of islands showing different ideas and details in proportion to its
culture or state of civilization, New Zealand showing the highest
development and Australia the lowest, while with the Marquesans the
ornament is almost pure picture writings. The illustration of the beautiful
paddle in the Heape collection, with its geometric ornamentation, shows the
continuity and ornamental development of the representation of the human
figure, which was originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or
divinity.
In Europe and Asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to exist. The
development and continuity of ideas and customs, the traditions of style and
craftsmanship carried on through many centuries of the world’s history
have obliterated the early or primitive style of ornament, chosen first for its
significance or emblematic character.
Some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been
recently found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru—relics of the Incas—long
anterior to the Spanish conquest. Many fine examples of these woven
textiles of cotton and wool are now in the South Kensington museum,
forming the Smithies collection, and, as in the ornament of Polynesia, floral
forms are entirely absent, the ornament consisting of conventional
representations of the human figure, with the owl, condor and the toucan,
mingled with the wave scroll and the fret, elements doubtless chosen for
their significance.
Many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of ornament,
showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and its remarkable
influence upon contemporary and succeeding races.

Perhaps the form and enrichment of the Architectural Capital offer one of
the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history and
evolution of architecture. The remarkable persistency of the capital as a
distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many centuries,
though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial influences, yet still
preserving a remarkable similarity of form and enrichment among the
various nations of the earth.
The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns the
weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and appropriateness of
the capital depends:—
First, upon this functional treatment of strength;
Second, upon the beauty of profile or mass;
Third, upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital.
The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions and
conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength, beauty of
profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and harmony of parts,
qualities which are essential to beauty of architecture. In the Parthenon,
B.C. 438, we have the finest treatment of this capital—a treatment full of
dignity, reserve, and unison of profile (plate 6). The many examples of the
Doric Order in Greece and her colonies attest to the esteem in which this
order was held by the Greeks. The Indian capital (plate 24) exhibits the
same functional treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which
undoubtedly are a survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical
of Eastern architecture.
The remarkable persistency of the profile, and
enrichment of the capital extending through a period of
4,000 years, may be illustrated by a series of diagrams
of typical examples. The profile of the capital has not
varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here
given, and the enrichment of the bell is remarkable for
its persistency, though differentiated by racial
influences. The Corinthian capital, with its volutes and
acanthus foliage, is but the architectural continuity of
the Egyptian capital. The only pure Greek example of this order is from the

monument of Lysicrates, but the Romans continued the tradition,
assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent capitals of
the portico of the Pantheon and the temple of Castor and Pollux. In these
examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows of eight leaves each,
the volutes springing from sheaths and stems between the leaves, which
support the angle of the volutes. The example of early French Gothic has
similar characteristics and illustrates the continuity of style.
The Ionic capital, though one of the most persistent in the history of
architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection of other capitals.
This was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being incompatible with
the necessities of stone and marble. There is a want of unity between the
volutes and ovolo of the capital; in brief, it has neither coherence nor
harmony of parts. The exquisite craftsmanship of the capitals of the
Erectheum, with their anthemion enrichment of the greatest purity, the
beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the volutes compensates to some
extent for the lack of unison (plate 6). The enrichment of the architectural
capital is no doubt a survival of the primitive custom of binding floral forms
round the simple functional capital, these forms being afterwards
perpetuated in stone or marble.
In early Corinthian examples these floral forms
were frequently of beaten metal, which, in turn,
gave place to the beautiful marble foliage of the
Greeks and Romans.
That the ancients used
metal work in their capitals
we have abundant proof. In CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE
the descriptions of the PANTHEON ROME.

building of Solomon’s Temple we read of “Two
chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars,
and nets of chequer work and wreath of chain work
to set upon the top of the pillars.”
FRENCH. EARLY GOTHIC.

The Composite capital is deficient in coherence and
unity of parts, having the same defects as its prototype the Ionic. The
annexed illustration from Ancient Rome gives an unusual treatment by the
introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the capital.

The Byzantine capital differs from those of the Greeks
and Romans in its marked symbolism of detail and the
prevalence of the cushion form. Functionally, this type
of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the vigorous
upward growth of the Egyptian and early Gothic
capitals.
The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity COMPOSITE CAPITAL FROM POMPEII.
and variety of detail, such as interlacing circles and
crosses with their mystic symbolism, basket work, chequered details, and
the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks.
These features are seen in the greatest profusion at S.
Sophia at Constantinople; S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at
Ravenna, and S. Marco at Venice. These splendid
capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly beautiful in
fertile inventiveness of enrichment, and show the
assimilative power of the Byzantine craftsmen. The
BYZANTINE. ST MARKS VENICE. abundant use of chequer work, wreaths of chain work,

and of lily work in Byzantine capitals, many of which
are figured in Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” show the continuity of style and
tradition in architecture.
The Byzantine capitals have the square abacus, usually
consisting of a simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the
billet, dentil or star pattern. The Dosseret, a singular
adjunct to the capital was introduced during this period; it
was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon the
abacus of the capital to give additional height (plate 11). BYZANTINE ST MARKS
VENICE.

The Byzantine influence is seen upon
the Norman capitals with their square abacus of fillet
and chamfer, and the cushion profile of capital. Some
remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are in the cloisters
of the Benedictine Monastery of Monreale in Sicily,
A.D. 1174-1184. The great fertility of inventiveness in
BYZANTINE CAPITAL ST MARK’S
VENICE. the 200 capitals, their storiation, the intermingling of
figures, birds and animals with the classic and
Byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the

history of the world. The Arabian capital, which frequently shows the
traditional volute, differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its marked
squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with colour.
The Early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous
and beautiful. The perfect adaptability of its foliage to
stone carving, the significance of its detail as
emblematic of the Trinity, the spiral growth of its
foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are
the chief characteristics of this period. Lacking,
perhaps, the delicacy or variety of detail of the
Byzantine period or the later Gothic work, it excelled FRENCH ROMANESQUE CAPITAL.
them in the appropriateness of its enrichment, which is more beautiful in the
Early English examples with their circular abacus than in contemporary
French capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. The transition from
the circular column to the square abacus was always felt to be a difficulty,
and was rarely overcome, but in the circular abacus of the Early English
capitals we have a break in the continuity of the style of the capital.
The English foliage of
this period differs from
the French in the use of
a deep mid-rib and
simple trefoil leaf. The
French examples have a
less pronounced mid-
CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS MONTREALE. CAPITALS FROM THE CLOISTERS OF
rib, and the leaf is MONTREALE.

convex in form and divided into three lobes, and
the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, consequently the brilliant play
of light and shade which is so characteristic of Early English work, is
generally absent from French examples (fig. 12, plate 16).

The Decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from
those of the Early Gothic period, a more natural type of
foliage being used, consisting of the briony, maple,
mallow and oak. This foliage was carved with singular
delicacy of touch and grace of profile, and is beautiful in
its modelling and play of light and shade, yet frequently
SOUTH-WESTMINSTER
DECORATED CAPITALS the capitals are trivial in conception and arrangement,
lacking that architectonic character which is so essential to
all architectural constructive features.
The perpendicular or late Gothic capital was usually
octagonal in form with square conventional foliage
of the vine, showing a marked decadence in tradition
and craftsmanship (fig. 9, plate 17).
The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a
fine feeling for profile, splendid craftsmanship, RENASCENCE CAPITAL VENICE.
diversity of enrichment, and vitality of conception,
more especially in Italy, where the tradition of architecture culminated in
the works of such remarkable men as Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante,
Baldassare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio, Palladio, and Sansovenio. The
tradition was worthily carried on in France by Pierre Lescot, Jean Bullant,
Philipert de Lorme, and De Brosse, and in England by Inigo Jones, Wren,
and Chambers.

ROMAN SCROLL.

Ornament is the means by which Beauty or
T E R M S U S E D I N Significance is imparted to Utility. It is either
O R N A M E N TA L Symbolical or Aesthetic. Symbolic ornament
consists of elements or forms chosen for the sake
A RT.
of their significance—Aesthetic ornament
consists of forms or elements chosen for their Beauty alone, or their power
of appealing to the senses.
Of the historic styles of ornament, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzantine,
Scandinavian, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Polynesian, and much of the Chinese
and Japanese are symbolical, having elements and ornamental details
chosen for their significance; while in the Greek, Roman, and Renascence
ornament, the purely aesthetic motive is characteristic.
Ornament, again, may be natural or conventional—Imitative or Inventive.
The terms “natural” and “imitative” have the same significance—viz., the
exact copying of natural forms, so that they become principal—not
secondary as perfect ornament should be. Conventional ornament is the
adaptation of natural forms to ornamental and technical requirements, and is
seen in its greatest beauty in the frank treatment by the Indians and Persians
of their flora and fauna for the decorative enrichment of their textile fabrics,
pottery, and jewellery.
Inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived from any
natural source; the Moresque style is a good example of this type.
The elements of ornament are the details or forms chosen for ornamental
motives, and the principals of ornament are the arrangement of these forms
and details; they comprise repetition, alternation, symmetry, radiation,

balance, proportion, variety, eurythmy, contrast, intersection, complication,
fitness, and utility.
Repetition is the use of elements in a continuous series; Alternation is the
repetition of an element at intervals, with others intervening; Symmetry:
when the leading lines are equal or similar (or reciprocal) on both sides;
Radiation: when the lines spring from a centre, for example, a bird’s wing
and the flower of the daisy; Balance and Proportion: when the relation and
harmony of parts is based upon natural laws; Variety implies difference in
the details, with respect to form or type; Eurythmy signifies rhythms or
harmony in ornament; Contrast is the arrangement in close proximity of
colours or forms of opposite characters, as the straight line with the curve,
or light with dark; Intersection is the crossing of the leading lines, the
Arabian, Moresque and Celtic styles are examples of this principle;
Complication is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be more
or less difficult to trace with the eye alone: as in the Japanese key and the
Moresque star pattern. Fitness and utility as their names imply are essentials
in all good periods of ornamentation.

ROMAN SCROLL.

Te x t B o o k s u p o n A r c h i t e c t u r e
and Ornament.
Classic and Early Christian Architecture Roger Smith, 5/-
Gothic and Renascence Roger Smith, 5/-
Glossary of Architecture J. Parker, 7/6
Handbook of Architectural Styles Rosengarten, 7/6
Introduction to Gothic Architecture J. Parker, 5/-
Three Manuals of Gothic Ornament J. Parker, each 1/-
Classic and Early Christian Sculpture G. Redford, 5/-
Gothic and Renascence Sculpture Leader Scott, 5/-
Handbook of Greek Sculpture, 2 vols. Ed. Gardner, 10/-
History of Greek Art Tarbell, 5/-
Analysis of Ornament J. Wornum, 8/-
Handbook of Ornament Meyer, 10/6
An excellent series of illustrated Handbooks upon the Industrial Arts by
writers of repute, is published by the Science and Art Department, and may
be obtained at the Bookstall of the South Kensington Museum, at a cost of
1/-each part (paper covers), or they may be purchased through Messrs.
Chapman and Hall, at 2/6 each part, bound in cloth, they include:
The Industrial Arts of India Sir G. Birdwood
” ” Spain Juan F. Riano
” ” Denmark J. J. Worsaae
” ”
Hans Hildebrand
Scandinavia
The Saracens of Egypt Stanley Lane Poole
Early Christian Art in —each in two parts.
Margaret Stokes
Ireland
English Earthenware A. H. Church
” Porcelain A. H. Church
P. Gasnault & E.
French Pottery
Garnier
Wrought Iron Work J. Starkie Gardner

Bronzes Drury E. Fortnum
College and Corporation
Wilfred Cripps
Plate
Furniture J. H. Pollen
Gold and Silversmith’s
J. H. Pollen
Work
Glass A. Nesbitt —complete in one
part.
Ivories W. Maskell
Japanese Pottery A. W. Franks
Maiolica Drury E. Fortnum
Persian Art R. Murdoch Smith
Textile Fabrics Rev. Daniel Rock
Tapestry Alfred de Champeaux

Wo r k s o f R e f e r e n c e . Architecture:—
Antiquities of Rome Taylor & Cresy.
Antiquities of Athens Stuart & Revett.
Analysis of Gothic
Brandon.
Architecture
Architecture for General
H. H. Statham.
Readers
Byzantine Architecture Texies & Pullan.
Constantinople Salzenberg.
Civil Architecture Chambers.
Decorated Window
E. Sharpe.
Tracery
Encyclopædia of
Gwilt.
Architecture
English Renascence
J. A. Gotch.
Architecture

Gothic Mouldings F. A. Paley.
Gothic Architecture T. Rickman.
Gothic Architecture in France E. Corroyer.

Gothic Architecture in Spain G. E. Street.
Gothic Foliage J. K. Collings.
Handbook of Architecture J. Fergusson.
History of Architecture J. Fergusson.
Indian and Eastern Architecture J. Fergusson.
Mansions of England J. Nash.
Old English Mansions C. Richardson.
Orders of Architecture R. Phéne Spiers.
Orders of Architecture C. Norman.
Orders of Architecture J. M. Manch.
Spanish Renascence D. N. Prentice.
Stones of Venice J. Ruskin.
Seven Lamps of Architecture J. Ruskin.

The Seven Periods of Church Architecture E. Sharpe.
Ornament and Sculpture:—
Art of the Old English Potter L. M. Solon.
Ancient Pottery S. Birch.
Alphabets E. Strange.
Alphabets Lewis F. Day.
Basis of Design Walter Crane.
Fresco Decoration in Italy L. Gruner.
Grammar of Ornament Owen Jones.
Greek and Roman Sculpture W. G. Perry.

Greek Vase Painting Jane Harrison.
Glass Painting C. Winston.
Stained Glass Windows Lewis F. Day.
Handbook of Greek Archæology A. S. Murray.

Primitive Greece George Perrot and C. Chipiez.

Persia George Perrot and C. Chipiez.

Phrygia George Perrot and C. Chipiez.

Chaldea and Assyria George Perrot and C. Chipiez.

Egypt George Perrot and C. Chipiez.
Keramic Art of Japan Audsley & Bowles.
Nineveh Layard.
Ornamental Metal Work Digby Wyatt.
Ornamental Art Gruner.
Ornamental Textiles Fischbach.
Ornament of Textile Fabrics Dupont Auberville.
Pompeii Zahn.
Polychromatic Ornament Racinet.
The Alhambra Owen Jones.
Alfred Stevens, his life and work Hugh Stannus.

Many excellent “Cantor Lectures,” by experts, upon the practical
application of the Industrial Arts, will be found in the Society of Arts
Journal.
The following Lectures may be studied with advantage:
April, 1891 Cloisonné Clement Heaton.
Feb., 1894 Decorative Treatment of Artificial Foliage Hugh Stannus.
April, 1891 Decorative Treatment of Natural Foliage Hugh Stannus.

June, 1897 Delft Ware J. W. L. Glaisher.
March, 1891 Enamels J. Starkie Gardner.
Jan., 1892 Indian Art Sir G. Birdwood.
Feb., 1892 Japanese Pottery E. Hart.
Feb., 1891 Lithography W. Simpson.
Jan., 1897 Material and Design in Pottery William Burton.
April, 1891 Plaster Work A. Robinson.
Feb., 1891 Storiation Hugh Stannus.
Feb., 1891 S’graffito Heywood Sumner.
March, 1899 Vitreous Enamels C. Davenport.
Feb., 1898 Some Laws of Form in Applied Art Hugh Stannus.
In the transactions of the Rochdale Literary Society for 1891 (Aldine Press)
is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on “The Ornamental Art of
Savage People,” by Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe, translated by Mrs. H. C. March.
The transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society (1891)
contains an excellent article upon “The Pagan Christian Overlap in the
North,” by H. Colley March, M.D.
The illustrated articles in the transactions of the Royal Institute of British
Architects, may also be studied with advantage, they include:
1892 Byzantine Architecture George Aitchison.
D. Graham, H. Longden & H.
1892 Casting in Metals
Singer.
G. Robinson, Heywood Sumner
1891 Decorative Plaster Work
and Stephen Webb.
Heraldry in English Mediæval
1897 W. H. St. John Hope.
Architecture
Heraldry of the Renascence in
1897 Alfred Gotch.
England
1898 Heraldic Drawing J. D. Crace.
1894 Mosaics C. H. Harrison & J. C. Powell.
Sculptured Columns of the
1898 A. S. Murray.
Temple at Ephesus

Sculpture in relation to
1891 G. Simonds.
Architecture
H. Charpenter, J. Powell, H.
1892 Stained Glass
Westlake and C. Heaton.
Wrought Iron Work, Mediæval
1891 J. Starkie Gardner.
Period
Wrought Iron Work, Renascence
1891 J. Starkie Gardner.
Period
Good articles are found in the Magazine of Art, they include:
1897 Chippendale Furniture C. Dempsey.
1893 Design Walter Crane.
1890 Embroidered Bookcovers S. E. Prideaux.
1896 Ironwork J. Starkie Gardner.
1888 Language of Line Walter Crane.
1882-
Stained Glass Lewis F. Day.
3
1883 Sheraton Furniture E. Balfour.
The Use of Metals in
1891 S. E. Prideaux.
Bookbinding
1884 The Ficoroni Dressing Case
The Influence of Architecture
1896 Walter Crane.
Style upon Design
In the Art Journal, there is:
Ancient Glass in the British
1888 Henry Wallis.
Museum
Antique Glass in the Naples
1889 Henry Wallis.
Museum
Textile Fabrics in the South
1888 Gilbert R. Redgrave.
Kensington Museum
1887 Meaning in Ornament Lewis F. Day.
1888 The Boulaq Museum Henry Wallis.
In the Portfolio, there is:
1893 Old English Pottery A. H. Church.
1893 English Enamels J. Starkie Gardner.
1893 English Bookbinding W. Y. Fletcher.

1894 Bookbinding in France W. Y. Fletcher.
1894 Italian Book Illustrations A. W. Pollard.
1894 Josiah Wedgwood A. H. Church.
1898 Greek Bronzes A. S. Murray.
1897 Armour in England J. Starkie Gardner.
1898 Foreign Armour in England J. Starkie Gardner.
In the Builder, there are the Royal Academy Lectures upon Architecture
given by George Aitchison, R.A. They include:
1891 Roman Architecture.
1892 Saracenic Architecture.
1893 Byzantine Architecture.
1894 Renascence Architecture.
1896 Romanesque Architecture.

Index.
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, Z
Alberti, Leon, Battista, 57
Aldus Manutius, 54
Alhambra, 63
Amasis, 77
Anthemion, 7-17
Andreani, Andrea, 54
Apollodorus, 27
Arabesque, 53-54
Arch of Septimus Severus, 21
Architecture
Capitals, 126
Composite, 22
Corinthian, 10
Decorated Gothic, 39-46-130
Doric, 9
Early Gothic, 38-45-129
English Renascence, 60
French Renascence, 58
Ionic, 9
Italian Renascence, 56
Perpendicular Gothic, 46
Tuscan, 22
Atrium, 23

Baccio d’Agnolo, 57
Balducco di Pisa, 50
Baptistery at Pisa, 49
Baptistery at Florence, 50-103
Basilica of Trajan, 27
Black Figure Vases, 77
Boule, André, 59-107
Bramante, 57

Bronzes, 103
Brunelleschi, 51-57
Buen Retiro, 83
Bullant, Jean, 58
Busti, Agostino, 54

Cachrylion, 77
Cambio, Arnolfo di, 49
Caradosso, 51
Caryatides, 9
Castor Ware, 80
Cellini, Benvenuto, 51
Celtic Ornament, 35
Ceramic Art, 78
Chairs, 106
Chaldea, 7
Champlevé Enamels, 35
Chinese Ornament, 71
Chippendale, 106
Chryselephantine Sculpture, 73
Cinque-Cento Ornament, 49-52
Classification of Temples, 11
Classification of Gothic Architecture, 36
Cloisonné Enamels, 91
Coleone, Bartolomeo, 103
Cologne Pots, 82
Column of Trajan, 27
Column of Marcus Aurelius, 27
Compluvium, 23
Continuity of Style, 125
Crockets, 45
Cronaca, 57

Decorated Gothic Details, 46
Delft Ware, 80
Dipylon Ware, 77
Domus, 23

Donatello, 51
Duris, 77

Early Gothic Details, 45
Earthenware, 79
Egyptian Ornament, 5
Elgin Marbles, 13
Elizabethan Ornament, 60
Elizabethan Mansions, 60
Enamels, 91
English Cathedrals, 40
English Renascence, 60
Epiktetos, 77
Euphronios, 77
Exekias, 77

Fauces, 23
Flaxman, 82
Fontana, 57
Fontano, Orazio, 87
French Cathedrals, 40
Frets, 123
Frieze of the Parthenon, 15
Frieze at Phigaleia, 15
Frieze at Pergamos, 16
Frieze from Susa, 17

Georgio, Maestro, 87-88
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 50-103
Giotto, 49
Glass, 95-97
Gobelin Tapestry, 59
Goldsmith’s Work, 101
Gothic Architecture, 36
Goujon, Jean, 59-107
Gouthière, 59-107
Greek Architecture, 9

Greek Ceramics, 77
Grisaille Enamel, 93
Grisaille Glass, 98
Grinling Gibbons, 107
Grolier, 59

Henri Deux Period, 58
Henri Deux Pottery, 81
Henri Quatre, 58
Hepplewhite, 107
Hieron, 77
Hispano-Moresque Pottery, 87

Impluvium, 23
Indian Ornament, 69
Insular, 23
Ivories, 73

Jacobean, 60
Japanese Ornament, 71
Jean, Juste, 58
Jeweller’s Enamel, 92

Lacunaria, 25
Lancet Period, 38
Leoni, Lione, 51
Leoni, Pompeoni, 51
Lescot, Pierre, 58
Lombardo, Pietro, Tullio and Antonio, 54-56
Lotus, 7
Louis Quatorze, 59
Louis Quinze, 59
Louis Seize, 59

Maiolica, 87
Mantegna, Andrea, 54
Marquetry, 107

Matteo Civitali, 51
Mausoleum, 16
Melanesia, 3
Michel Angelo, 52
Michelozzi, 57
Mino da Fiesole, 51
Mosaics, 75
Mycenæ or Colonial Ware, 77

Nicosthenes, 77
Nineveh, 7
Norman Architecture, 37

Oiron Pottery, 81
Opus Tesselatum, 75
Opus Lithostratum, 75
Opus Miserum, 75

Painted Enamels, 91
Palaces in Italy, 57
Palissy, Bernard, 81
Palladio, Andrea, 56
Pamphæios, 77
Pantheon, 22
Pannitz, Arnold, 54
Parthenon, 13
Pastorino, 51
Patera, 7
Penni, Francesco, 53
Perino del Vaga, 53
Perpendicular Gothic, 46
Persian Ornament, 65
Peristylium, 23
Pethenos, 77
Peruvian Textiles, 118
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 57
Phaleron Ware, 77

Phidias, 13
Pisanello, 51
Pisano, Nicolo, 49
” Giovanni, 49
” Andrea, 50
” Vittore, 51
Plaster Work, 61
Plique à Jour, 92
Polynesian Ornament, 2
Pompeian Ornament, 29
Porcelain, 79-83
Portland Vase, 95
Primaticcio, 54
Printing in Italy, 54
Pythos, 77

Quercia, Jacopo della, 50

Raphael, 53
Red Figured Ware, 77
Renascence Ornament, 49
Renascence Palaces, 57
Rhodian Pottery, 80
Riesener, 107
Robbia, Luca della, 51-87-90
” Andrea ”, 51-90
” Giovanni ”, 51-90
Roentgen, David, 107
Romano, Giulio, 53-54
Roman Ornament, 25
Rosette, 7
Rossellini, 51
Rouen Pottery, 81

Samian Ware, 80
Sangallo, Antonio, 57
” Giuliano, 57

Sansovino, Andrea, 54
” Jacopo, 54
Scandinavian Ornament, 33
Serlio, 56
Settignano, Desiderio da, 51
Sgraffito, 87
Sheraton, Thomas, 107
Sicilian Fabrics, 111
Silversmith’s Work, 101
Sperandio, 51
Stained Glass, 97
Stiacciato, 51
Stoneware, 82
St. Mark’s, 31
“ Apollinare Nuovo, 31
“ “ in Classe, 31
St. Sophia, 31
“ Vitale, 31
“ Paul’s, 61
Sweynheym, Conrad, 54

Tablinum, 23
Tapestry, 118
Terra Cotta, 89
Terms used in Ornamental Art, 131
Textile Fabrics, 109
Theatre of Marcellus, 21
Thermæ, 25
Tijon, Jean, 105
Toft, Thomas, 82
Torrigiano, 60
Trajan, 27
Trecento, 49
Triforium, 41
Triclinium, 23

Udine, Giovanni da, 53

Verrocchio, Andrea del, 51
Vestibule, 23
Vignola, 58
Vincentine, 51
Viridarium, 23
Vitruvius, 56

Watteau, 59
Wedgwood, 82
Well-heads, 57
Wheildon, Thomas, 82
Wrought Iron, 105

Zormorpic Ornament, 35

A LIST OF STANDARD BOOKS

ON

ARCHITECTURE
AND

THE DECORATIVE ARTS
PUBLISHED BY
B. T. BATSFORD,
94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.

Forwarded Carriage Paid at the Discount Prices affixed.

NATURE IN ORNAMENT. By Lewis F. Day. With 123 full-page Plates
and 192 Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised (Fifth
Thousand). Thick crown 8vo, in handsome cloth binding, richly gilt,
from a special design by the Author. Price 12s. 6d. Net 10s.
Contents:—I. Introductory. II. Ornament in Nature. III. Nature in
Ornament. IV. The Simplification of Natural Forms. V. The Elaboration
of Natural Forms. VI. Consistency in the Modification of Nature. VII.
Parallel Renderings. VIII. More Parallels. IX. Tradition in Design. X.
Treatment. XI. Animals in Ornament. XII. The Element of the
Grotesque. XIII. Still Life in Ornament. XIV. Symbolic Ornament.
“Amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is Mr. Lewis F. Day, who is the author
of several books on ornamental art. ‘Nature in Ornament’ is the latest of these, and is probably
the best. The treatise should be in the hands of every student of ornamental design. It is profusely
and admirably illustrated, and well printed.”—Magazine of Art.
“A book more beautiful for its illustrations, or one more helpful to students of art, can hardly be
imagined.”—Queen.

SOME PRINCIPLES OF EVERY DAY ART.—Introductory Chapters
on the Arts not Fine. Forming a Prefatory Volume to the Series of Text
Books. Second Edition (Fourth Thousand), revised, containing 70
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3s. 6d. Net 3s.
“Authoritative as coming from a writer whose mastery of the subjects is not to be disputed, and
who is generous in imparting the knowledge he acquired with difficulty. Mr. Day has taken much
trouble with the new edition.”—Architect.
“A good artist, and a sound thinker, Mr. Day has produced a book of sterling value.”—Magazine
of Art.

THE ANATOMY OF PATTERN.—Fourth Edition (Ninth Thousand),
revised, with 41 full-page Illustrations. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3s.
6d. Net 3s.
Contents:—I. Introductory. II. Pattern Dissections. III. Practical Pattern
Planning. IV. The “Drop” Pattern. V. Skeleton Plans. VI. Appropriate
Pattern.
“ ... There are few men who know the science of their profession better or can teach it as well as
Mr. Lewis Day; few also who are more gifted as practical decorators; and in anatomising pattern
in the way he has done in this manual—a way beautiful as well as useful—he has performed a
service not only to the students of his profession, but also to the public.”—Academy.

THE PLANNING OF ORNAMENT.—Third Edition (Fifth Thousand),
further revised, with 41 full-page Illustrations, many of which have
been re-drawn. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3s. 6d. Net 3s.
Contents:—I. Introductory. II. The use of the Border. III. Within the
Border. IV. Some Alternatives in Design. V. On the Filling of the Circle
and other Shapes. VI. Order and Accident.
“Contains many apt and well-drawn illustrations; it is a highly comprehensive, compact, and
intelligent treatise on a subject which is more difficult to treat than outsiders are likely to think. It
is a capital little book, from which no tyro (it is addressed to improvable minds) can avoid
gaining a good deal.”—Athenæum.

THE APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.—Third Edition (Sixth
Thousand), further revised, with 48 full-page Illustrations and 7
Woodcuts in the Text. Crown 8vo, art linen. Price 3s. 6d. Net 3s.
Contents:—I. The Rationale of the Conventional. II. What is implied
by Repetition. III. Where to stop in Ornament. IV. Style and
Handicraft. V. The Teaching of the Tool. VI. Some Superstitions.
“A most worthy supplement to the former work, and a distinct gain to the art student who has
already applied his art knowledge in a practical manner, or who hopes yet to do so.”—
Science and Art.

ORNAMENTAL DESIGN.—Comprising the Three Books,
“Anatomy of Pattern,” “Planning of Ornament,” and “Application
of Ornament,” handsomely bound in one volume, cloth gilt. Price
10s. 6d. Net 8s. 6d.
WINDOWS.—A BOOK ABOUT STAINED AND PAINTED
GLASS. By Lewis F. Day. Book I., “The Course of
Craftsmanship”; Book II., “The Course of Design”; Book III., “By
the Way.” Containing 410 pages, including 50 full-page Plates, and
upwards of 200 Illustrations in the Text, all of Old Examples. Large
8vo, cloth gilt. Price 21s. net.
“Contains a more complete popular account—technical and historical—of stained and
painted glass than has previously appeared in this country.”—The Times.
“The book is a masterpiece in its way ... amply illustrated and carefully printed; it will long
remain an authority on its subject.”—The Art Journal.
“All for whom the subject of stained glass possesses an interest and a charm, will peruse
these pages with pleasure and profit.”—The Morning Post.

“Mr. Day has done a worthy piece of work in more than his usual admirable manner ... the
illustrations are all good and some the best black-and-white drawings of stained glass yet
produced.”—The Studio.

In Preparation. To be published shortly.
A HANDBOOK OF EMBROIDERY.—By Lewis F. Day and Miss
Mary Buckle. Being a handbook on the Art for Designers,
Needleworkers, Students, Teachers, &c. Both artistic and practical
sides of the subject are thoroughly treated, and the work is
illustrated with Photographs of Stitches, and Historic Examples, &c.
Now published, the most handy, useful, and comprehensive work on the
subject.
ALPHABETS, OLD AND NEW.—Containing 150 complete
Alphabets, 30 Series of Numerals, Numerous Facsimiles of Ancient
Dates. Selected and arranged by Lewis F. Day. Preceded by a short
account of the Development of the Alphabet. With Modern
Examples specially designed by Walter Crane, Patten Wilson, A.
Beresford Pite, the Author, and others. Crown 8vo, art linen.
Second Impression, completing Fifth Thousand. Price 3s. 6d. net.
“Mr. Day’s explanation of the growth of form in letters is particularly valuable.... Many
excellent alphabets are given in illustration of his remarks.”—The Studio.
“Every one who employs practical lettering will be grateful for ‘Alphabets, Old and New.’
Mr. Day has written a scholarly and pithy introduction, and contributes some beautiful
alphabets of his own design.”—The Art Journal.
“A practical resumé of all that is to be known on the subject, concisely and clearly stated.”—
St. James’s Gazette.
“It goes without saying that whatever Mr. Batsford publishes and Mr. Day has to do with is
presented in a good artistic form, complete, and wherever that is possible, graceful.”—The
Athenæum.

A HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT.—With 300 Plates, containing
about 3,000 Illustrations of the Elements and Application of
Decoration to Objects. By F. S. Meyer, Professor at the School of
Applied Art, Karlsruhe. Second English Edition, revised by Hugh
Stannus, F.R.I.B.A., Lecturer on Applied Art at the Royal College of
Art, South Kensington. Thick 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top. Price 12s. 6d.
Net 10s.

“A library, a museum, an encyclopædia, and an art school in one. To rival it as a book of
reference, one must fill a book case. The quality of the drawings is unusually high, the
choice of examples is singularly good.... The work is practically an epitome of a hundred
works on Design.”—Studio.
“The author’s acquaintance with ornament amazes, and his three thousand subjects are
gleaned from the finest which the world affords. As a treasury of ornament drawn to scale
in all styles, and derived from genuine concrete objects, we have nothing in England which
will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with Professor Meyer’s book.”—Architect.
“The book is a mine of wealth even to an ordinary reader, while to the student of art and
archæology it is simply indispensable as a reference book. We know of no one work of its
kind that approaches it for comprehensiveness and historical accuracy.”—Science and Art.

THE HISTORIC STYLES OF ORNAMENT.—Containing 1,500
examples from all countries and all periods, exhibited on 100 Plates,
mostly printed in gold and colours. With historical and descriptive text
translated from the German of H. Dolmetsch. Folio, handsomely
bound in cloth, gilt. Price £1 5s. net.
This work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the purpose
of showing the development of Ornament, and the application of colour
to it in various countries through the epochs of history. The work
illustrates not only Flat Ornament, but also many Decorative Objects,
such as Metal-Work, Pottery and Porcelain, Lace, Enamel, Mosaic,
Illumination, Stained Glass, Jewellery, Bookbinding, &c. showing
the application of Ornament to Industrial Art.
A small remainder, just reduced in price.
ANIMALS IN ORNAMENT.—By Professor G. Sturm. Containing 30
large Collotype Plates, printed in tint, of Designs suitable for Friezes,
Panels, Borders, Wall-papers, Carving, and all kinds of Surface
Decoration, &c. Large folio in portfolio. Price 18s. net (published £1
10s.).
A new and useful series of clever designs, showing how animal form
may be adapted to decorative purposes with good effect.
A HANDBOOK OF ART SMITHING.—For the use of Practical Smiths,
Designers and others, and in Art and Technical Schools. By F. S.
Meyer, Author of “A Handbook of Ornament.” Translated from the
Second German Edition. With an Introduction by J. Starkie Gardner.
Containing 214 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. Price 6s. Net 5s.

Both the Artistic and the Practical Branches of the subject are dealt with,
and the Illustrations give selected Examples of Ancient and Modern
Ironwork. The Volume thus fills the long-existing want of a Manual on
Ornamental Ironwork, and it is hoped will prove of value to all
interested in the subject.
“Charmingly produced.... It is really a most excellent manual, crowded with examples of ancient
work, for the most part extremely well selected.”—The Studio.
“Professor Meyer’s work is a useful historical manual on Art Smithing, based on a scientific
classification of the subject, that will be of service to all smiths, designers, and students of
technical and art schools. The illustrations are well drawn and numerous.”—Building News.

A Facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable Books of
Designs ever published in England.
A NEW BOOKE OF DRAWINGS OF IRON WORKE.—Invented and
Designed by John Tijou. Containing severall sortes of Iron Worke, as
Gates, Frontispieces, Balconies, Staircases, Pannells, &c., of which the
most part hath been wrought at the Royal Building of Hampton Court,
&c. All for the use of them that worke iron in perfection and with
art. (Sold by the Author in London, 1693.) Containing 20 folio Plates.
With an Introductory Note and Descriptions of the Plates by J. Starkie
Gardner. Folio, bound in boards, old style. Price 25s. net.
Only 150 copies were printed for England, and but 20 now remain. Early
application is therefore necessary to secure copies.
An original copy is priced at £48 in a recent catalogue of Mr. Bernard
Quaritch, the renowned bookseller.
DECORATIVE WROUGHT IRONWORK OF THE 17TH AND 18TH
CENTURIES.—By D. J. Ebbetts. Containing 16 large Lithographic
Plates, illustrating 70 English Examples of Screens, Grilles, Panels,
Balustrades, &c. Folio, boards, cloth back. Price 12s. 6d. Net 10s.
Just Published.
A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF
BRASS REPOUSSÉ FOR AMATEURS.—By Gawthorp (Art Metal
Worker to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales). Second and Enlarged Edition.
With 32 Illustrations, many from photographs of executed designs.
Crown 8vo, in wrapper. Price 1s. net.

EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH MEDIÆVAL FOLIAGE AND
COLOURED DECORATION.—By Jas. K. Colling, Architect,
F.R.I.B.A. Taken from Buildings of the XIIth to the XVth Century.
Containing 76 Lithographic Plates and 79 Woodcut Illustrations, with
Text. Royal 4to, cloth, gilt top. Price 18s., net 15s. (published at £2
2s.).
Published with the Sanction of the Science and Art Department.
FRENCH WOOD CARVINGS FROM THE NATIONAL MUSEUMS.
—A Series of Examples printed in Collotype from Photographs
specially taken from the Carvings direct. Edited by Eleanor Rowe. Part
I. Late 15th and Early 16th Century Examples; Part II. 16th Century;
Part III. 17th and 18th Centuries. The Three Series complete, each
containing 18 large folio Plates, with Descriptive Letterpress. Folio, in
portfolios, price 12s. each net, or handsomely half bound, in one
volume, price £2 5s. net.
“Students of the art of Wood Carving will find a mine of inexhaustible treasures in this series of
illustrations of French Wood Carvings.... Each plate is a work of art in itself; the distribution of
light and shade is admirably managed, and the differences in relief are faithfully indicated, while
every detail is reproduced with a clearness that will prove invaluable to the student.... Sections
are given with several of the plates.”—The Queen.
“Needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the craft, whether archæologically or
practically.”—The Studio.

HINTS ON WOOD CARVING FOR BEGINNERS.—By Eleanor
Rowe, with a Preface by J. H. Pollen. Fourth Edition, revised and
enlarged, Illustrated. 8vo, sewed. Price 1s. in paper covers, or bound in
cloth, price 1s. 6d.
“The most useful and practical small book on Wood Carving we know of.”—Builder.
“ ... Is a useful little book, full of sound directions and good suggestions.”—Magazine of Art.

HINTS ON CHIP CARVING.—(Class Teaching and other Northern
Styles.) By Eleanor Rowe, with a Preface by T. R. Ablett. 40
Illustrations. 8vo, sewed. Price 1s. in paper covers, or in cloth, price 1s.
6d.
“A capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most popular.”—Saturday Review.

DETAILS OF GOTHIC WOOD CARVING.—Being a Series of
Drawings from Original Work of the 14th and 15th Centuries. By

Franklyn A. Crallan. Containing 34 large Photo-lithographic Plates,
illustrating some of the finest specimens of Gothic Wood Carving
extant, with Introductory and Descriptive Text. Large 4to, in handsome
cloth portfolio, or bound in cloth gilt. Price 28s. Net 24s.
“The examples are carefully drawn to a large size ... well selected and very well executed.”—The
Builder.
“This admirable work is one of great interest and value.... Every variety of Gothic detail is here
illustrated. Hitherto no full-sized details have been published, so that the present work will be
invaluable to the wood carver, as the drawings possess all the strength and vigour of the original
work.”—Education.

PROGRESSIVE STUDIES AND DESIGNS FOR WOOD CARVERS.
—By Miss E. R. Plowden. With a Preface by Miss Rowe. Consisting of
seven large folding sheets of Illustrations (drawn full size), of a variety
of objects suitable for Wood Carving. With Descriptive Text. Second
Edition, enlarged. 4to, in portfolio. Price 5s. net.
REMAINS OF ECCLESIASTICAL WOOD-WORK.—A Series of
Examples of Stalls, Screens, Book-Boards, Roofs, Pulpits, &c.,
containing 21 Plates beautifully engraved on Copper, from drawings by
T. Talbot Bury, Archt. 4to, half-bound. Price 10s. 6d., net 8s. 6d.
HEPPLEWHITE’S CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER’S
GUIDE; or Repository of Designs for every article of Household
Furniture in the newest and most approved taste.—A complete
facsimile reproduction of this rare work, containing nearly 300
charming Designs on 128 Plates. Small folio, bound in speckled cloth,
gilt, old style. Price £2 10s. net. (1794.) Original Copies when met with
fetch from £15 to £18.
“A beautiful replica, which every admirer of the author and the period should possess.”—The
Building News.

CHIPPENDALE’S THE GENTLEMAN AND CABINET-MAKER’S
DIRECTOR.—A complete Facsimile of the Third and rarest Edition,
containing 200 Plates of Designs of Chairs, Sofas, Beds and Couches,
Tables, Library Book Cases, Clock Cases, Stove Grates, &c., &c.
Folio, strongly bound in half-cloth. Price £3 15s. net. (1762.)
THE DECORATION OF HOUSES.—By Edith Wharton, and Ogden
Codman, Architect. 204 pages of text, with 56 full-page Photographic

Plates of Views of Rooms, Doors, Ceilings, Fireplaces, various pieces
of Furniture, &c., from the Renaissance period. Large square 8vo, cloth
gilt. Price 12s. 6d. net.
“ ... has illustrations which are beautiful ... because they illustrate the sound and simple principle
of decoration which the authors put forward.... The book is one which should be in the library of
every man and woman of means, for its advice is characterised by so much common sense as
well as by the best of taste.”—The Queen.

OLD CLOCKS AND WATCHES AND THEIR MAKERS.—By F. J.
Britten, Secretary of the Horological Institute. Being an Account of
the History of Clocks and Watches, with a List of 8,000 Old Makers,
with descriptive Notes. Containing over 400 Illustrations, many from
photographs, of choice and curious examples, of Clocks and Watches
of the past, including the finely-ornamented Bracket Clocks of the
XVIIth Century, and the tall cases of the XVIIIth Century. 512 pages.
Demy 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 10s. net.
FLAT ORNAMENT; A Pattern Book for Designers of Textiles,
Embroideries, Wall Papers, Inlays, &c., &c.—150 Plates, some
printed in colours, exhibiting upwards of 500 Examples of Textiles,
Embroideries, Paper Hangings, Tile Pavements, Intarsia Work, &c. By
Dr. Fischbach. Imperial 4to boards, cloth back. Price 25s. Net 20s.
EXAMPLES OF OLD FURNITURE, English and Foreign.—Drawn
and described by Alfred Ernest Chancellor. Containing 40 Photo-
lithographic Plates exhibiting some 100 examples of Elizabethan,
Stuart, Queen Anne, Georgian and Chippendale furniture; and an
interesting variety of Continental work. With historical and descriptive
notes. Large 4to, gilt. Price £1 5s. Net £1 1s.
“In publishing his admirable collection of drawings of old furniture, Mr. Chancellor secures the
gratitude of all admirers of the consummate craftsmanship of the past. His examples are selected
from a variety of sources with fine discrimination, all having an expression and individuality of
their own—qualities that are so conspicuously lacking in the furniture of our own day. It forms a
very acceptable work.”—The Morning Post.

PLASTERING: PLAIN AND DECORATIVE.—A Practical Treatise on
the Art and Craft of Plastering and Modelling. Including full
description of the various Tools, Materials, Processes and Appliances
employed. With over 50 full-page Plates, and about 500 smaller
Illustrations in the Text. By William Millar. With an Introduction of

the History of the Art, by G. T. Robinson, F.S.A. Second Edition. Thick
4to, cloth, containing 600 pages of Text. Price 18s. net.
“This new and in many senses remarkable treatise ... unquestionably contains an immense
amount of valuable first-hand information.... ‘Millar on Plastering’ may be expected to be the
standard authority on the subject for many years to come.... A truly monumental work.”—The
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A GRAMMAR OF JAPANESE ORNAMENT AND DESIGN.—
Illustrated by 65 Plates, many in gold and colours, representing all
classes of Natural and Conventional Forms, drawn from the originals,
with Introductory, Descriptive, and Analytical Text. By T. W. Cutler,
F.R.I.B.A. Imperial 4to, in elegant cloth binding. Price £2 6s. Net £1
18s.
NATIVE PRINTED JAPANESE ART BOOKS.
JAPANESE ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF DESIGN.
Book I.—Containing over 1,500 engraved Curious and most ingenious
Geometric Patterns of Circles, Medallions, &c., comprising
Conventional Details of Plants, Flowers, Leaves, Petals, also Birds,
Fans, Animals, Key Patterns, &c., &c. Oblong 12mo, fancy covers.
Price 2s. net.
Book II.—Containing over 600 most original and effective Designs for
Diaper Ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also Artistic
Miniature Picturesque Sketches. Oblong 12mo, fancy covers. Price 2s.
net.
These books exhibit the varied charm and originality of conception of
Japanese Ornament, and form an inexhaustible field of Design.
A DELIGHTFUL SERIES OF STUDIES OF BIRDS in most
Characteristic and Life-like Attitudes, surrounded with appropriate
Foliage and Flowers.—By the celebrated Japanese Artist, Bairei
Kono. In three Books, 8vo, each containing 36 pages of highly artistic
and decorative Illustrations printed in tints. Bound in fancy paper
covers. Price 10s. net.
These books are of the greatest value to Artists, Screen and China
Painters, Decorators, and Designers in all branches of Art Manufacture,

and of much interest to the admirers of Japanese Art.
“In attitude and gesture and expression, these birds, whether perching or soaring, swooping or
brooding, are admirable.”—Magazine of Art.

JAPANESE STUDIES OF BIRDS AND FLOWERS, A NEW SERIES
OF.—By Watanabe Sietei, the acknowledged leading living Artist in
Japan. 3 volumes, containing numerous exceedingly Artistic Sketches
in various tints, 8vo, fancy covers. Price 10s. net.
“Contain a wealth of exquisite xylographic impressions, which cannot be beaten by any
European attempts.”—The Studio.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY.—A
General View for the use of Students and others. By W. J. Anderson,
A.R.I.B.A., Director of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art. Second
Edition, revised and enlarged. Containing 74 full-page Plates, mostly
reproduced from Photographs, and 98 Illustrations in Text. Large 8vo,
cloth gilt. Price 12s. 6d. net.
“A delightful and scholarly work ... very fully illustrated.”—Journal R.I.B.A.
“It is the work of a scholar taking a large view of his subject.... The book affords easy and
intelligible reading, and the arrangement of the subject is excellent, though this was a matter of
no small difficulty.”—The Times.
“Should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the day.”—The Edinburgh Review.
“We know of no book which furnishes such information and such illustrations in so compact and
attractive a form. For greater excellence with the object in hand there is not one more
perspicuous.”—The Building News.

A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE for the Student, Craftsman and
Amateur.—Being a Comparative View of the Historical Styles from
the Earliest Period. By Banister Fletcher, F.R.I.B.A., Professor of
Architecture in King’s College, London, and B. F. Fletcher,
A.R.I.B.A. Containing upwards of 300 pages, with 115 Collotype
Plates, mostly reproduced from large Photographs, and other
Illustrations in the Text. Third Edition, revised. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt.
Price 12s. 6d. Net 10s.
“We shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognised and adopted as par excellence The
Student’s Manual of the History of Architecture.”—The Architect.

THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE: GREEK, ROMAN AND
ITALIAN.—Selected from Normand’s Parallels, &c. With 4 new Plates

specially prepared. Edited, with Notes, by R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A.,
F.R.I.B.A. Third Edition, with 2 new Plates. Containing in all 26 Plates.
4to, cloth. Price 10s. 6d. Net 8s. 6d.
“A most useful work for architectural students.... Mr. Spiers has done excellent service in editing
this work, and his notes on the plates are very appropriate and useful.”—British Architect.

ARCHITECTURE AMONG THE POETS.—By H. Heathcote Statham.
With 13 Illustrations. Square 8vo, artistically bound. Price 3s. 6d. net.
“This little work does for architecture in relation to English poetry what Mr. Phil Robinson has
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judgments with his reasons, but the whole with a series of fanciful or suggestive sketches which
add considerably to the attractiveness of the book.”—The Magazine of Art.

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT IN SPAIN.—A
Series of Examples selected from the purest executed between the
years 1500-1560. By Andrew N. Prentice, A.R.I.B.A. Containing 60
beautiful Plates, reproduced by Photo-lithography and Photo Process,
from the Author’s Drawings, of Perspective Views and Geometrical
Drawings, and Details, in Stone, Wood, and Metal. With short
Descriptive Text. Folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt. Price £2 10s.
Net £2 2s.
“For the drawing and production of this book one can have no words but praise.... It is a pleasure
to have so good a record of such admirable architectural drawing, free, firm and delicate.”—
British Architect.

B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.

FOOTNOTES:
[A] “The Pagan-Christian Overlap in the North,” by H. Colley March, M.D. (Lond.)
[B] “The seven periods of Church Architecture,” by Edmund Sharpe.
[C] “Gothic Architecture,” by Thomas Rickman.

Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:
Arch of Septimius Severus 21=> Arch of Septimus Severus 21
was the typical forms used=> was the typical form used {pg 23}
from Rome to Byzantine=> from Rome to Byzantium {pg 31}

Girolama della Robbia=> Girolamo della Robbia {pg 81}

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