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Title: Ancient States and Empires

Author: John Lord

Release date: November 1, 2008 [eBook #27114]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27114

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT
STATES AND EMPIRES ***

Ancient States and Empires

For Colleges And Schools

By

John Lord LL.D.
Author of the “Old Roman World”

“Modern History” &c.

New York

Charles Scribner & Company

1869

Contents

PREFACE.
BOOK I. ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS.
CHAPTER I. THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.
CHAPTER II. POSTDILUVIAN HISTORY TO THE CALL OF
ABRAHAM.—THE PATRIARCHAL CONSTITUTION, AND THE
DIVISION OF NATIONS.
CHAPTER III. THE HEBREW RACE FROM ABRAHAM TO THE
SALE OF JOSEPH.
CHAPTER IV. EGYPT AND THE PHARAOHS.
CHAPTER V. THE JEWS UNTIL THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
CHAPTER VI. THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN TO THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF DAVID.
CHAPTER VII. THE JEWISH MONARCHY.
CHAPTER VIII. THE OLD CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN
MONARCHIES.
CHAPTER IX. THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS.
CHAPTER X. ASIA MINOR AND PHŒNICIA.
CHAPTER XI. JEWISH HISTORY FROM THE BABYLONIAN
CAPTIVITY TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST.—THE HIGH PRIESTS
AND THE ASMONEAN AND IDUMEAN KINGS.
CHAPTER XII. THE ROMAN GOVERNORS.
BOOK II. THE GRECIAN STATES.
CHAPTER XIII. THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND
ITS EARLY INHABITANTS.
CHAPTER XIV. THE LEGENDS OF ANCIENT GREECE.
CHAPTER XV. THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES TO THE
PERSIAN WARS.
CHAPTER XVI. GRECIAN CIVILIZATION BEFORE THE
PERSIAN WARS.
CHAPTER XVII. THE PERSIAN WAR.
CHAPTER XVIII. THE AGE OF PERICLES.
CHAPTER XIX. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.

CHAPTER XX. MARCH OF CYRUS AND RETREAT OF THE TEN
THOUSAND GREEKS.
CHAPTER XXI. THE LACEDÆMONIAN EMPIRE.
CHAPTER XXII. THE REPUBLIC OF THEBES.
CHAPTER XXIII. DIONYSIUS AND SICILY.
CHAPTER XXIV. PHILIP OF MACEDON.
CHAPTER XXV. ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
BOOK III. THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
CHAPTER XXVI. ROME IN ITS INFANCY, UNDER KINGS.
CHAPTER XXVII. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC TILL THE
INVASION OF THE GAULS.
CHAPTER XXVIII. THE CONQUEST OF ITALY.
CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR.
CHAPTER XXX. THE SECOND PUNIC OR HANNIBALIC WAR.
CHAPTER XXXI. THE MACEDONIAN AND ASIATIC WARS.
CHAPTER XXXII. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR.
CHAPTER XXXIII. ROMAN CONQUESTS FROM THE FALL OF
CARTHAGE TO THE TIMES OF THE GRACCHI.
CHAPTER XXXIV. ROMAN CIVILIZATION AT THE CLOSE OF
THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND THE FALL OF GREECE.
CHAPTER XXXV. THE REFORM MOVEMENT OF THE
GRACCHI.
CHAPTER XXXVI. THE WARS WITH JUGURTHA AND THE
CIMBRI.—MARIUS.
CHAPTER XXXVII. THE REVOLT OF ITALY, AND THE SOCIAL
WAR.—MARIUS AND SULLA.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE MITHRIDATIC AND CIVIL WARS.—
MARIUS AND SULLA.
CHAPTER XXXIX. ROME FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO
THE GREAT CIVIL WARS OF CÆSAR AND POMPEY.—CICERO,
POMPEY, AND CÆSAR.
CHAPTER XL. THE CIVIL WARS BETWEEN CÆSAR AND
POMPEY.
CHAPTER XLI. THE CIVIL WARS FOLLOWING THE DEATH OF
CÆSAR.—ANTONIUS.—AUGUSTUS.
CHAPTER XLII. THE ROMAN EMPIRE ON THE ACCESSION OF
AUGUSTUS.

CHAPTER XLIII. THE SIX CÆSARS OF THE JULIAN LINE.
CHAPTER XLIV. THE CLIMAX OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
CHAPTER XLV. THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE.
CHAPTER XLVI. THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE.
Advertisements.
Footnotes

[pg 003]

PREFACE.

This work is designed chiefly for educational purposes, since there is still
felt the need of some book, which, within moderate limits, shall give a
connected history of the ancient world.

The author lays no claim to original investigation in so broad a field. He
simply has aimed to present the salient points—the most important events
and characters of four thousand years, in a connected narrative, without
theories or comments, and without encumbering the book with details of
comparatively little interest. Most of the ancient histories for schools, have
omitted to notice those great movements to which the Scriptures refer; but
these are here briefly presented, since their connection with the Oriental
world is intimate and impressive, and ought not to be [pg 004] omitted,
even on secular grounds. What is history without a Divine Providence?

In the preparation of this work, the author has been contented with the last
standard authorities, which he has merely simplified, abridged, and
condensed, being most indebted to Rawlinson, Grote, Thirlwall, Niebuhr,

Mommsen, and Merivale,—following out the general plan of Philip Smith,
whose admirable digest, in three large octavos, is too extensive for schools.

Although the author has felt warranted in making a free use of his materials,
it will be seen that the style, arrangement, and reflections are his own. If the
book prove useful, his object will be attained.

Stamford October, 1869.

[pg 013]

BOOK I.

ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS.

CHAPTER I.

THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.

The history of this world begins, according to the chronology of
Archbishop Ussher, which is generally received as convenient
The rather than probable, in the year 4004 before Christ. In six days
Creation. God created light and darkness, day and night, the firmament and
the continents in the midst of the waters, fruits, grain, and herbs,
moon and stars, fowl and fish, living creatures upon the face of the
earth, and finally man, with dominion “over the fish of the sea, and the
fowls of the air, and cattle, and all the earth, and every creeping thing that
creepeth upon the earth.” He created man in his own image, and blessed
him with universal dominion. He formed him from the dust of the ground,
and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. On the seventh day, God
rested from this vast work of creation, and blessed the seventh day and
sanctified it, as we suppose, for a day of solemn observance for all
generations.

He there planted a garden eastward in Eden, with every tree
pleasant to the sight and good for food, and there placed man to
The dress and keep it. The original occupation of man, and his destined
garden ofhappiness, were thus centered in agricultural labor.
Eden.
[pg 014]

But man was alone; so God caused a deep sleep to fall upon him,
and took one of his ribs and made a woman. And Adam said, “this
Adam andwoman,” which the Lord had brought unto him, “is bone of my
Eve. bone, and flesh of my flesh; therefore shall a man leave his father
and mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one
flesh.” Thus marriage was instituted. We observe three divine
institutions while man yet remained in a state of innocence and bliss—the
Sabbath; agricultural employment; and marriage.

Adam and his wife lived, we know not how long, in the garden of
Eden, with perfect innocence, bliss, and dominion. They did not
Primeval even know what sin was. There were no other conditions imposed
Paradise. upon them than they were not to eat of the fruit of the tree of
knowledge of good and evil, which was in the midst of the garden
—a preeminently goodly tree, “pleasant to the eyes, and one to be
desired.”

Where was this garden—this paradise—located? This is a mooted
question—difficult to be answered. It lay, thus far as we know, at
Situation the head waters of four rivers, two of which were the Euphrates and
of Eden. the Tigris. We infer thence, that it was situated among the
mountains of Armenia, south of the Caucasus, subsequently the
cradle of the noblest races of men,—a temperate region, in the
latitude of Greece and Italy.

We suppose that the garden was beautiful and fruitful, beyond all
subsequent experience—watered by mists from the earth, and not
Glory ofby rains from the clouds, ever fresh and green, while its two noble
Eden. occupants lived upon its produce, directly communing with God, in
whose image they were made, moral and spiritual—free from all
sin and misery, and, as we may conjecture, conversant with truth in
its loftiest forms.

But sin entered into the beautiful world that was made, and death by sin.
This is the first recorded fact in human history, next to primeval innocence
and happiness.

[pg 015]

The progenitors of the race were tempted, and did not resist the
temptation. The form of it may have been allegorical and symbolic;
The but, as recorded by Moses, was yet a stupendous reality, especially
temptation in view of its consequences.
.
The tempter was the devil—the antagonist of God—the
evil power of the world—the principle of evil—a Satanic
The Devil. agency which Scripture, and all nations, in some form,

have recognized. When rebellion against God began, we do not know; but it
certainly existed when Adam was placed in Eden.

The form which Satanic power assumed was a serpent—then the
most subtle of the beasts of the field, and we may reasonably
His suppose, not merely subtle, but attractive, graceful, beautiful,
assumptio bewitching.
n of the
form of a The first to feel its evil fascination was the woman, and she
serpent. was induced to disobey what she knew to be a direct
The command, by the desire of knowledge as well as
disobedien enjoyment of the appetite. She put trust in the serpent. She
ce of Eve. believed a lie. She was beguiled.

The man was not directly beguiled by the serpent.
Why the serpent assailed woman rather than man,
The Fall ofthe Scriptures do not say. The man yielded to his
Adam. wife. “She gave him the fruit, and he did eat.”

Immediately a great change came over
both. Their eyes were opened. They felt
The effect. shame and remorse, for they had sinned.
They hid themselves from the presence of
the Lord, and were afraid.

God pronounced the penalty—unto the woman, the pains and
sorrows attending childbirth, and subserviency to her husband; unto
The the man labor, toil, sorrow—the curse of the ground which he was
penalty. to till—thorns and thistles—no rest, and food obtained only by the
sweat of the brow; and all these pains and labors were inflicted
upon both until they should return to the dust from whence they
were taken—an eternal decree, never abrogated, to last as long as man
should till the earth, or woman bring forth children.

[pg 016]

Thus came sin into the world, through the temptations of introduction Satan
and the weakness of man, with the penalty of labour, pain, sorrow, and

death.

Introductio Man was expelled from Paradise, and precluded from re-
n of sin. entering it by the flaming sword of cherubim, until the
Expulsion locality of Eden, by thorns and briars, and the deluge, was
from obliterated forever. And man and woman were sent out into
paradise. the world to reap the fruit of their folly and sin, and to gain
their subsistence in severe toil, and amid, the accumulated
evils which sin introduced.

The only mitigation of the sentence was the eternal enmity between
the seed of the woman and the seed of the Serpent, in which the
The final victory should be given to the former. The rite of sacrifice was
mitigation introduced as a type of the satisfaction for sin by the death of a
of thesubstitute for the sinner; and thus a hope of final forgiveness held
punishmen out for sin, Meanwhile the miseries of life were alleviated by the
t. fruits of labor, by industry.

Industry, then, became, on the expulsion from Eden, one of
the final laws of human happiness on earth, while the
Industry— sacrifice held out hopes of eternal life by the substitution
one of thewhich the sacrifice typified—the Saviour who was in due
fundament time to appear.
al
conditions With the expulsion from Eden came the sad conflicts of the
of life. race—conflicts with external wickedness—conflicts with
the earth—conflicts with evil passions in a man's own soul.

The first conflict was between Cain, the husbandman, and Abel, the
shepherd; the representatives of two great divisions of the human
Cain andfamily in the early ages. Cain killed Abel because the offering of
Abel. the latter was preferred to that of the former. The virtue of Abel was
faith: the sin of Cain was jealousy, pride, resentment, and despair.
The punishment of Cain was expulsion from his father's house, the
further curse of the land for him, and the hatred of the human family. He
relinquished his occupation, became a wanderer, and gained a precarious
support, while his descendants invented arts and built cities.

[pg 017]

Eve bear another son—Seth, among whose descendants the
worship of God was preserved for a long time; but the descendants
The of Seth intermarried finally with the descendants of Cain, from
descendant whom sprung a race of lawless men, so that the earth was filled
s of Cain. with violence. The material civilization which the descendants of
Cain introduced did not preserve them from moral degeneracy. So
great was the increasing wickedness, with the growth of the race,
that “it repented the Lord that he had made man,” and he resolved to
destroy the whole race, with the exception of one religious family, and
change the whole surface of the earth by a mighty flood, which should
involve in destruction all animals and fowls of the air—all the antediluvian
works of man.

It is of no consequence to inquire whether the Deluge was universal
or partial—whether it covered the whole earth or the existing
The habitations of men. All were destroyed by it, except Noah, and his
deluge. wife, and his three sons, with their wives. The authenticity of the
fact rests with Moses, and with him we are willing to leave it.

This dreadful catastrophe took place in the 600th year of Noah's
life, and 2349 years before Christ, when world was 1655 years old,
The according to Usshur, but much older according to Hale and other
probable authorities—when more time had elapsed than from the Deluge to
condition the reign of Solomon. And hence there were more people
of thedestroyed, in all probability, than existed on the earth in the time of
antediluvia Solomon. And as men lived longer in those primeval times than
n world. subsequently, and were larger and stronger, “for there were giants
in those days,” and early invented tents, the harp, the organ, and
were artificers in brass and iron, and built cities—as they were full
of inventions as well as imaginations, it is not unreasonable to infer, though
we can not know with certainty, that the antediluvian world was more
splendid and luxurious than the world in the time of Solomon and Homer—
the era of the Pyramids of Egypt.

[pg 018]

The art of building was certainly then carried to considerable
perfection, for the ark, which Noah built, was four hundred and
The ark. fifty feet long, seventy-five wide, and forty-five deep; and was
constructed so curiously as to hold specimens of all known animals
and birds, with provisions for them for more than ten months.

This sacred ark or ship, built of gopher wood, floated on the world's
waves, until, in the seventh month, it rested upon the mountains of
The Ararat. It was nearly a year before Noah ventured from the ark. His
Divine first act, after he issued forth, was to build an altar and offer
covenant sacrifice to the God who had preserved him and his family alone,
with Noah. of the human race. And the Lord was well pleased, and made a
covenant with him that he would never again send a like
destruction upon the earth, and as a sign and seal of the covenant
which he made with all flesh, he set his bow in the cloud. We hence infer
that the primeval world was watered by mists from the earth, like the
garden of Eden, and not by rains.

“The memory of the Deluge is preserved in the traditions of nearly
all nations, as well as in the narrative of Moses; and most heathen
The mythologies have some kind of sacred ark.” Moreover, there are
tradition ofvarious geological phenomena in all parts of the world, which can
the deluge. not be accounted for on any other ground than some violent
disruption produced by a universal Deluge. The Deluge itself can
not be explained, although there are many ingenious theories to
show it might be in accordance with natural causes. The Scriptures allude to
it as a supernatural event, for an express end. When the supernatural power
of God can be disproved, then it will be time to explain the Deluge by
natural causes, or deny it altogether. The Christian world now accepts it as
Moses narrates it.

[pg 019]

CHAPTER II.

POSTDILUVIAN HISTORY TO THE CALL OF
ABRAHAM.—THE PATRIARCHAL
CONSTITUTION, AND THE DIVISION OF
NATIONS.

When Noah and his family issued from the ark, they were blessed
by God. They were promised a vast posterity, dominion over
The nature, and all animals for food, as well as the fruits of the earth.
Noachic But new laws were imposed, against murder, and against the eating
Code. of blood. An authority was given to the magistrate to punish
murder. “Whosoever sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood
be shed.” This was not merely a penalty, but a prediction. The
sacredness of life, and the punishment for murder are equally asserted, and
asserted with peculiar emphasis. This may be said to be the Noachic Code,
afterward extended by Moses. From that day to this, murder has been
accounted the greatest human crime, and has been the most severely
punished. On the whole, this crime has been the rarest in the subsequent
history of the world, although committed with awful frequency, but seldom
till other crimes are exhausted. The sacredness of life is the greatest of
human privileges.

The government was patriarchal. The head of a family had almost
unlimited power. And this government was religious as well as
Patriarchal civil. The head of the family was both priest and king. He erected
constitutio altars and divided inheritances. He ruled his sons, even if they had
ns. wives and children. And as the old patriarchs lived to a great age,
their authority extended over several generations and great numbers
of people.

[pg 020]

Noah pursued the life of a husbandman, and planted vines, probably like the
antediluvians. Nor did he escape the shame of drunkenness, though we have
no evidence it was an habitual sin.

From this sin and shame great consequences followed. Noah was
indecently exposed. The second son made light of it; the two others
Consequen covered up the nakedness of their father. For this levity Ham was
ces of thecursed in his children. Canaan, his son, was decreed to be a servant
sin ofof servants—the ancestor of the races afterward exterminated by
Noah. the Jews. To Shem, for his piety, was given a special religious
blessing. Through him all the nations of the earth were blessed. To
Japhet was promised especial temporal prosperity, and a
participation of the blessing of Shem, The European races are now reaping
this prosperity, and the religious privileges of Christianity.

Four generations passed without any signal event. They all spoke
the same language, and pursued the same avocations. They lived in
Settlement Armenia, but gradually spread over the surrounding countries and
s of hisespecially toward the west and south. They journeyed to the land of
descendant Shinar, and dwelt on its fertile plains. This was the great level of
s. Lower Mesopotamia, or Chaldea, watered by the Euphrates.

Here they built a city, and aspired to build a tower which
should reach unto the heavens. It was vanity and pride
The Towerwhich incited them,—also fear lest they should be
of Babel. scattered.

We read that Nimrod—one of the descendants of
Ham—a mighty hunter, had migrated to this plain,
Nimrod. and set up a kingdom at Babel—perhaps a revolt
against patriarchal authority. Here was a great
settlement—perhaps the central seat of the
descendants of Noah, where Nimrod—the strongest man of his times—
usurped dominion. Under his auspices the city was built—a stronghold
from which he would defy all other powers. Perhaps here he [pg 021]
instituted idolatry, since a tower was also a temple. But, whether fear or
ambition or idolatry prompted the building of Babel, it displeased the Lord.

The punishment which he inflicted upon the builders was confusion
of tongues. The people could not understand each other, and were
The obliged to disperse. The tower was left unfinished. The Lord
Confusion “scattered the people abroad upon the face of all the earth.”
of tongues. Probably some remained at Babel, on the Euphrates—the
forefathers of the Israelites when they dwelt in Chaldea. It is not
probable that every man spoke a different language, but that there
was a great division of language, corresponding with the great division of
families, so that the posterity of Shem took one course, that of Japhet
another, and that of Ham the third—dividing themselves into three separate
nations, each speaking substantially the same tongue, afterward divided into
different dialects from their peculiar circumstances.

Much learning and ingenuity have been expended in tracing the
different races and languages of the earth to the grand confusion of
Dispersion Babel. But the subject is too complicated, and in the present state of
of nations. science, too unsatisfactory to make it expedient to pursue
ethnological and philological inquiries in a work so limited as this.
We refer students to Max Muller, and other authorities.

But that there was a great tripartite division of the human family
can not be doubted. The descendants of Japhet occupied a great
The zone running from the high lands of Armenia to the southeast, into
settlement the table-lands of Iran, and to Northern India, and to the west into
s of theThrace, the Grecian peninsula, and Western Europe. And all the
children ofnations which subsequently sprung from the children of Japhet,
Japhet. spoke languages the roots of which bear a striking affinity. This can
be proved. The descendants of Japhet, supposed to be the oldest son
of Noah, possessed the fairest lands of the world—most favorable
to development and progress—most favorable to ultimate supremacy. They
[pg 022] composed the great Caucasian race, which spread over Northern
and Western Asia, and over Europe—superior to other races in personal
beauty and strength, and also intellectual force. From the times of the Greek
and Romans this race has held the supremacy of the world, as was predicted
to Noah. “God shall enlarge Japhet, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem,
and Canaan shall be his servant.” The conquest of the descendants of Ham
by the Greeks and Romans, and their slavery, attest the truth of Scripture.

The descendants of Shem occupied another belt or zone. It
extended from the southeastern part of Asia Minor to the Persian
The Gulf and the peninsula of Arabia. The people lived in tents, were
settlement not ambitious of conquest, were religious and contemplative. The
s of thegreat theogonies of the East came from this people. They studied
descendant the stars. They meditated on God and theological questions. They
s of Shem. were a chosen race with whom sacred history dwells. They had,
compared with other races, a small territory between the
possessions of Japhet on the north, and that of Ham on the south.
Their destiny was not to spread over the world, but to exhibit the dealings
of God's providence. From this race came the Jews and the Messiah. The
most enterprising of the descendants of Shem were the Phœnicians, who
pursued commerce on a narrow strip of the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean, and who colonized Carthage and North Africa, but were not
powerful enough to contend successfully with the Romans in political
power.

The most powerful of the posterity of Noah were the descendants
of Ham, for more than two thousand years, since they erected great
The monarchies, and were warlike, aggressive, and unscrupulous. They
descendant lived in Egypt, Ethiopia, Palestine, and the countries around the
s of Ham. Red Sea. They commenced their empire in Babel, on the great plain
of Babylonia, and extended it northward into the land of Asshur
(Assyria). They built the great cities of Antioch, Rehoboth, Calah
and Resen. Their empire was the oldest in the world—that established by a
Cushite [pg 023] dynasty on the plains of Babylon, and in the highlands of
Persia. They cast off the patriarchal law, and indulged in a restless passion
for dominion. And they were the most civilized of the ancient nations in arts
and material life. They built cities and monuments of power. These temples,
their palaces, their pyramids were the wonders of the ancient world. Their
grand and somber architecture lasted for centuries. They were the wickedest
of the nations of the earth, and effeminacy, pride and sensuality followed
naturally from their material civilization unhallowed by high religious
ideas. They were hateful conquerors and tyrants, and yet slaves. They were
permitted to prosper until their vices wrought out their own destruction, and
they became finally subservient to the posterity of Japhet. But among some
of the descendants of Ham civilization never advanced. The negro race of

Africa ever has been degraded and enslaved. It has done nothing to advance
human society. None of these races, even the most successful, have left
durable monuments of intellect or virtue: they have left gloomy monuments
of tyrannical and physical power. The Babylonians and Egyptians laid the
foundation of some of the sciences and arts, but nothing remains at the
present day which civilization values.

How impressive and august the ancient prophecy to Noah! How strikingly
have all the predictions been fulfilled! These give to history an imperishable
interest and grandeur.

[pg 024]

CHAPTER III.

THE HEBREW RACE FROM ABRAHAM TO THE
SALE OF JOSEPH.

We postpone the narrative of the settlements and empires which
grew up on the banks of the Euphrates and the Nile, the oldest
Abram. monarchies, until we have contemplated the early history of the
Jews—descended from one of the children of Shem. This is not in
chronological order, but in accordance with the inimitable history
of Moses. The Jews did not become a nation until four hundred and thirty
years after the call of Abram—and Abram was of the tenth generation from
Noah. When he was born, great cities existed in Babylon, Canaan, and
Egypt, and the descendants of Ham were the great potentates of earth. The
children of Shem were quietly living in tents, occupied with agriculture and
the raising of cattle. Those of Japhet were exploring all countries with
zealous enterprise, and founding distant settlements—adventurers in quest
of genial climates and fruitful fields.

Abram was born in Ur, a city of the Chaldeans, in the year 1996 before
Christ—supposed by some to be the Edessa of the Greeks, and by others to
be a great maritime city on the right bank of the Euphrates near its
confluence with the Tigris.

From this city his father Terah removed with his children and kindred to
Haran, and dwelt there. It was in Mesopotamia—a rich district, fruitful in
pasturage. Here Abram remained until he was 75, and had become rich.

While sojourning in this fruitful plain the Lord said unto him, “get
thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father's
The house, unto a land which I will show [pg 025] thee.” “And I will
wandering make thee a great nation, and will bless thee, and make thy name
s andgreat, and thou shalt be a blessing. And I will bless them that bless
settlement thee, and curse him that curseth thee. And in thee shall all the

s offamilies of the earth be blessed.” So Abram departed with Lot, his
Abraham. nephew, and Sarai, his wife, with all his cattle and substance, to the
land of Canaan, then occupied by that Hamite race which had
probably proved unfriendly to his family in Chaldea. We do not
know by what route he passed the Syrian desert, but he halted at Shechem,
situated in a fruitful valley, one of the passes of the hills from Damascus to
Canaan. He then built an altar to the Lord, probably among an idolatrous
people. From want of pasturage, or some cause not explained, he removed
from thence into a mountain on the east of Bethel, between that city and
Hai, or Ai, when he again erected an altar, and called upon the living God.
But here he did not long remain, being driven by a famine to the fertile land
of Egypt, then ruled by the Pharaohs, whose unscrupulous character he
feared, and which tempted him to practice an unworthy deception, yet in
accordance with profound worldly sagacity. It was the dictate of expediency
rather than faith. He pretended that Sarai was his sister, and was well treated
on her account by the princes of Egypt, and not killed, as he feared he
would be if she was known to be his wife. The king, afflicted by great
plagues in consequence of his attentions to this beautiful woman, sent
Abram away, after a stern rebuke for the story he had told, with all his
possessions.

The patriarch returned to Canaan, enriched by the princes of Egypt,
and resumed his old encampment near Bethel. But there was not
The enough pasturage for his flocks, united with those of Lot. So, with
separation magnanimous generosity, disinclined to strife or greed, he gave his
of nephew the choice of lands, but insisted on a division. “Is not the
Abraham whole land before thee,” said he: “Separate thyself, I pray thee: if
and Lot. thou wilt take the left hand, I will go to the right, and if thou depart
to the right [pg 026] hand, then I will go to the left.” The children
of Ham and of Japhet would have quarreled, and one would have
got the ascendency over the other. Not so with the just and generous
Shemite—the reproachless model of all oriental virtues, if we may forget
the eclipse of his fair name in Egypt.

Lot chose, as was natural, the lower valley of the Jordan, a fertile
and well-watered plain, but near the wicked cities of the
The Canaanites, which lay in the track of the commerce between
settlement

Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and the East. The worst vices of antiquity
s of Lot.
prevailed among them, and Lot subsequently realized, by a painful
experience, the folly of seeking, for immediate good, such an
accursed neighborhood.

Abram was contented with less advantages among the hills, and after a
renewed blessing from the Lord, removed his tents to the plain of Mamre,
near Hebron, one of the oldest cities of the world.

The first battle that we read of in history was fought between the
Chaldean monarch and the kings of the five cities of Canaan, near
The firstto the plain which Lot had selected. The kings were vanquished,
recorded and, in the spoliation which ensued, Lot himself and his cattle were
battle incarried away by Chederlaomer.
history.
The news reached Abram in time for him to pursue the
Chaldean king with his trained servants, three hundred and
The eighteen in number. In a midnight attack the Chaldeans
victory ofwere routed, since a panic was created, and Lot was
Abraham. rescued, with all his goods, from which we infer that
Abram was a powerful chieftain, and was also assisted
directly by God, as Joshua subsequently was in his unequal
contest with the Canaanites.

The king of Sodom, in gratitude, went out to meet him on his return
from the successful encounter, and also the king of Salem,
Melchized Melchizedek, with bread and wine. This latter was probably of the
ek. posterity of Shem, since he was also a priest of the most high God,
He blessed Abram, and gave him tithes, which Abram accepted.

[pg 027]

But Abram would accept nothing from the king of Sodom—not
even to a shoe-latchet—from patriarchal pride, or disinclination to
The pridehave any intercourse with idolators. But he did not prevent his
of young warriors from eating his bread in their hunger. It was not the
Abraham. Sodomites he wished to rescue, but Lot, his kinsman and friend.

Abram, now a powerful chieftain and a rich man, well advanced in
years, had no children, in spite of the promise of God that he
His should be the father of nations. His apparent heir was his chief
prospects. servant, or steward, Elizur, of Damascus. He then reminds the Lord
of the promise, and the Lord renewed the covenant, and Abram
rested in faith.

Not so his wife Sarai. Skeptical that from herself should come the
promised seed, she besought Abram to make a concubine or wife of
Hagar. her Egyptian maid, Hagar. Abram listens to her, and grants her
request. Sarai is then despised by the woman, and lays her
complaint before her husband. Abram delivers the concubine into
the hands of the jealous and offended wife, who dealt hardly with her, so
that she fled to the wilderness. Thirsty and miserable, she was found by an
angel, near to a fountain of water, who encouraged her by the promise that
her child should be the father of a numerous nation, but counseled her to
return to Sarai, and submit herself to her rule. In due time the child was
born, and was called Ishmael—destined to be a wild man, with whom the
world should be at enmity. Abram was now eighty-six years of age.

Fourteen years later the Lord again renewed his covenant that he
should be the father of many nations, who should possess forever
The the land of Canaan. His name was changed to Abraham (father of a
renewed multitude), and Sarai's was changed to Sarah. The Lord promised
Covenant that from Sarah should come the predicted blessing. The patriarch
with is still incredulous, and laughs within himself; but God renews the
Abraham. promise, and henceforth Abraham believes, [pg 028] and, as a test
of his faith, he institutes, by divine direction, the rite of
circumcision to Ishmael and all the servants and slaves of his
family—even those “bought with money of the stranger.”

In due time, according to prediction, Sarah gave birth to Isaac, who
was circumcised on the eighth day, when Abraham was 100 years
The birthold. Ishmael, now a boy of fifteen, made a mockery of the event,
of Isaac. whereupon Sarah demanded that the son of the bondwoman, her
slave, should be expelled from the house, with his mother.
Abraham was grieved also, and, by divine counsel, they were both

sent away, with some bread and a bottle of water. The water was soon
expended in the wilderness of Beersheba, and Hagar sat down in despair
and wept. God heard her lamentations, and she opened her eyes and saw
that she was seated near a well. The child was preserved, and dwelt in the
wilderness of Paran, pursuing the occupation of an archer, or huntsman, and
his mother found for him a wife out of the land of Egypt. He is the ancestor
of the twelve tribes of Bedouin Arabs, among whom the Hamite blood
predominated.

Meanwhile, as Abraham dwelt on the plains of Mamre, the
destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah took place, because not ten
The righteous persons could be found therein. But Lot was rescued by
destruction angels, and afterward dwelt in a cave, for fear, his wife being
of Sodom. turned into a pillar of salt for daring to look back on the burning
cities. He lived with his two daughters, who became the guilty
mothers of the Moabites and the Ammonites, who settled on the
hills to the east of Jordan and the Dead Sea.

Before the birth of Isaac, Abraham removed to the South, and dwelt
in Gerah, a city of the Philistines, and probably for the same reason
The that he had before sought the land of Egypt. But here the same
duplicity difficulty occurred as in Egypt. The king, Abimelech, sent and took
of Sarah, supposing she was merely Abraham's sister; and Abraham
Abraham. equivocated and deceived in this instance to save [pg 029] his own
life. But the king, warned by God in a dream, restored unto
Abraham his wife, and gave him sheep, oxen, men servants and
women servants, and one thousand pieces of silver, for he knew he was a
prophet. In return Abraham prayed for him, and removed from him and his
house all impediments for the growth of his family. The king, seeing how
Abraham was prospered, made a covenant with him, so that the patriarch
lived long among the Philistines, worshiping “the everlasting God.”

Then followed the great trial of his faith, when requested to
sacrifice Isaac. And when he was obedient to the call, and did not
The Trialwithhold his son, his only son, from the sacrificial knife, having
of faith that his seed should still possess the land of Canaan, he was
Abraham.

again blessed, and in the most emphatic language. After this he dwelt in
Beersheba.

At the age of 120 Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased of
Ephron the Hittite, the cave of Machpelah, with a field near
Death ofMamre, for four hundred shekels of silver, in which he buried his
Sarah. wife.

Shortly after, he sought a wife for Isaac. But he would not
accept any of the daughters of the Canaanites, among
The whom he dwelt, but sent his eldest and most trusted servant
marriage to Mesopotamia, with ten loaded camels, to secure one of
of Isaac. his own people. Rebekah, the grand-daughter of Nahor, the
brother of Abraham, was the favored damsel whom the
Lord provided. Her father and brother accepted the
proposal of Abraham's servant, and loaded with presents, jewels of silver
and jewels of gold, and raiment, the Mesopotamian lady departed from her
country and her father's house, with the benediction of the whole family.
“Be thou the mother of thousands of millions, and let thy seed possess the
gate of those which hate them.” Thus was “Isaac comforted after his
mother's death.”

Abraham married again, and had five sons by Keturah; but, in his
life-time, he gave all he had unto Isaac, except [pg 030] some gifts
Second to his other children, whom he sent away, that they might not
marriage dispute the inheritance with Isaac. He died at a good old age, 175
of years, and was buried by his sons, Isaac and Ishmael, in the cave of
Abraham. Machpelah, which had been purchased of the sons of Heth. Isaac
thus became the head of the house, with princely possessions,
living near a well.

But a famine arose, as in the days of his father, and he went to
Gerar, and not to Egypt. He, however, was afraid to call Rebekah
He his wife, for the same reason that Abraham called Sarah his sister.
deceives But the king happening from his window to see Isaac “sporting
the with Rebekah,” knew he had been deceived, yet abstained from
Philistines. taking her, and even loaded Isaac with new favors, so that he
became very great and rich—so much so that the Philistines envied

him, and maliciously filled up the wells which Abraham had dug. Here
again he was befriended by Abimelech, who saw that the Lord was with
him, and a solemn covenant of peace was made between them, and new
wells were dug.

Isaac, it seems, led a quiet and peaceful life—averse to all strife
with the Canaanites, and gradually grew very rich. He gave no
The evidence of remarkable strength of mind, and was easily deceived.
affliction His greatest affliction was the marriage of his eldest and favorite
of Isaac. son Esau with a Hittite woman, and it was probably this mistake
and folly which confirmed the superior fortunes of Jacob.

Esau was a hunter. On returning one day from hunting he was faint
from hunger, and cast a greedy eye on some pottage that Jacob had
Jacob andprepared. But Jacob would not give his hungry brother the food
Esau. until he had promised, by a solemn oath, to surrender his birthright
to him. The clever man of enterprise, impulsive and passionate,
thought more, for the moment, of the pangs of hunger than of his
future prospects, and the quiet, plain, and cunning man of tents availed
himself of his brother's rashness.

[pg 031]

But the birthright was not secure to Jacob without his father's
blessing. So he, with his mother's contrivance, for he was her
Jacob favorite, deceived his father, and appeared to be Esau. Isaac, old
obtains theand dim and credulous, supposing that Jacob, clothed in Esau's
birthright. vestments as a hunter, and his hands covered with skins, was his
The eldest son, blessed him. The old man still had doubts, but Jacob
despair offalsely declared that he was Esau, and obtained what he wanted.
Esau. When Esau returned from the hunt he saw what Jacob had done,
and his grief was bitter and profound. He cried out in his agony,
“Bless me even me, also, O my father.” And Isaac said: “Thy
brother came with subtilty, and hath taken away thy blessing.” And Esau
said, “Is he not rightly named Jacob—that is, a supplanter—for he hath
supplanted me these two times: he took away my birthright, and behold
now he hath taken away my blessing.” “And he lifted up his voice and
wept.” Isaac, then moved, declared that his dwelling should be the fatness

of the earth, even though he should serve his brother,—that he should live
by the sword, and finally break the yoke from off his neck. This was all
Esau could wring from his father. He hated Jacob with ill-concealed
resentment, as was to be expected, and threatened to kill him on his father's
death. Rebekah advised Jacob to flee to his uncle, giving as an excuse to
Isaac, that he sought a wife in Mesopotamia. This pleased Isaac, who
regarded a marriage with a Canaanite as the greatest calamity. So he again
gave him his blessing, and advised him to select one of the daughters of
Laban for his wife. And Jacob departed from his father's house, and escaped
the wrath of Esau. But Esau, seeing that his Hittite wife was offensive to his
father, married also one of the daughters of Ishmael, his cousin.

Jacob meanwhile pursued his journey. Arriving at a certain place
after sunset, he lay down to sleep, with stones for his pillow, and he
Jacob's dreamed that a ladder set up on the earth reached the heavens, on
wandering which the angels of God ascended [pg 032] and descended, and
s. above it was the Lord himself, the God of his father, who renewed
all the promises that had been made to Abraham of the future
prosperity of his house. He then continued his journey till he
arrived in Haran, by the side of a well. Thither Rachel, the daughter of
Laban, came to draw water for the sheep she tended. Jacob rolled away the
stone from the mouth of the well, and watered her flock, and kissed her, and
wept, for he had found in his cousin his bride. He then told her who he was,
and she ran and told her father that his nephew had come, Isaac's son, and
Laban was filled with joy, and kissed Jacob and brought him to his house,
where he dwelt a month as a guest.

An agreement was then made that Jacob should serve Laban seven
years, and receive in return for his services his youngest daughter
He servedRachel, whom he loved. But Laban deceived him, and gave him
Laban. Leah instead, and Jacob was compelled to serve another seven
years before he obtained her. Thus he had two wives, the one
tender-eyed, the other beautiful. But he loved Rachel and hated
Leah.

Jacob continued to serve Laban until he was the father of eleven sons and a
daughter, and then desired to return to his own country. But Laban,

unwilling to lose so profitable a son-in-law, raised obstacles. Jacob,
in the mean time, became rich, although his flocks and herds were
The obtained by a sharp bargain, which he turned to his own account.
quarrel The envy of Laban's sons was the result. Laban also was alienated,
with whereupon Jacob fled, with his wives and children and cattle.
Laban. Laban pursued, overtook him, and after an angry altercation, in
which Jacob recounted his wrongs during twenty years of
servitude, and Laban claimed every thing as his—daughters,
children and cattle, they made a covenant on a heap of stones not to pass
either across it for the other's harm, and Laban returned to his home and
Jacob went on his way.

But Esau, apprised of the return of his brother, came out [pg 033]
of Edom against him with four hundred men. Jacob was afraid, and
Meeting ofsought to approach Esau with presents. The brothers met, but
Esau andwhether from fraternal impulse or by the aid of God, they met
Jacob. affectionately, and fell into each other's arms and wept. Jacob
offered his presents, which Esau at first magnanimously refused to
take, but finally accepted: peace was restored, and Jacob continued
his journey till he arrived in Thalcom—a city of Shechem, in the land of
Canaan, where he pitched his tent and erected an altar.

Here he was soon brought into collision with the people of Shechem, whose
prince had inflicted a great wrong. Levi and Simeon avenged it, and the city
was spoiled.

Jacob, perhaps in fear of the other Amorites, retreated to Bethel,
purged his household of all idolatry, and built an altar, and God
Jacob inagain appeared to him, blessed him and changed his name to Israel.
Bethel.
Soon after, Rachel died, on the birth of her son, Benjamin,
and Jacob came to see his father in Mamre, now 180 years
Death ofof age, and about to die. Esau and Jacob buried him in the
Rachel. cave of Machpelah.

Esau dwelt in Edom, the progenitor of a long line of dukes
or princes. The seat of his sovereignty was Mount Seir.

Jacob continued to live in Hebron—a patriarchal prince, rich in
cattle, and feared by his neighbors. His favorite son was Joseph,
The sale ofand his father's partiality excited the envy of the other sons. They
Joseph. conspired to kill him, but changed their purpose through the
influence of Reuben, and cast him into a pit in the wilderness.
While he lay there, a troop of Ishmaelites appeared, and to them, at
the advice of Judah, they sold him as a slave, but pretended to their father
that he was slain by wild beasts, and produced, in attestation, his lacerated
coat of colors. The Ishmaelites carried Joseph to Egypt, and sold him to
Potaphar, captain of Pharaoh's guard. Before we follow his fortunes, we will
turn our attention to the land whence he was carried.

[pg 034]

CHAPTER IV.

EGYPT AND THE PHARAOHS.

The first country to which Moses refers, in connection with the
Hebrew history, is Egypt. This favored land was the seat of one of
The the oldest monarchies of the world. Although it would seem that
original Assyria was first peopled, historians claim for Egypt a more remote
inhabitants antiquity. Whether this claim can be substantiated or not, it is
of Egypt. certain that Egypt was one of the primeval seats of the race of Ham.
Mizraim, the Scripture name for the country, indicates that it was
settled by a son of Ham. But if this is true even, the tide of
emigration from Armenia probably passed to the southeast through Syria
and Palestine, and hence the descendants of Ham had probably occupied the
land of Canaan before they crossed the desert between the Red Sea and the
Mediterranean. I doubt if Egypt had older cities than Damascus, Hebron,
Zoar, and Tyre.

But Egypt certainly was a more powerful monarchy than any existing on
the earth in the time of Abraham.

Its language, traditions, and monuments alike point to a high
antiquity. It was probably inhabited by a mixed race, Shemitic as
Their well as Hamite; though the latter had the supremacy. The
peculiariti distinction of castes indicates a mixed population, so that the
es. ancients doubted whether Egypt belonged to Asia or Africa. The
people were not black, but of a reddish color, with thick lips,
straight black hair, and elongated eye, and sunk in the degraded
superstitions of the African race.

[pg 035]

The geographical position indicates not only a high antiquity, but a state
favorable to great national wealth and power. The river Nile, issuing from a
great lake under the equator, runs 3,000 miles nearly due north to the

Mediterranean. Its annual inundations covered the valley with a
rich soil brought down from the mountains of Abyssinia, making it
The the most fertile in the world. The country, thus so favored by a
fertility ofgreat river, with its rich alluvial deposits, is about 500 miles in
Egypt. length, with an area of 115,000 square miles, of which 9,600 are
subject to the fertilizing inundation. But, in ancient times, a great
part of the country was irrigated, and abounded in orchards,
gardens, and vineyards. Every kind of vegetable was cultivated, and grain
was raised in the greatest abundance, so that the people lived in luxury and
plenty while other nations were subject to occasional famines.

Among the fruits, were dates, grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots,
peaches, oranges, citrons, lemons, limes, bananas, melons,
The mulberries, olives. Among vegetables, if we infer from what exist
production at present, were beans, peas, lentils, luprins, spinach, leeks, onions,
s of Egypt. garlic, celery, chiccory, radishes, carrots, turnips, lettuce, cabbage,
fennel, gourds, cucumbers, tomatoes, egg-plant. What a variety for
the sustenance of man, to say nothing of the various kinds of grain,
—barley, oats, maize, rice, and especially wheat, which grows to the
greatest perfection.

In old times the horses were famous, as well as cattle, and sheep, and
poultry. Quails were abundant, while the marshes afforded every kind of
web-footed fowl. Fish, too, abounded in the Nile, and in the lakes. Bees
were kept, and honey was produced, though inferior to that of Greece.

The climate also of this fruitful land was salubrious without being
enervating. The soil was capable of supporting a large population,
The casteswhich amounted, in the time of Herodotus, to seven millions. On
of Egypt. the banks of the Nile were great cities, whose ruins still astonish
travelers. The land, except that owned by the priests, belonged [pg
036] to the king, who was supreme and unlimited in power. The
people were divided into castes, the highest being priests, and the lowest
husbandmen. The kings were hereditary, but belonged to the priesthood,
and their duties and labors were arduous. The priests were the real
governing body, and were treated with the most respectful homage. They

were councilors of the king, judges of the land, and guardians of all great
interests. The soldiers were also numerous, and formed a distinct caste.

When Abram visited Egypt, impelled by the famine in Canaan, it
was already a powerful monarchy. This was about 1921 years
Egyptian before Christ, according to the received chronology, when the kings
dynasties. of the 15th dynasty reigned. These dynasties of ancient kings are
difficult to be settled, and rest upon traditions rather than well
defined historical grounds,—or rather on the authority of Manetho,
an Egyptian priest, who lived nearly 300 years before Christ. His list of
dynasties has been confirmed, to a great extent, by the hieroglyphic
inscriptions which are still to be found on ancient monuments, but they give
us only a barren catalogue of names without any vital historical truths.
Therefore these old dynasties, before Abraham, are only interesting to
antiquarians, and not satisfactory to them, since so little is known or can be
known. These, if correct, would give a much greater antiquity to Egypt than
can be reconciled with Mosaic history. But all authorities agree in ascribing
to Menes the commencement of the first dynasty, 2712 years before Christ,
according to Hales, but 3893 according to Lepsius, and 2700 according to
Lane. Neither Menes nor his successors of the first dynasty left any
monuments. It is probable, however, that Memphis was built by them, and
possibly hieroglyphics were invented during their reigns.

But here a chronological difficulty arises. The Scriptures ascribe ten
generations from Shem to Abram. Either the generations were made longer
than in our times, or the seventeen dynasties, usually supposed to have
reigned when [pg 037] Abram came to Egypt, could not have existed; for,
according to the received chronology, he was born 1996, B.C., and the
Deluge took place 2349, before Christ, leaving but 353 years from the
Deluge to the birth of Abraham. How could seventeen dynasties have
reigned in Egypt in that time, even supposing that Egypt was settled
immediately after the Flood, unless either more than ten generations existed
from Noah to Abram, or that these generations extended over seven or eight
hundred years? Until science shall reconcile the various chronologies with
the one usually received, there is but little satisfaction in the study of
Egyptian history prior to Abram. Nor is it easy to settle when the Pyramids
were constructed. If they existed in the time of Abram a most rapid advance

had been made in the arts, unless a much longer period elapsed from Noah
to Abraham than Scripture seems to represent.

Nothing of interest occurs in Egyptian history until the fourth
dynasty of kings, when the pyramids of Ghizeh, were supposed to
The have been built—a period more remote than Scripture ascribes to
Pyramids. the Flood itself, according to our received chronology. These were
the tombs of the Memphian kings, who believed in the immortality
of the soul, and its final reunion with the body after various forms
of transmigration. Hence the solicitude to preserve the body in some
enduring monument, and by elaborate embalment. What more durable
monument than these great masses of granite, built to defy the ravages of
time, and the spoliations of conquerors! The largest of these pyramids,
towering above other pyramids, and the lesser sepulchres of the rich, was
built upon a square of 756 feet, and the height of it was 489 feet 9 inches,
covering an area of 571,536 feet, or more than thirteen acres. The whole
mass contained 90,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, weighing 6,316,000 tons.
Nearly in the centre of this pile of stone, reached by a narrow passage, were
the chambers where the royal sarcophagi were deposited. At whatever
period these vast monuments were actually [pg 038] built, they at least go
back into remote antiquity, and probably before the time of Abram.

The first great name of the early Egyptian kings was Sesertesen, or
Osirtasin I., the founder of the twelfth dynasty of kings, B.C. 2080.
Thebes. He was a great conqueror, and tradition confounds him with the
Sesostris of the Greeks, which gathered up stories about him as the
Middle Ages did of Charlemagne and his paladins. The real
Sesostris was Ramenes the Great, of the nineteenth dynasty. By the kings of
this dynasty (the twelfth) Ethiopia was conquered, the Labyrinth was built,
and Lake Moevis dug, to control the inundations. Under them Thebes
became a great city. The dynasty lasted 100 years, but became subject to the
Shepherd kings. These early Egyptian monarchs wore fond of peace, and
their subjects enjoyed repose and prosperity.

The Shepherd kings, who ruled 400 years, were supposed by
Manetho to be Arabs, but leaves us to infer that they were
The Phœnicians—as is probable—a roving body of conquerors, who
shepherd

kings. easily subdued the peaceful Egyptians. They have left no
monumental history. They were alien to the conquered race in
language and habits, and probably settled in Lower Egypt where
the land was most fertile, and where conquests would be most easily
retained.

It was under their rule that Abram probably visited Egypt when driven by a
famine from Canaan. And they were not expelled till the time of Joseph, by
the first of the eighteenth dynasty. The descendants of the old kings, we
suppose, lived in Thebes, and were tributary princes for 400 years, but
gained sufficient strength, finally, to expel the Shemite invaders, even as the
Gothic nations of Spain, in the Middle Ages, expelled their conquerors, the
Moors.

But it was under the Shepherd kings that the relations between
Egypt and the Hebrew patriarchs took place. We infer this fact from
Friendly the friendly intercourse and absence of national prejudices. The
relations Phœnicians belonged to the same Shemitic stock [pg 039] from
of thewhich Abraham came. They built no temples. They did not advance
Hebrews a material civilization. They loaded Abram and Joseph with
with thepresents, and accepted the latter as a minister and governor. We
Shepherd read of no great repulsion of races, and see a great similarity in
Kings. pursuits.

Meanwhile, the older dynasties under whom Thebes was
built, probably B.C. 2200, gathered strength in misfortune
Expulsion and subjection. They reigned, during five dynasties, in a
of thesubordinate relation, tributary and oppressed. The first king
Shepherd of the eighteenth dynasty seems to have been a remarkable
kings. man—the deliverer of his nation. His name was Aah-mes,
or Amo-sis, and he expelled the shepherds from the greater
part of Egypt, B.C. 1525. In his reign we see on the
monuments chariots and horses. He built temples both in Thebes and
Memphis, and established a navy. This was probably the king who knew not
Joseph. His successors continued the work of conquest, and extended their
dominion from Ethiopia to Mesopotamia, and obtained that part of Western

Asia formerly held by the Chaldeans. They built the temple of Karnak, the
“Vocal Memnon,” and the avenue of Sphinxes in Thebes.

The grandest period of Egyptian history begins with the nineteenth
dynasty, founded by Sethee I., or Sethos, B.C. 1340. He built the
Greatness famous “Hall of Columns,” in the temple of Karnak, and the finest
of Ramesisof the tombs of the Theban kings. On the walls of this great temple
II. Hisare depicted his conquests, especially over the Hittites. But the
architectur glories of the monarchy, now decidedly military, culminated in
al works. Ramesis II.—the Sesostris of the Greeks. He extended his
dominion as far as Scythia and Thrace, while his naval expeditions
penetrated to the Erythræan Sea. The captives which he brought
from his wars were employed in digging canals, which intersected the
country, for purposes of irrigation, and especially that great canal which
united the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. He added to the temple of
Karnak, built the Memnonium on the western side of the Nile, opposite [pg
040] to Thebes, and enlarged the temple of Ptah, at Memphis, which he
adorned by a beautiful colossal statue, the fist of which is (now in the
British Museum) thirty inches wide across the knuckles. But the
Rameseum, or Memnonium, was his greatest architectural work,
approached by an avenue of sphinxes and obelisks, in the centre of which
was the great statue of Ramesis himself, sixty feet high, carved from a
single stone of the red granite of Syene.

The twentieth dynasty was founded by Sethee II., B.C. 1220 (or
1232 B.C., according to Wilkinson), when Gideon ruled the
Decline ofIsraelites and Theseus reigned at Athens and Priam at Troy. The
Thebes. third king of this dynasty—Ramesis III.—built palaces and tombs
scarcely inferior to any of the Theban kings, but under his
successors the Theban power declined. Under the twenty-first
dynasty, which began B.C. 1085, Lower Egypt had a new capital, Zoan, and
gradually extended its power over Upper Egypt. It had a strong Shemetic
element in its population, and strengthened itself by alliances with the
Assyrians.

The twenty-second dynasty was probably Assyrian, and began about 1009
B.C. It was hostile to the Jews, and took and sacked Jerusalem.

From this period the history of Egypt is obscure. Ruled by
Assyrians, and then by Ethiopians, the grandeur of the old Theban
Obscurity monarchy had passed away. On the rise of the Babylonian
of kingdom, over the ruins of the old Assyrian Empire, Egypt was
Egyptian greatly prostrated as a military power. Babylon became the great
history. monarchy of the East, and gained possession of all the territories of
the Theban kings, from the Euphrates to the Nile.

Leaving, then, the obscure and uninteresting history of Egypt, which
presents nothing of especial interest until its conquest by Alexander, B.C.
332, with no great kings even, with the exception of Necho, of the twenty-
sixth dynasty, B.C. 611, we will present briefly the religion, manners,
customs, and attainments of the ancient Egyptians.

[pg 041]

Their religion was idolatrous. They worshiped various divinities:
Num, the soul of the universe; Amen, the generative principle;
Religion Khom, by whom the productiveness of nature was emblematized;
of thePtah, or the creator of the universe; Ra, the sun; Thoth, the patron
Egyptians. of letters; Athor, the goddess of beauty; Mu, physical light; Mat,
moral light; Munt, the god of war; Osiris, the personification of
good; Isis, who presided over funeral rites; Set, the personification
of evil; Anup, who judged the souls of the departed.

These were principal deities, and were worshiped through sacred
animals, as emblems of divinity. Among them were the bulls, Apis,
The at Memphis, and Muenis, at Heliopolis, both sacred to Osiris. The
Deities. crocodile was sacred to Lebak, whose offices are unknown; the asp
to Num; the cat to Pasht, whose offices were also unknown; the
beetle to Ptah. The worship of these and of other animals was
conducted with great ceremony, and sacrifices were made to them of other
animals, fruits and vegetables.

Man was held accountable for his actions, and to be judged, according to
them. He was to be brought before Osiris, and receive from him future
rewards or punishments.

The penal laws of the Egyptians were severe. Murder was punished
with death. Adultery was punished by the man being beaten with a
Laws ofthousand rods. The woman had her nose cut off. Theft was
the punished with less severity—with a beating by a stick. Usury was
Egyptians. not permitted beyond double of the debt, and the debtor was not
imprisoned.

The government was a monarchy, only limited by the priesthood,
into whose order he was received, and was administered by men
Governme appointed by the king. On the whole, it was mild and paternal, and
nt. exercised for the good of the people.

Polygamy was not common, though concubines were
allowed. In the upper classes women were treated with
Habits ofgreat respect, and were regarded as the equals [pg 042] of
the people. men. They ruled their households. The rich were
hospitable, and delighted to give feasts, at which were
dancers and musicians. They possessed chariots and
horses, and were indolent and pleasure-seeking. The poor people toiled,
with scanty clothing and poor fare.

Hieroglyphic writing prevailed from a remote antiquity. The
papyrus was also used for hieratic writing, and numerous papyri
Literary have been discovered, which show some advance in literature.
culture. Astronomy was cultivated by the priests, and was carried to the
highest point it could attain without modern instruments. Geometry
also reached considerable perfection. Mechanics must have been
carried to a great extent, when we remember that vast blocks of stone were
transported 500 miles and elevated to enormous heights. Chemistry was
made subservient to many arts, such as the working of metals and the
tempering of steel. But architecture was the great art in which the Egyptians
excelled, as we infer from the ruins of temples and palaces; and these
wonderful fabrics were ornamented with paintings which have preserved
their color to this day. Architecture was massive, grand, and imposing.
Magical arts were in high estimation, and chiefly exercised by the priests.
The industrial arts reached great excellence, especially in the weaving of
linen, pottery, and household furniture. The Egyptians were great

musicians, using harps, flutes, cymbals, and drums. They were also great
gardeners. In their dress they were simple, frugal in diet, though given to
occasional excess; fond of war, but not cruel like the Assyrians; hospitable
among themselves, shy of strangers, patriotic in feeling, and contemplative
in character.

[pg 043]

CHAPTER V.

THE JEWS UNTIL THE CONQUEST OF
CANAAN.

When Joseph was sold by the Midianites to Potiphar, Egypt was
probably ruled by the Shepherd kings, who were called Pharaoh,
Potiphar like all the other kings, by the Jewish writers. Pitiphar (Pet-Pha,
and dedicated to the sun) was probably the second person in the
Joseph. kingdom. Joseph, the Hebrew slave, found favor in his sight, and
Elevation was gradually promoted to the oversight of his great household.
of Joseph. Cast into prison, from the intrigues of Potiphar's wife, whose
disgraceful overtures he had virtuously and honorably rejected, he
found favor with the keeper of the prison, who intrusted him with
the sole care of the prisoners, although himself a prisoner,—a striking proof
of his transparent virtue. In process of time two other high officers of the
king, having offended him, were cast into the same prison. They had
strange dreams. Joseph interpreted them, indicating the speedy return of the
one to favor, and of the other to as sudden an execution. These things came
to pass. After two years the king himself had a singular dream, and none of
the professional magicians or priests of Egypt could interpret it. It then
occurred to the chief butler that Joseph, whom he had forgotten and
neglected, could interpret the royal dream which troubled him. He told the
king of his own dream in prison, and the explanation of it by the Hebrew
slave. Whereupon Joseph was sent for, shaven and washed, and clothed
with clean raiment to appear in the royal palace, and he interpreted the
king's dream, which not only led to his promotion to be governor over
Egypt, with the State chariots [pg 044] for his use, and all the emblems of
sovereignty about his person—a viceroy whose power was limited only by
that of the king—but he was also instrumental in rescuing Egypt from the
evils of that terrible famine which for seven years afflicted Western Asia.
He was then thirty years of age, 1715 B.C., and his elevation had been
earned by the noblest qualities—fidelity to his trusts, patience, and high
principle—all of which had doubtless been recounted to the king.

The course which Joseph pursued toward the Egyptians was
apparently hard. The hoarded grain of seven years' unexampled
His rule asplenty was at first sold to the famishing people, and when they had
Viceroy. no longer money to buy it, it was only obtained by the surrender of
their cattle, and then by the alienation of their land, so that the king
became possessed of all the property of the realm, personal as well
as real, except that of the priests. But he surrendered the land back again to
the people subsequently, on condition of the payment of one-fifth of the
produce annually (which remained to the time of Moses)—a large tax, but
not so great as was exacted of the peasantry of France by their feudal and
royal lords. This proceeding undoubtedly strengthened the power of the
Shepherd kings, and prevented insurrections.

The severity of the famine compels the brothers of Joseph to seek
corn in Egypt. Their arrival of course, is known to the governor,
The who has unlimited rule. They appear before him, and bowed
famine inthemselves before him, as was predicted by Joseph's dreams. But
Egypt. clothed in the vesture of princes, with a gold chain around his neck,
and surrounded by the pomp of power, they did not know him,
while he knows them. He speaks to them, through an interpreter,
harshly and proudly, accuses them of being spies, obtains all the
information he wanted, and learns that his father and Benjamin are alive.
He even imprisons them for three days. He releases them on the condition
that they verify their statement; as a proof of which, he demands the
appearance of Benjamin himself.

[pg 045]

They return to Canaan with their sacks filled with corn, and the
money which they had brought to purchase it, secretly restored,
Benjamin leaving Simeon as surety for the appearance of Benjamin. To this
and hisJacob will not assent. But starvation drives them again to Egypt,
brothers. the next year, and Jacob, reluctantly is compelled to allow
Moses asBenjamin to go with them. The unexpected feast which Joseph
an made for them, sitting himself at another table—the greater
historian. portions given to Benjamin, the deception played upon them by the
secretion of Joseph's silver cup in Benjamin's sack, as if he were a

thief, the distress of all the sons of Jacob, the eloquent pleadings of Judah,
the restrained tears of Joseph, the discovery of himself to them, the
generosity of Pharaoh, the return of Jacob's children laden not only with
corn but presents, the final migration of the whole family, to the land of
Goshen, in the royal chariots, and the consummation of Joseph's triumphs,
and happiness of Jacob—all these facts and incidents are told by Moses in
the most fascinating and affecting narrative ever penned by man. It is
absolutely transcendent, showing not only the highest dramatic skill, but
revealing the Providence of God—that overruling power which causes good
to come from evil, which is the most impressive lesson of all history, in
every age. That single episode is worth more to civilization than all the
glories of ancient Egypt; nor is there anything in the history of the ancient
monarchies so valuable to all generations as the record by Moses of the
early relations between God and his chosen people. And that is the reason
why I propose to give them, in this work, their proper place, even if it be
not after the fashion with historians. The supposed familiarity with Jewish
history ought not to preclude the narration of these great events, and the
substitution for them of the less important and obscure annals of the Pagans.

Joseph remained the favored viceroy of Egypt until he died, having
the supreme satisfaction of seeing the prosperity of his father's
Prosperity house, and their rapid increase in the land of [pg 046] Goshen, on
of thethe eastern frontier of the Delta of the Nile,—a land favorable for
Hebrews. herds and flocks. The capital of this district was On—afterward
Their Heliopolis, the sacred City of the Sun, a place with which Joseph
subsequent was especially connected by his marriage with the daughter of the
miseries. high priest of On. Separated from the Egyptians by their position as
shepherds, the children of Jacob retained their patriarchal
constitution. In 215 years, they became exceedingly numerous, but
were doomed, on the change of dynasty which placed Ramesis on the
throne, to oppressive labors. Joseph died at the age of 110—eighty years
after he had become governor of Egypt. In his latter years the change in the
Egyptian dynasty took place. The oppression of his people lasted eighty
years; and this was consummated by the cruel edict which doomed to death
the infants of Israel; made, probably, in fear and jealousy from the rapid
increase of the Israelites. The great crimes of our world, it would seem, are

instigated by these passions, rather than hatred and malignity, like the
massacre of St. Bartholomew and the atrocities of the French Revolution.

But a deliverer was raised up by God in the person of Moses, the
greatest man in human annals, when we consider his marvelous
Moses. intellectual gifts, his great work of legislation, his heroic qualities,
his moral excellence, and his executive talents. His genius is more
powerfully stamped upon civilization than that of any other one
man—not merely on the Jews, but even Christian nations. He was born
B.C. 1571, sixty-four years after the death of Joseph. Hidden in his birth, to
escape the sanguinary decree of Pharaoh he was adopted by the daughter of
the king, and taught by the priests in all the learning of the Egyptians. He
was also a great warrior, and gained great victories over the Ethiopians. But
seeing the afflictions of his brethren, he preferred to share their lot than
enjoy all the advantages of his elevated rank in the palace of the king—an
act of self-renunciation unparalleled in history. Seeing an Egyptian [pg 047]
smite a Hebrew, he slew him in a burst of indignation, and was compelled
to fly. He fled to Jethro, an Arab chieftain, among the Midianites. He was
now forty years of age, in the prime of his life, and in the full maturity of
his powers. The next forty years were devoted to a life of contemplation,
the best preparation for his future duties. In the most secret places of the
wilderness of Sinai, at Horeb, he communed with God, who appeared in the
burning bush, and revealed the magnificent mission which he was destined
to fulfill. He was called to deliver his brethren from bondage; but forty
years of quiet contemplation, while tending the flocks of Jethro, whose
daughter he married, had made him timid and modest. God renewed the
covenant made to Abraham and Jacob, and Moses returned to Egypt to
fulfill his mission. He joined himself with Aaron, his brother, and the two
went and gathered together all the elders of the children of Israel, and after
securing their confidence by signs and wonders, revealed their mission.

They then went to Pharaoh, a new king, and entreated of him
permission to allow the people of Israel to go into the wilderness
The and hold a feast in obedience to the command of God. But Pharaoh
slavery ofsaid, who is the Lord that I should obey his voice. I know not the
the Lord—your God. The result was, the anger of the king and the
Israelites.

increased burdens of the Israelites, which tended to make them indifferent
to the voice of Moses, from the excess of their anguish.

Then followed the ten plagues which afflicted the Egyptians, and
the obstinacy of the monarch, resolved to suffer any evil rather than
The tenpermit the Israelites to go free. But the last plague was greater than
plagues. the king could bear—the destruction of all the first-born in his land
The —and he hastily summoned Moses and Aaron in the night, under
deliveranc the impulse of a mighty fear, and bade them to depart with all their
e of thehosts and all their possessions. The Egyptians seconded the
Israelites. command, anxious to be relieved from further evils, and the
Israelites, after spoiling the Egyptians, departed [pg 048] in the
night—“a night to be much observed” for all generations, marching
by the line of the ancient canal from Rameses, not far from Heliopolis,
toward the southern frontier of Palestine. But Moses, instructed not to
conduct his people at once to a conflict with the warlike inhabitants of
Canaan, for which they were unprepared, having just issued from slavery,
brought them round by a sudden turn to the south and east, upon an arm or
gulf of the Red Sea. To the eyes of the Egyptians, who repented that they
had suffered them to depart, and who now pursued them with a great army,
they were caught in a trap. Their miraculous deliverance, one of the great
events of their history, and the ruin of the Egyptian hosts, and their three
months' march and countermarch in the wilderness need not be enlarged
upon.

The exodus took place 430 years from the call of Abraham, after a
sojourn in Egypt of 215 years, the greater part of which had been
The passed in abject slavery and misery. There were 600,000 men,
exodus. besides women and children and strangers.

It was during their various wanderings in the wilderness of
Sinai—forty years of discipline—that Moses gave to the
Hebrew Hebrews the rules they were to observe during all their
jurisprude generations, until a new dispensation should come. These
nce. form that great system of original jurisprudence that has
entered, more or less, into the codes of all nations, and by

which the genius of the lawgiver is especially manifested; although it is not
to be forgotten he framed his laws by divine direction.

Let us examine briefly the nature and character of these laws. They have
been ably expounded by Bishop Warburton, Prof. Wines and others.

The great fundamental principle of the Jewish code was to establish
the doctrine of the unity of God. Idolatry had crept into the
The religious system of all the other nations of the world, and a
principles degrading polytheism was everywhere prevalent. The Israelites had
of thenot [pg 049] probably escaped the contagion of bad example, and
Jewish the suggestions of evil powers. The most necessary truth to impress
code. upon the nation was the God of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob.
Jehovah was made the supreme head of the Jewish state, whom the
Hebrews were required, first and last, to recognize, and whose laws
they were required to obey. And this right to give laws to the Hebrews was
deduced, not only because he was the supreme creator and preserver, but
because he had also signally and especially laid the foundation of the state
by signs and miracles. He had spoken to the patriarchs, he had brought them
into the land of Egypt, he had delivered them when oppressed. Hence, they
were to have no other gods than this God of Abraham—this supreme,
personal, benevolent God. The violation of this fundamental law was to be
attended with the severest penalties. Hence Moses institutes the worship of
the Supreme Deity. It was indeed ritualistic, and blended with sacrifices and
ceremonies; but the idea—the spiritual idea of God as the supreme object of
all obedience and faith, was impressed first of all upon the minds of the
Israelites, and engraven on the tables of stone—“Thou shalt have no other
gods before me.”

Having established the idea and the worship of God, Moses then instituted
the various rites of the service, and laid down the principles of civil
government, as the dictation of this Supreme Deity, under whose supreme
guidance they were to be ruled.

But before the details of the laws were given to guide the Israelites
in their civil polity, or to regulate the worship of Jehovah, Moses, it
The Tenwould seem, first spake the word of God, amid the thunders and
Command lightnings of Sinai, to the assembled people, and delivered the ten

ments. fundamental commandments which were to bind them and all
succeeding generations. Whether these were those which were
afterward written on the two tables of stone, or not, we do not
know. We know only that these great obligations were declared soon after
the Israelites had encamped around Sinai, and to the whole people orally.

[pg 050]
And, with these, God directed Moses more particularly to declare also the
laws relating to man-servants, and to manslaughter, to injury to women, to
stealing, to damage, to the treatment of strangers, to usury, to slander, to the
observance of the Sabbath, to the reverence due to magistrates, and sundry
other things, which seem to be included in the ten commandments.

After this, if we rightly interpret the book of Exodus, Moses went
up into the mountain of Sinai, and there abode forty days and forty
Moses onnights, receiving the commandments of God. Then followed the
Mount directions respecting the ark, and the tabernacle, and the mercy-
Sinai. seat, and the cherubim. And then were ordained the priesthood of
Aaron and his vestments, and the garments for Aaron's sons, and
the ceremonies which pertained to the consecration of priests, and
the altar of incense, and the brazen laver.

After renewed injunctions to observe the Sabbath, Moses received
of the Lord the two tables of stone, “written with the finger of
The tablesGod.” But as he descended the mountain with these tables, after
of stone. forty days, and came near the camp, he perceived the golden calf
which Aaron had made of the Egyptian ear-rings and jewelry,—
made to please the murmuring people, so soon did they forget the
true God who brought them out of Egypt. And Moses in anger, cast down
the tables and brake them, and destroyed the calf, and caused the slaughter
of three thousand of the people by the hands of the children of Levi.

But God forgave the iniquity and renewed the tables, and made a
new covenant with Moses, enjoining upon him the utter destruction
The of the Canaanites, and the complete extirpation of idolatry. He
idolatry ofagain gathered together the people of Israel, and renewed the
the Jews. injunction to observe the Sabbath, and then prepared for the
building of the tabernacle, as the Lord directed, and also for the

making of the sacred vessels and holy garments, and the various ritualistic
form of worship. He then established the sacrificial [pg 051] rites,
consecrated Aaron and his sons as priests, laid down the law for them in
their sacred functions, and made other divers laws for the nation, in their
social and political relations.

The substance of these civil laws was the political equality of the
people; the distribution of the public domains among the free
The citizens which were to remain inalienable and perpetual in the
Mosaic families to which they were given, thus making absolute poverty or
legislation. overgrown riches impossible; the establishment of a year of jubilee,
once every fifty years, when there should be a release of all
servitude, and all debts, and all the social inequalities which half a
century produced; a magistracy chosen by the people, and its responsibility
to the people; a speedy and impartial administration of justice; the absence
of a standing army and the prohibition of cavalry, thus indicating a peaceful
policy, and the preservation of political equality; the establishment of
agriculture as the basis of national prosperity; universal industry,
inviolability of private property, and the sacredness of family relations.
These were fundamental principles. Moses also renewed the Noahmic ideas
of the sacredness of human life. He further instituted rules for the education
of the people, that “sons may be as plants grown up in their youth, and
daughters as corner stones polished after the similitude of a palace.” Such
were the elemental ideas of the Hebrew commonwealth, which have
entered, more or less, into all Christian civilizations. I can not enter upon a
minute detail of these primary laws. Each of the tribes formed a separate
state, and had a local administration of justice, but all alike recognized the
theocracy as the supreme and organic law. To the tribe of Levi were
assigned the duties of the priesthood, and the general oversight of education
and the laws. The members of this favored tribe were thus priests, lawyers,
teachers, and popular orators—a literary aristocracy devoted to the
cultivation of the sciences. The chief magistrate of the united tribes was not
prescribed, but Moses remained the highest magistrate until his death, when
the command was given to [pg 052] Joshua. Both Moses and Joshua
convened the states general, presided over their deliberations, commanded
the army, and decided all appeals in civil questions. The office of chief
magistrate was elective, and was held for life, no salary was attached to it,

no revenues were appropriated to it, no tribute was raised for it. The chief
ruler had no outward badges of authority; he did not wear a diadem; he was
not surrounded with a court. His power was great as commander of the
armies and president of the assemblies, but he did not make laws or impose
taxes. He was assisted by a body of seventy elders—a council or senate,
whose decisions, however, were submitted to the congregation, or general
body of citizens, for confirmation. These senators were elected; the office
was not hereditary; neither was a salary attached to it.

The great congregation—or assembly of the people, in which lay
the supreme power, so far as any human power could be supreme in
The a theocracy,—was probably a delegated body chosen by the people
Jewish in their tribes. They were representatives of the people, acting for
theocracy. the general good, without receiving instructions from their
constituents. It was impossible for the elders, or for Moses, to
address two million of people. They spoke to a select assembly. It
was this assembly which made or ratified the laws, and which the
executioner carried out into execution.

The oracle of Jehovah formed an essential part of the constitution,
since it was God who ruled the nation. The oracle, in the form of a
The pillar of cloud, directed the wanderings of the people in the
Oracle. wilderness. This appeared amid the thunders of Sinai. This oracle
decided all final questions and difficult points of justice. It could
not be interrogated by private persons, only by the High Priest
himself, clad in his pontifical vestments, and with the sacred insignia of his
office, by “urim and thummim.” Within the most sacred recesses of the
tabernacle, in the Holy of Holies, the Deity made known his will to the
most sacred personage of the nation, in order that no rash resolution of the
people, or senate, or judge might be executed. And this response, [pg 053]
given in an audible voice, was final and supreme, and not like the Grecian
oracles, venal and mendacious. This oracle of the Hebrew God “was a wise
provision to preserve a continual sense of the principal design of their
constitution—to keep the Hebrews from idolatry, and to the worship of the
only true God as their immediate protector; and that their security and
prosperity rested upon adhering to his counsels and commands.”

The designation and institution of high priest belonged not to the
council of priests—although he was of the tribe of Levi, but to the
The Senate, and received the confirmation of the people through their
Priesthood deputies. “But the priests belonged to the tribe of Levi, which was
. set apart to God—the king of the commonwealth.” “They were
thus, not merely a sacerdotal body, appointed to the service of the
altar, but also a temporal magistracy having important civil and
political functions, especially to teach the people the laws.” The high priest,
as head of the hierarchy, and supreme interpreter of the laws, had his seat in
the capital of the nation, while the priests of his tribe were scattered among
the other tribes, and were hereditary. The Hebrew priests simply interpreted
the laws; the priests of Egypt made them. Their power was chiefly judicial.
They had no means of usurpation, neither from property, nor military
command. They were simply the expositors of laws which they did not
make, which they could not change, and which they themselves were bound
to obey. The income of a Levite was about five times as great as an ordinary
man, and this, of course, was derived from the tithes. But a greater part of
the soil paid no tithes. The taxes to the leading class, as the Levites were,
can not be called ruinous when compared with what the Egyptian
priesthood received, especially when we remember that all the expenses
connected with sacrifice and worship were taken from the tithes. The
treasures which flowed into the sacerdotal treasury belonged to the Lord,
and of these the priests were trustees rather than possessors.

[pg 054]

Such, in general terms, briefly presented, was the Hebrew
constitution framed by Moses, by the direction of God. It was
The eminently republican in spirit, and the power of the people through
Hebrew their representatives, was great and controlling. The rights of
Constitutio property were most sacredly guarded, and crime was severely and
n. rigidly punished. Every citizen was eligible to the highest offices.
That the people were the source of all power is proven by their
voluntary change of government, against the advice of Samuel,
against the oracle, and against the council of elders. We look in vain to the
ancient constitutions of Greece and Rome for the wisdom we see in the
Mosaic code. Under no ancient government were men so free or the laws so

just. It is not easy to say how much the Puritans derived from the Hebrew
constitution in erecting their new empire, but in many aspects there is a
striking resemblance between the republican organization of New England
and the Jewish commonwealth.

The Mosaic code was framed in the first year after the exodus, while the
Israelites were encamped near Sinai. When the Tabernacle was erected, the
camp was broken up, and the wandering in the desert recommenced. This
was continued for forty years—not as a punishment, but as a discipline, to
enable the Jews to become indoctrinated into the principles of their
constitution, and to gain strength and organization, so as more successfully
to contend with the people they were commanded to expel from Canaan. In
this wilderness they had few enemies, and some friends, and these were
wandering Arab tribes.

We can not point out all the details of the wanderings under the
leadership of Moses, guided by the pillar of fire and the cloud.
The After forty years, they reached the broad valley which runs from
wandering the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, along the foot of Mount Seir, to the
s of thevalley of the Dead Sea. Diverted from a direct entrance into Canaan
Israelites. by hostile Edomites, they marched to the hilly country to the east of
Jordan, inhabited by the Amorites. [pg 055] In a conflict with this
nation, they gained possession of their whole territory, from Mount
Hermon to the river Anton, which runs into the Dead Sea. The hills south of
this river were inhabited by pastoral Moabites—descendants of Lot, and
beyond them to the Great Desert were the Ammonites, also descendants of
Lot. That nation formed an alliance with the Midianites, hoping to expel the
invaders then encamped on the plains of Moab. Here Moses delivered his
farewell instructions, appointed his successor, and passed away on Mount
Pisgah, from which he could see the promised land, but which he was not
permitted to conquer. That task was reserved for Joshua, but the complete
conquest of the Canaanites did not take place till the reign of David.

[pg 056]

CHAPTER VI.

THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN TO THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF
DAVID.

The only survivors of the generation that had escaped from Egypt were
Caleb and Joshua. All the rest had offended God by murmurings, rebellion,
idolatries, and sundry offenses, by which they were not deemed worthy to
enter the promised land. Even Moses and Aaron had sinned against the
Lord.

So after forty years' wanderings, and the children of Israel were
encamped on the plains of Moab, Moses finally addressed them,
Non- forbidding all intercourse with Jews with other nations, enjoining
intercourse obedience to God, requiring the utter extirpation of idolatry, and
of therehearsing in general, the laws which he had previously given
Jews withthem, and which form the substance of the Jewish code, all of
other which he also committed to writing, and then ascended to the top of
nations. Pisgah, over against Jericho, from which he surveyed, all the land
Death ofof Judah and Napthali, and Manasseh and Gilead unto Dan—the
Moses. greater part of the land promised unto Abraham. He then died, at
the age of 120, B.C. 1451 and no man knew the place of his burial.

The Lord then encouraged Joshua his successor, and the conquest
of the country began—by the passage over the Jordan and the fall
Joshua. of Jericho. The manna, with which the Israelites for forty years had
been miraculously fed, now was no longer to be had, and supplies
of food were obtained from the enemy's country. None of the
inhabitants of Jericho were spared except Rahab the harlot, and her father's
household, in reward for [pg 057] her secretion of the spy which Joshua had
sent into the city. At the city of Ai, the three thousand men sent to take it
were repulsed, in punishment for the sin of Achan, who had taken at the
spoil of Jericho, a Babylonian garment and three hundred sheckels of silver

and a wedge of gold. After he had expiated this crime, the city of Ai was
taken, and all its inhabitants were put to death. The spoil of the city was
reserved for the nation.

The fall of these two cities alarmed the Hamite nations of Palestine
west of the Jordan, and five kings of the Amorites entered into a
His confederation to resist the invaders. The Gibeonites made a
victories. separate peace with the Israelites. Their lives were consequently
spared, but they were made slaves forever. Thus was fulfilled the
prophecy that Canaan should serve Shem.

Meantime the confederate kings—more incensed with the Gibeonites than
with the Israelites, since they were traitors to the general cause, marched
against Gibeon, one of the strongest cities of the land. It invoked the aid of
Joshua, who came up from Gilgal, and a great battle was fought, and
resulted in the total discomfiture of the five Canaanite kings. The cities of
Makkedah, Libnah, Gizu, Eglon, Hebron, successively fell into the hands of
Joshua, as the result of their victory.

The following year a confederation of the Northern kings, a vast
host with horses and chariots, was arrayed against the Israelites; but
Combinati the forces of the Canaanites were defeated at the “Waters of
on of theMerom,” a small lake, formerly the Upper Jordan. This victory was
Canaanites followed by the fall of Hazor, and the conquest of the whole land
against from Mount Halak to the Valley of Lebanon. Thirty-one kings were
Joshua. smitten “in the mountains, in the plains, in the wilderness, in the
south country: the Hittites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the
Perizites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.” There only remained the
Philistines, whose power was formidable. The conquered country was
divided among the different tribes, half of which were settled on the [pg
058] west of Jordan. The tabernacle was now removed to Shiloh, in the
central hill country between Jordan and the Mediterranean, which had been
assigned, to the tribe of Ephraim. Jacob had prophetically declared the
ultimate settlements of the twelve tribes in the various sections of the
conquered country. The pre-eminence was given to Judah, whose territory
was the most considerable, including Jerusalem, the future capital, then in
the hands of the Jebusites. The hilly country first fell into the hands of the

invaders, while the low lands were held tenaciously by the old inhabitants
where their cavalry and war chariots were of most avail.

The Israelites then entered, by conquest, into a fruitful land, well
irrigated, whose material civilization was already established, with
Conquest orchards and vineyards, and a cultivated face of nature, with strong
of Canaan. cities and fortifications.

Joshua, the great captain of the nation, died about the year
1426 B.C., and Shechem, the old abode of Abraham and
Death ofJacob, remained the chief city until the fall of Jerusalem.
Joshua. Here the bones of Joseph were deposited, with those of his
ancestors.

The nation was ruled by Judges from the death of Joshua for about
330 years—a period of turbulence and of conquest. The theocracy
The was in full force, administered by the high priests and the council
Judges. of elders. The people, however, were not perfectly cured of the sin
of idolatry, and paid religious veneration to the gods of Phœnicia
and Moab. The tribes enjoyed a virtual independence, and central
authority was weak. In consequence, there were frequent dissensions and
jealousies and encroachments.

The most powerful external enemies of this period were the kings
of Mesopotamia, of Moab, and of Hazor, the Midianites, the
Their Amalekites, the Ammonites, and the Philistines. The great heroes
wars. of the Israelites in their contests with these people were Othnie,
Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Jepthna, and Samson. After the victories of
Gideon over the Midianites, and of Jepthna over the [pg 059]
Ammonites, the northern and eastern tribes enjoyed comparative repose,
and when tranquillity was restored Eli seems to have exercised the office of
high priest with extraordinary dignity, but his sons were a disgrace and
scandal, whose profligacy led the way to the temporary subjection of the
Israelites for forty years to the Philistines, who obtained possession of the
sacred ark.

A deliverer of the country was raised up in the person of Samuel, the
prophet, who obtained an ascendancy over the nation by his purity and

moral wisdom. He founded the “School of the Prophets” in Kamah,
and to him the people came for advice. He seems to have exercised
Samuel. the office of judge. Under his guidance the Israelites recovered
their sacred ark, which the Philistines, grievously tormented by
God, sent back in an impulse of superstitious fear. Moreover, these
people were so completely overthrown by the Israelites that they troubled
them no longer for many years.

Samuel, when old, made his sons judges, but their rule was venal
and corrupt. In disgust, the people of Israel then desired a king.
The Samuel warned them of the consequences of such a step, and
Israelites foretold the oppression to which they would be necessarily subject;
demand abut they were bent on having a king, like other nations—a man
King. who should lead them on to conquest and dominion. Samuel then,
by divine command, granted their request, and selected Saul, of the
tribe of Benjamin, as a fit captain to lead the people against the
Philistines—the most powerful foe which had afflicted Israel.

After he had anointed the future king he assembled the whole
nation together, through their deputies, at Mizpeh, who confirmed
Anointme the divine appointment. Saul, who appeared reluctant to accept the
nt of Saul. high dignity, was fair and tall, and noble in appearance, patriotic,
warlike, generous, affectionate—the type of an ancient hero, but
vacillating, jealous, moody, and passionate. He was a man to make
conquests, but not to elevate the dignity of the [pg 060] nation. Samuel
retired into private life, and Saul reigned over the whole people.

His first care was to select a chosen band of experienced warriors,
and there was need, for the Philistines gathered together a great
His warsarmy, with 30,000 chariots and 6,000 horsemen, and encamped at
with theMichmash. The Israelites, in view of this overwhelming force, hid
Philistine. themselves from fear, in caves and amid the rocks of the mountain
fastnesses. In their trouble it was found necessary to offer burnt
sacrifices; but Saul, impulsive and assuming, would not wait to
have the rites performed according to the divine direction, but offered the
sacrifices himself. By this act he disobeyed the fundamental laws which
Moses had given, violated, as it were, the constitution; and, as a penalty for

this foolish and rash act, Samuel pronounced his future deposition; but God
confounded, nevertheless, the armies of the Philistines, and they were
routed and scattered. Saul then turned against the Amalekites, and took their
king, whom he spared in an impulse of generosity, even though he utterly
destroyed his people. Samuel reproved him for this leniency against the
divine command, Saul attempted to justify himself by the sacrifice of all the
enemies' goods and oxen, to which Samuel said, “Hath the Lord as great
delight in burnt sacrifices and offerings as in obeying the voice of the Lord?
Behold! to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams;
for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and stubbornness as iniquity and
idolatry.” Most memorable words! thus setting virtue and obedience over all
rites and ceremonies—a final answer to all ritualism and phariseeism.

The remainder of the life of Saul was embittered by the
consciousness that the kingdom would depart from his house; and
The by his jealousy of David, and his unmanly persecution of him; in
unhappine whom he saw his successor. He was slain, with three of his sons, at
ss of Saul. the battle of Gilboa, when the Philistines gained a great victory—
B.C. 1056.

[pg 061]

David, meanwhile had been secretly anointed by Samuel as king
over Israel. Nothing could exceed his grief when he heard of the
David. death of Saul, and of Jonathan, whom he loved, and who returned
his love with a love passing that of women, and who had protected
him against the wrath and enmity of his father.

David, of the tribe of Judah, after his encounter with Goliath, was
the favorite of the people, and was rewarded by a marriage with the
The daughter of Saul—Michal, who admired his gallantry and heroism.
enmity ofSaul too had dissembled his jealousy, and heaped honors on the
Saul. man he was determined to destroy. By the aid of his wife, and of
Jonathan, and especially protected by God, the young warrior
escaped all the snares laid for his destruction, and even spared the
life of Saul when he was in his power in the cave of Engedi. He continued
loyal to his king, patiently waiting for his future exaltation.

On the death of Saul, he was anointed king over Judah, at Hebron;
but the other tribes still adhered to the house of Saul. A civil war
The ensued, during which Abner, the captain-general of the late king,
elevation was treacherously murdered, and also Ishboseth, the feeble
of David. successor of Saul. The war lasted seven and a half years, when all
the tribes gave their allegiance to David, who then fixed his seat at
Jerusalem, which he had wrested from the Jebusites, and his
illustrious reign began, when he was thirty years of age, B.C. 1048, after
several years of adversity and trial.

[pg 062]

CHAPTER VII.

THE JEWISH MONARCHY.

We can not enter upon a detail of the conquests of David, the
greatest warrior that his nation has produced. In successive
The reigncampaigns, extending over thirty years, he reduced the various
of David. Canaanite nations that remained unconquered—the Amalekites, the
Moabites, the Philistines, the Edomites, and the Syrians of Tobah.
Hiram, king of Tyre, was his ally. His kingdom extended from the
borders of Egypt to the Euphrates, and from the valley of Cœlo-Syria to the
eastern gulf of the Red Sea. But his reign, if glorious and successful, was
marked by troubles. He was continually at war; his kingdom was afflicted
with a plague as the punishment for his vanity in numbering the people; his
son Amnon disgraced him; Absalom, his favorite son, revolted and was
slain; he himself was expelled for a time from his capital.

But David is memorable for his character, and his poetry, his
romantic vicissitudes of life, and as the founder of a dynasty rather
Character than for his conquests over the neighboring nations. His
of David. magnificent virtues blended with faults; his piety in spite of his
sins, his allegiance to God, and his faith in his promises invest his
character with singular interest. In his Psalms he lives through all
the generations of men. He reigned thirty-three years at Jerusalem, and
seven at Hebron, and transmitted his throne to Solomon—his youngest
child, a youth ten years of age, precocious in wisdom and culture.

The reign of Solomon is most distinguished for the magnificent
Temple he erected in Jerusalem, after the designs furnished by his
The reignfather, aided by the [pg 063] friendship of the Phœnicians. This
of edifice, “beautiful for situation—the joy of the whole earth,” was
Solomon. the wonder of those times, and though small compared with
His subsequent Grecian temples, was probably more profusely
architectur ornamented with gold, silver, and precious woods, than any
al works. building of ancient times. We have no means of knowing its

architectural appearance, in the absence of all plans and all ruins, and much
ingenuity has been expended in conjectures, which are far from satisfactory.
It most probably resembled an Egyptian temple, modified by Phœnician
artists. It had an outer court for worshipers and their sacrifices, and an inner
court for the ark and the throne of Jehovah, into which the high priest alone
entered, and only once a year. It was erected upon a solid platform of stone,
having a resemblance to the temples of Paestum. The portico, as rebuilt, in
the time of Herod, was 180 feet high, and the temple itself was entered by
nine gates thickly coated with silver and gold. The inner sanctuary was
covered on all sides by plates of gold, and was dazzling to the eye. It was
connected with various courts and porticoes which gave to it an imposing
appearance. Its consecration by Solomon, amid the cloud of glories in
which Jehovah took possession of it, and the immense body of musicians
and singers, was probably the grandest religious service ever performed.
That 30,000 men were employed by Solomon, in hewing timber on Mount
Lebanon, and 70,000 more in hewing stones, would indicate a very
extensive and costly edifice. The stones which composed the foundation
were of extraordinary size, and rivaled the greatest works of the Egyptians.
The whole temple was overlaid with gold—a proof of its extraordinary
splendor, and it took seven years to build it.

The palace of Solomon must also have been of great magnificence,
on which the resources of his kingdom were employed for thirteen
The years. He moreover built a palace for his wife, the daughter of
palace. Pharaoh, composed of costly stones, the foundation-stones of
which were fifteen feet [pg 064] in length, surrounded with
beautiful columns. But these palaces did not include all his works,
for the courts of the temple were ornamented with brazen pillars, with
elaborate capitals, brazen seas standing upon bronze oxen, brazen bases
ornamented with figures of various animals, brazen layers, one of which
contained forty baths, altars of gold, tables, candelabras, basins, censers and
other sacred vessels of pure gold,—all of which together were of enormous
expense and great beauty.

During the execution of these splendid works, which occupied
thirteen years or more, Solomon gave extraordinary indications of
The wisdom, as well as signs of great temporal prosperity. His kingdom
Wisdom of

Solomon. was the most powerful of Western Asia, and he enjoyed peace with
other nations. His fame spread through the East, and the Queen of
Sheba, among others, came to visit him, and witness his wealth and
prosperity. She was amazed and astonished at the splendor of his life, the
magnificence of his court, and the brilliancy of his conversation, and she
burst out in the most unbounded panegyrics. “The half was not told me.”
She departed leaving a present of one hundred and twenty talents of gold,
besides spices and precious stones; and he gave, in return, all she asked. We
may judge of the wealth of Solomon from the fact that in one year six
hundred and sixty-six talents of gold flowed into his treasury, besides the
spices, and the precious stones, and ivory, and rare curiosities which were
brought to him from Arabia and India. The voyages of his ships occupied
three years, and it is supposed that they doubled the Cape of Good Hope.
All his banqueting cups and dishes were of pure gold, and “he exceeded all
the kings of the earth for riches and wisdom,” who made their contributions
with royal munificence. In his army were 1,400 chariots and 12,000 horses,
which it would seem were purchased in Egypt.

Intoxicated by this splendor, and enervated by luxury, Solomon
forgot his higher duties, and yielded to the fascination of oriental
His courts. In his harem [pg 065] were 700 wives, princesses, and 300
apostasy. concubines, who turned his heart to idolatry. In punishment for his
apostasy, God declared that his kingdom should be divided, and
that his son should reign only over the single tribe of Judah, which
was spared him for the sake of his father David. In his latter days he was
disturbed in his delusions by various adversaries who rose up against him—
by Hadad, a prince of Edom, and Rezon, king of Damascus, and Jeroboam,
one of his principal officers, who afterward became king of the ten revolted
tribes. Solomon continued, however, to reign over the united tribes for forty
years, when he was gathered to his fathers.

The apostasy of Solomon is the most mournful fall recorded in
history, thereby showing that no intellectual power can rescue a
His latterman from the indulgence of his passions and the sins of pride and
days. vainglory. How immeasurably superior to him in self-control was
Marcus Aurelius, who had the whole world at his feet! It was
women who had estranged him from allegiance to God—the

princesses of idolatrous nations. Although no mention is made of his
repentance, the heart of the world will not accept his final impenitence; and
we infer from the book of Ecclesiastes, written when all his delusions were
dispelled—that sad and bitter and cynical composition,—that he was at
least finally persuaded that the fear of the Lord constitutes the beginning
and the end of all wisdom in this probationary state. And we can not but
feel that he who urged this wisdom upon the young with so much reason
and eloquence at last was made to feel its power upon his own soul.

The government of Solomon, nevertheless had proved arbitrary,
and his public works oppressive. The monarch whom he most
The resembled, in his taste for magnificence, in the splendor of his
rebellion reign, and in the vexations and humiliations of his latter days, was
of Louis XIV. of France, who sowed the seeds of future revolutions.
Jeroboam. So Solomon prepared the way for rebellion, by his grievous
exactions. Under his son Rehoboam, a vain and frivolous, and
obstinate young man, who ascended the throne B.C. 975, [pg 066]
the revolt took place. He would not listen to his father's councillors, and
increased rather than mitigated the burdens of the people. And this revolt
was successful: ten tribes joined the standard of Jeroboam, with 800,000
fighting men. Judah remained faithful to Rehoboam, and the tribe of
Benjamin subsequently joined it, and from its geographical situation, it
remained nearly as powerful as the other tribes, having 500,000 fighting
men. But the area of territory was only quarter as large.

The Jewish nation is now divided. The descendants of David reign
at Jerusalem; the usurper and rebel Jeroboam reigns over the ten
Division tribes, at Shechem.
of the
Nation. For the sake of clearness of representation we will first present the
fortunes of the legitimate kings who reigned over the tribe of
Judah.

Rehoboam reigned forty-one years at Jerusalem, but did evil in the
sight of the Lord. In the fifth year of his reign his capital was rifled
The reignby the king of Egypt, who took away the treasures which Solomon
of had accumulated. He was also at war with Jeroboam all his days.
Rheoboam He was succeeded by his son Abijam, whose reign was evil and

. Hisunfortunate, during which the country was afflicted with wars
successors.which lasted for ninety years between Judah and Israel. But his
reign was short, lasting only three years, and he was succeeded by
Asa, his son, an upright and warlike prince, who removed the idols
which his father had set up. He also formed a league with Ben-Hadad, king
of Syria, and, with a large bribe, induced him to break with Baasha, king of
Israel. His reign lasted forty years, and he was succeeded by his son
Jehoshaphat, B.C. 954. Under this prince the long wars between Judah and
Israel terminated, probably on account of the marriage of Jehoram, son of
Jehoshaphat, with the daughter of Ahab, king of Israel—an unfortunate
alliance on moral, if not political grounds. Jehoshaphat reigned thirty-five
years, prosperously and virtuously, and his ships visited Ophir for gold as in
the time of [pg 067] Solomon, being in alliance with the Phœnicians. His
son Jehoram succeeded him, and reigned eight years, but was disgraced by
the idolatries which Ahab encouraged. It was about this time that Elijah and
Elisha were prophets of the Lord, whose field of duties lay chiefly among
the idolatrous people of the ten tribes. During the reign of Jehoram, Edom
revolted from Judah, and succeeded in maintaining its independence,
according to the predictions made to Esau, that his posterity, after serving
Israel, should finally break their yoke.

His son Ahaziah succeeded him at Jerusalem B.C. 885, but formed
an alliance with Jehoram, king of Israel, and after a brief and
The wicked reign of one year, he was slain by Jehu, the great instrument
Princes ofof divine vengeance on the idolaters. Of his numerous sons, the
Judah atinfant Joash alone was spared by Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab
Jerusalem. and Jezebel, who usurped authority in the name of the infant king,
until she was overthrown by the high priest Jehoiada. The
usurpations of this queen have furnished a subject for one of the
finest tragedies of Racine. Jehoiada restored the temple worship, and
instituted many other reforms, having supreme power, like Dunstan over the
Saxon kings, when they were ruled by priests. His death left Judah under
the dominion of the patriarchal rulers (the princes of Judah), who opposed
all reforms, and even slew the son of Jehoida, Zechariah the prophet,
between the altar and the temple. It would seem that Joash ruled wisely and
benignantly during the life of Jehoiada, by whom he was influenced—a
venerable old man of 130 years of age when he died. After his death Joash

gave occasion for reproach, by permitting or commanding the assassination
of Zechariah, who had reproved the people for their sins, and his country
was invaded by the Syrians under Hazaal, and they sent the spoil of
Jerusalem to Damascus. Joash reigned in all forty years, and was
assassinated by his servants.

His son Amaziah succeeded him B.C. 839, and reigned twenty-nine
years. He was on the whole a good and able [pg 068] prince, and
The reigngained great victories over the Edomites whom he attempted to
of reconquer. He punished also the murderers of his father, and spared
Amiaziah. their sons, according to the merciful provision of the laws of
Moses. But he worshiped the gods of the Edomites, and was filled
with vainglory from his successes over them. It was then he rashly
challenged the king of Israel, who replied haughtily: “The thistle that was in
Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in Lebanon, saying, give thy daughter to
my son to wife, and there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, and
trode down the thistle.” “So thou hast smitten the Edomites, and thine heart
lifteth thee up to boast. Abide now at home; why shouldst thou meddle to
thine hurt, that thou shouldst fall, even thou and Judah with thee.” But
Amaziah would not heed, and the two kings encountered each other in
battle, and Judah suffered a disastrous defeat, and Joash, the king of Israel,
came to Jerusalem and took all the gold and silver and all the sacred vessels
of the temple and the treasures of the royal palace, and returned to Samaria.
After this humiliation Amaziah reigned, probably wisely, more than fifteen
years, until falling into evil courses, he was slain in a conspiracy, B.C. 810,
and his son Uzziah or Azariah, a boy of sixteen, was made king by the
people of Judah.

This monarch enjoyed a long and prosperous reign of fifty-two
years. He reorganized the army and refortified his capital. He
Uzziah. conquered the Philistines, and also the Arabs, on his borders:
His received tribute from the Ammonites, and spread his name unto
prosperity. Egypt. During his reign the kingdom of Judah and Benjamin had
great prosperity and power. The army numbered 307,500 men well
equipped and armed, with military engines to shoot arrows and
stones from the towers and walls. He also built castles in the desert, and
digged wells for his troops stationed there. He developed the resources of

his country, and devoted himself especially to the arts of agriculture and the
cultivation of the vine, and the raising of cattle. But he could not stand
prosperity, and in his presumption, attempted even to force [pg 069] himself
in the sacred part of the temple to offer sacrifices, which was permitted to
the priests alone; for which violation of the sacred laws of the realm, he was
smitten with leprosy—the most loathsome of all the diseases which afflict
the East. As a leper, he remained isolated the rest of his life, not even being
permitted by the laws to enter the precincts of the temple to worship, or
administer his kingdom. It was during his reign that the Assyrians laid
Samaria under contribution.

He was succeeded by Jotham, his son, B.C. 758, who carried on his
father's reforms and wars, and was therefore prospered. It is worthy
Jotham. of notice that the kings of Judah, who were good, and abstained
from idolatry, enjoyed great temporal prosperity. Jotham reigned
sixteen years, receiving tribute from the Ammonites, and was
succeeded by Ahaz, who walked in the ways of the kings of Israel, and
restored idolatrous and superstitious rites. Besieged in Jerusalem by the
forces of Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, and afflicted by the
Edomites and Philistines, he invoked the aid of Tiglath-pileser, king of
Assyria, offering him the treasure of the temple and his royal palace. The
Assyrian monarch responded, and took Damascus, and slew its king. Ahaz,
in his distress, yet sinned still more against the Lord by sacrificing to the
gods of Damascus whither he went to meet the Assyrian king. He died in
the year B.C. 726, after a reign of sixteen years, and Hezekiah, his son,
reigned in his stead.

This prince was one of the best and greatest of the kings of Judah.
He carried his zeal against idolatry so far as to break in pieces the
Hezekiah. brazen serpent of Moses, which had become an object of
superstitious homage. He proclaimed a solemn passover, which was
held in Jerusalem with extraordinary ceremony, and at which 2,000
bullocks and 17,000 sheep were slaughtered. No such day of national
jubilee had been seen since the reign of Solomon. He cut down the groves
in which idolatrous priests performed their mysterious rites, and overthrew
their altars [pg 070] throughout the land. The temple was purified, and the
courses of the priests were restored. Under his encouragement the people

brought in joyfully their tithes to the priests and levites, and offerings for
the temple.

In all his reforms he was ably supported by Isaiah, the most
remarkable of all the prophets who flourished during the latter days
His wars. of the Hebrew monarchy. Under his direction he made war
successfully against the Philistines, and sought to recover the
independence of Judah. In the fourteenth year of his reign,
Sennacherib invaded Palestine. Hezekiah purchased his favor by a present
of three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold, which stripped
his palace and the temple of all their treasure. But whether he neglected to
pay further tribute or not, he offended the king of Assyria, who marched
upon Jerusalem, but was arrested in his purpose by the miraculous
destruction of his army, which caused him to retreat with shame into his
own country. After this his reign was peaceful and splendid, and he
accumulated treasures greater than had been seen in Jerusalem since the
time of Solomon. He also built cities, and diverted the course of the river
Gihar to the western side of his capital, and made pools and conduits. It was
in these years of prosperity that he received the embassadors of the king of
Babylon, and showed unto them his riches, which led to his rebuke by
Isaiah, and the prophecy of the future captivity of his people.

He was succeeded by his son, Manasseh, B.C. 698, who reigned
fifty-five years; but he did not follow out the policy of his father, or
Manasseh. imitate his virtues. He restored idolatry, and “worshiped all the
hosts of heaven,” and built altars to them, as Ahab had done in
Samaria. He was also cruel and tyrannical, and shed much innocent
blood; wherefore, for these and other infamous sins, the Lord, through the
mouth of the prophets, declared that “he would wipe Jerusalem as a man
wipeth a dish,” and would deliver the people into the hands of their
enemies.

[pg 071]

His son, Amon, followed in the steps of his father, but after a brief
reign of two years, was killed by his servants, B.C. 639, and was
Amon. buried in the sepulchre of his family, in the garden of Uzza.

Then followed the noble reign of Josiah—the last independent king
of Judah—whose piety and zeal in destroying idolatry, and great
Josiah. Hisreforms, have made him the most memorable of all the successors
noble of David. He repaired the temple, and utterly destroyed every
reign. vestige of idolatry, assisted by the high priest Hilkiah, who seems
to have been his prime minister. He kept the great feast of the
passover with more grandeur than had ever been known, either in
the days of the judges, or of the kings, his ancestors; nor did any king ever
equal him in his fidelity to the laws of Moses. But notwithstanding all his
piety and zeal, God was not to be turned from chastising Judah for the sins
of Manasseh, and the repeated idolatries of his people; and all that Josiah
could secure was a promise from the Lord that the calamities of his country
should not happen in his day.

In the thirty-first year of his reign, Necho, the king of Egypt, made
war against the king of Babylon, who had now established his
His death. empire on the banks of the Euphrates, over the ruins of the old
Assyrian monarchy. Josiah rashly embarked in the contest, either
with a view of giving his aid to the king of Babylon, or to prevent
the march of Necho, which lay through the great plain of Esdrælon. Josiah,
heedless of all warnings, ventured in person against the Egyptian army,
though in disguise, and was slain by an arrow. His dead body was brought
to Jerusalem, and was buried in one of the sepulchres of his fathers; and all
Judah and Israel mourned for the loss of one of the greatest, and certainly
the best of their kings.

The prophet Jeremiah pronounced his eulogy, and led the lamentations of
the people for this great calamity, B.C. 608.

[pg 072]

The people proclaimed one of his sons, Shallum, to be king, under
the name of Jehoahaz, but the Egyptian conqueror deposed him and
His set up his brother Jehoiakim as a tributary vassal. He reigned
successor. ingloriously for eleven years—an idolator and a tyrant.

In his days Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, came up against
him, having driven the Egyptians out of Palestine. Jehoiakim made his

submission to the conqueror of Egypt, who now reigned over the
whole Assyrian empire, but did not escape captivity in Babylon,
Nebuchad with many other of the first men of the nation, including Daniel,
nezzar and the spoil of Jerusalem. He was restored to the throne, on
wars promise of paying a large tribute. He served the king of Babylon
against three years and then rebelled, hoping to secure the assistance of
Judah. TheEgypt. But he leaned on a broken reed. A Chaldean army laid siege
fall ofto Jerusalem, and Jehoiakim was killed in a sally, B.C. 597. His son
Jerusalem. Jehoiachin had reigned only three months when Nebuchadnezzar, a
Captivity great general, came to carry on the siege in person. The city fell,
of thethe king was carried into captivity, with 10,000 of his subjects,
Jews. among whom were Ezekiel and Mordecai, and only the poorer
Jeremiah. class remained behind. Over these people Nebuchadnezzar set up
Zedekiah, the youngest son of Josiah, as tributary king. Yet even in
this state of degradation and humiliation the Jews, wrought upon by
false prophets, expected deliverance, against the solemn warnings of
Jeremiah, who remained at Jerusalem. Zedekiah, encouraged by the partial
successes of the Egyptians, rebelled, upon which the king of Babylon
resolved upon the complete conquest and utter ruin of the country.
Jerusalem fell into his hands, by assault, and was leveled with the ground,
and the temple was destroyed. Zedekiah, in attempting to escape, was taken,
had his eyes put out, and was carried captive to Babylon, together with the
whole nation, and the country was reduced to utter desolation. It was not,
however, repeopled by heathen settlers, as was Samaria. The [pg 073] small
remnant that remained, under the guidance of Jeremiah, recovered some
civil rights, and supported themselves by the cultivation of the land, and in
their bitter misery learned those lessons which prepared them for a renewed
prosperity after the seventy years captivity. Never afterward was idolatry
practiced by the Jews. But no nation was ever more signally humiliated and
prostrated. Can we hence wonder at the mournful strains of Jeremiah, or the
bitter tears which the captive Jews, now slaves, shed by the rivers of
Babylon when they remembered the old prosperity of Zion.

The Jewish monarchy ended by the capture of Zedekiah. The
kingdom of the ten tribes had already fallen to the same foes, and
The even more disastrously, because the kings of Israel were uniformly
character wicked, without a single exception, and were hopelessly sunk into

of theidolatry; whereas the kings of Judah were good as well as evil, and
kings ofsome of them were illustrious for virtues and talents. The
Judah. descendants of David reigned in Jerusalem in an unbroken dynasty
for more than 500 years, while the monarchs of Samaria were a
succession of usurpers. The degenerate kings were frequently
succeeded by the captains of their guards, who in turn gave way for other
usurpers, all of whom were bad. The dynasty of David was uninterrupted to
the captivity of the nation. And the kingdom of Judah was also more
powerful and prosperous than that of the ten tribes, in spite of their superior
numbers.

But it is time to consider these ten tribes which revolted under
Jeroboam. Their history is uninteresting, and, were it not for the
The tenbeautiful episodes which relate to the prophets who were sent to
tribes. reclaim the people from idolatry, would be without significance
other than that which is drawn from the lives of wicked and
idolatrous kings.

Jeroboam commenced his reign B.C. 975, by setting up for worship
two golden calves in Bethel and Dan, and thus inaugurated
Jeroboam. idolatry: for which his dynasty was short. His [pg 074] son Nadah
His was murdered in a military revolution, B.C. 953, and the usurper of
wicked his throne, Baasha, destroyed his whole house. He, too, was a
reign. wicked prince, and his son Elah was slain by Zimri, captain of his
guard, who now reigned over Israel, after exterminating the whole
family of Elah, but was in his turn assassinated after a reign of
seven years, B.C. 929. Omri, the captain of the guard, was now raised by
the voice of the people to the throne; but he had a rival in Tibni, whom he
succeeded in conquering. Omri reigned twelve years, and bought the hill of
Samaria, on which he built the capital of his kingdom. But he exceeded all
his predecessors in iniquity, and was succeeded by his son Ahab, who
reigned twenty-two years. He was the most infamous of all the kings of
Israel, both for cruelty and idolatry, and his queen, Jezebel, was also unique
in crime—the Messalina and Fredigonde of her age. It was through her
influence that the worship of Baal became the established religion, thus
showing that the general influence of woman on man is evil whenever she

is not Christian. And this is perhaps the reason that the ancients represented
women as worse than men.

It was during the reign of this wicked king that God raised up the
greatest of the ancient prophets—Elijah, and sent him to Ahab with
Elijah. the stern intelligence that there should be no rain until the prophet
Ahab. himself should invoke it. After three years of grievous famine,
during which he sought to destroy the man who prophesied so
much evil, but who was miraculously fed in his flight by the
ravens, Ahab allowed Elijah to do his will.

Thereupon he caused the king to assemble together the whole
people of Israel, through their representatives, upon Mount Carmel,
The together with the four hundred and fifty priests of Baal, and the
destruction four hundred false prophets of the grove, whom Jezebel supported.
of theHe then invoked the people, who, it seems, vacillated in their
priests ofopinions in respect to Jehovah and Baal, to choose finally, [pg 075]
Baal. of these two deities, the God whom they would worship. Having
discomfited the priests of Baal in the trial of sacrifices, and mocked
them with the fiercest irony, thereby showing to the people how
they had been imposed upon, Elijah incited them to the slaughter of these
false prophets and foreign priests, and then set up an altar to the true God.
But all the people had not fallen into idolatry; there still had remained seven
thousand who had not bowed unto Baal.

Rain descended almost immediately, and Ahab departed, and told
Jezebel what had transpired. Hereupon, she was transported with
Wrath ofrage and fury, and sought the life of the prophet. He again escaped,
Jezebel. and by divine command went to the wilderness of Damascus and
anointed Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu to be king over
Israel, and Elisha to be his successor as prophet.

Soon after this, Benhadad, the king of Syria, came from Damascus
with a vast army and thirty-two allied kings, to besiege Samaria.
War withDefeated in a battle with Ahab, the king of Syria fled, but returned
Damascus. the following year with a still larger army for the conquest of
Curse Samaria. But he was again defeated, with the loss of one hundred
thousand men in a single day, and sought to make peace with the

upon king of Israel. Ahab made a treaty with him, instead of taking his
Ahab. life, for which the prophet of the Lord predicted evil upon him and
his people. But the anger of God was still further increased by the
slaughter of Naboth, through the wiles of Jezebel, and the unjust
possession of the vineyard which Ahab had coveted. Elijah, after this
outrage on all the fundamental laws of the Jews, met the king for the last
time, and pronounced a dreadful penalty—that his own royal blood should
be licked up by dogs in the very place where Naboth was slain, and that his
posterity should be cut off from reigning over Israel; also, that his wicked
queen should be eaten by dogs.

In three years after, while attempting to recover Ramoth, in Gilead,
from Benhadad, he lost his life, and was brought in his chariot to
Ahaziah. Samaria to be buried. And the dogs came [pg 076] and licked the
blood from the chariot where it was washed. He was succeeded by
Ahaziah, his son, B.C. 913, who renewed the worship of Baal, and
died after a short and inglorious reign, B.C. 896, without leaving any son,
and Jehoram, his brother, succeeded him. In reference to this king the
Scripture accounts are obscure, and he is sometimes confounded with
Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, who married a daughter of
Ahab. This accounts for the alliance between Jehoshaphat and Ahab, and
also between the two Jehorams, since they were brothers-in-law, which
brought to an end the long wars of seventy years, which had wasted both
Israel and Judah.

Jehoram did evil in the sight of the Lord, but was not disgraced by idolatry.
In his reign the Moabites, who paid a tribute of one hundred thousand sheep
and one hundred thousand lambs, revolted. Jehoram, assisted by the kings
of Judah, and of Edom, marched against them, and routed them, and
destroyed their cities, and filled up their wells, and felled all their good
trees, and covered their good land with stones.

Meanwhile, it happened that there was a grievous famine in
Samaria, so that an ass's head sold for eighty pieces of silver.
Famine inBenhadad, in this time of national distress, came with mighty host
Samaria. and besieged the city; but in the night, in his camp was heard a
mighty sound of chariots and horses, and a panic ensued, and the

Syrians fled, leaving every thing behind them. The spoil of their camp
furnished the starving Samaritans with food.

After this, Jehoram was engaged in war with the Syrians, now ruled
by Hazael, one of the generals of Benhadad, who had murdered his
Wars withmaster. In this war, Jehoram, or Joram, was wounded, and went to
the be healed of his wounds at Jezreel, where he was visited by his
Syrians. kinsman, Ahaziah, who had succeeded to the throne of Judah.
While he lay sick in this place, Jehu, one of his generals, conspired
against him, and drew a bow against him, and the arrow pierced
him so that he died, and his [pg 077] body was cast into Naboth's vineyard.
Thus was the sin against Naboth again avenged. Jehu prosecuted the work
of vengeance assigned to him, and slew Ahaziah, the king of Judah, also,
and then caused Jezebel, the queen mother, to be thrown from a window,
and the dogs devoured her body. He then slew the seventy sons of Ahab,
and all his great men, and his kinsfolk, and his priests, so that none
remained of the house of Ahab, as Elijah had predicted. His zeal did not
stop here, but he collected together, by artifice, all the priests of Baal, and
smote them, and brake their images.

But Jehu, now king of Israel, though he had destroyed the priests of
Baal, fell into the idolatry of Jehoram, and was therefore inflicted
Jehu. with another invasion of the Syrians, who devastated his country,
and decimated his people. He died, after a reign of twenty-eight
years, B.C. 856, and was succeeded by his son, Jehoahaz.

This king also did evil in the sight of the Lord, so that he was made
subject to Hazael, king of Syria, all his days, who ground down and
His oppressed Israel, as the prophet had predicted. He reigned
successors.seventeen years, in sorrow and humiliation, and was succeeded by
his son Johash, who followed the wicked course of his
predecessors. His reign lasted sixteen years, during which Elisha
died. There is nothing in the Scriptures more impressive than the stern
messages which this prophet, as well as Elijah, sent to the kings of Israel,
and the bold rebukes with which he reproached them. Nor is anything more
beautiful than those episodes which pertain to the cure of Naaman, the
Syrian, and the restoration to life of the son of the Shunamite woman, in

reward for her hospitality, and the interview with Hazael before he became
king. All his predictions came to pass. He seems to have lived an isolated
and ascetic life, though he had great influence with the people and the king,
like other prophets of the Lord.

Jeroboam II. succeeded Johash, B.C. 825, and reigned successfully,
and received all the territory which the Syrians had gained, but he
Their shortdid not depart from [pg 078] the idolatry of the golden calves. His
reigns. son and successor, Zachariah, followed his evil courses, and was
slain by Shallum, after a brief reign of six mouths, and the dynasty
of Jehu came to an end, B.C. 772.

Shallum was murdered one month afterward by Menahem, who
reigned ingloriously ten years. It was during his reign that Pul, king
Fall ofof Assyria, invaded his territories, but was induced to retire for a
Samaria. sum of one thousand talents of silver, which he exacted from his
subjects. He was succeeded by Pekaiah, a bad prince, who was
assassinated at the end of two years by Pekah, one of his captains,
who seized his throne. During his reign, which lasted twenty years, Tiglath-
Pilaser, king of Assyria, made war against him, by invitation of Ahaz, and
took his principal cities, and carried their inhabitants captive to Nineveh. He
was assassinated by Hosea, who reigned in his stead. He also was a bad
prince, and became subject to Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, who came up
against him. In the ninth year of his reign, having proved treacherous to
Shalmanezer, the king of Assyria besieged Samaria, and carried him captive
to his own capital. Thus ended the kingdom of the ten tribes, who were now
carried into captivity beyond the Euphrates, and who settled in the eastern
provinces of Assyria, and probably relapsed hopelessly into idolatry,
without ever revisiting their native laud. In all probability most of them
were absorbed among the nations which composed the Assyrian empire,
B.C. 721.

Nineteen sovereigns thus reigned over the children of Israel in
Samaria—a period of two hundred and fifty-four years; not one of
The kingsthem was obedient to the laws of God, and most of whom perished
of Israel. by assassination, or in battle. There is no record in history of more
inglorious kings. There was not a great man nor a good man among

them all. They were, with one or two exceptions, disgraced by the idolatry
of Jeroboam, in whose steps they followed. Nor was their kingdom ever
raised to any considerable height of political power. The history of the
revolted [pg 079] and idolatrous tribes is gloomy and disgraceful, only
relieved by the stern lives of Elijah and Elisha, the only men of note who
remained true to the God of their fathers, and who sought to turn the people
from their sins. “Whereupon the Lord was very angry with Israel, and
removed them out of his sight.”

[pg 080]

CHAPTER VIII.

THE OLD CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN
MONARCHIES.

On a great plain, four hundred miles in length and one hundred
miles in width, forming the valley of the Euphrates, bounded on the
The plainsnorth by Mesopotamia, on the east by the Tigris, on the south by
of the Persian Gulf, and on the west by the Syrian Desert, was
Babylon. established, at a very early period, the Babylonian monarchy. This
plain, or valley, contains about twenty-three thousand square miles,
equal to the Grecian territories. It was destitute of all striking
natural features—furnishing an unbroken horizon. The only interruptions to
the view on this level plain were sand-hills and the embankments of the
river. The river, like the Nile, is subject to inundations, though less regular
than the Nile, and this, of course, deposits a rich alluvial soil. The climate in
summer is intensely hot, and in winter mild and genial. Wheat here is
indigenous, and the vine and other fruits abound in rich luxuriance. The
land was as rich as the valley of the Nile, and was favorable to flocks and
herds. The river was stocked with fish, and every means of an easy
subsistence was afforded.

Into this goodly land a migration from Armenia—the primeval seat
of man—came at a period when history begins. Nimrod and his
The Towerhunters then gained an ascendency over the old settlers, and
of Babel. supplanted them—Cushites, of the family of Ham, and not the
descendants of Shem. The beginning of the kingdom of Nimrod
was Babel, a tower, or temple, modeled after the one which was left
unfinished, or was destroyed. This was erected, probably, B.C. 2334. It was
square, and arose with [pg 081] successive stories, each one smaller than
the one below, presenting an analogy to the pyramidical form. The highest
stage supported the sacred ark. The temple was built of burnt brick. Thus
the race of Ham led the way in the arts in Chaldea as in Egypt, and soon fell
into idolatry. We know nothing, with certainty, of this ancient monarchy,

which lasted, it is supposed, two hundred and fifty-eight years, from B.C.
2234 to 1976. It was not established until after the dispersion of the races.
The dynasty of which Nimrod was the founder came to an end during the
early years of Abraham.

The first king of the new dynasty is supposed to be Chedorlaomer,
though Josephus represents him as a general of the Chaldean king
The who extended the Chaldean conquests to Palestine. His encounters
foundation with the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, and others in the vale of
of theSiddim, tributary princes, and his slaughter by Abraham's servants,
Assyrian are recounted in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis, and put an end
monarchy. to Chaldean conquests beyond the Syrian desert. From his alliance,
however, with the Tidal, king of nations; Amrapher, king of Shinar;
and Arioch, king of Ellasar, we infer that other races, besides the
Hamite, composed the population of Chaldea, of which the subjects of
Chedorlaomer were pre-eminent.

His empire was subverted by Arabs from the desert, B.C. 1518; and an
Arabian dynasty is supposed to have reigned for two hundred and forty-five
years.

This came to an end in consequence of a grand irruption of
Assyrians—of Semitic origin. “Asshur (Gen. 10, 11), the son of
Extension Shem, built Nineveh,” which was on the Tigris. The name Assyria
of thecame to be extended to the whole of Upper Mesopotamia, from the
kingdom. Euphrates to the Tagros mountains. This country consisted of
undulating pastures, diversified by woodlands, and watered by
streams running into the Tigris. Its valleys were rich, its hills were
beautiful, and its climate was cooler than the Chaldean plain.

[pg 082]

It would seem from the traditions preserved by the Greeks, that
Nineveh was ruled by a viceroy of the Babylonian king. This
Nineveh. corresponds with the book of Genesis, which makes the dynasty
Chaldean, while the people were Semitic, since the kingdom of
Asshur was derived from that of Nimrod. “Ninus, the viceroy,”
says Smith, “having revolted from the king of Babylon, overruns Armenia,

Asia Minor, and the shores of the Euxine, as far as Tanais, subdues the
Medes and Persians, and makes war upon the Bactrians. Semiramis, the
wife of one of the chief nobles, coming to the camp before Bactria, takes
the city by a bold stroke. Her courage wins the love of Ninus, and she
becomes his wife. On his death she succeeds to the throne, and undertakes
the conquest of India, but is defeated.” These two sovereigns built Nineveh
on a grand scale, as well as added to the edifices of Babylon.

This king was the founder of the northwest palace of Nineveh, three
hundred and sixty feet long and three hundred wide, standing on a raised
platform overlooking the Tigris, with a grand facade to the north fronting
the town, and another to the west commanding the river. It was built of
hewn stone, and its central hall was one hundred and twenty feet long and
ninety wide. The ceilings were of cedar brought from Lebanon. The walls
were paneled with slabs of marble ornamented with bas-reliefs. The floors
were paved with stone. (See Rawlinson's Herodotus.)

All this is tradition, but recent discoveries in cuneiform literature
shed light upon it. From these, compared with the fragments of
The Berosus, a priest of Babylon in the third century before Christ, and
palaces. the scattered notices of Scripture history, we infer that the dynasty
Assyrian which Belus founded reigned more than five hundred years, from
kings. 1272 to 747 before Christ. Of these kings, Sardanapalus, the most
famous, added Babylonia to the Assyrian empire, and built vast
architectural works. He employed three hundred and sixty thousand
men in the construction of this palace, some of whom were employed in
making brick, and others in [pg 083] cutting timber on Mount Hermon. It
covered an area of eight acres. The palaces of Nineveh were of great
splendor, and the scenes portrayed on the walls, as discovered by Mr.
Layard, lately disinterred from the mounds of earth, represent the king as of
colossal stature, fighting battles, and clothed with symbolic attributes. He
appears as a great warrior, leading captives, and storming cities, and also in
the chase, piercing the lion, and pursuing the wild ass. This monarch should
not be confounded with the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, the last of the
preceding dynasty. His son, Shalmanezer, was also a great prince, and
added to the dominion of the Assyrian empire. Distant nations paid tribute
to him, the Phœnicians, the Syrians, the Jews, and the Medians beyond the

Tagros mountains. He defeated Benhadad and routed Hazael. His reign
ended, it is supposed, B.C. 850. Two other kings succeeded him, who
extended their conquests to the west, the last of whom is identified by
Smith with Pul, the reigning monarch when Jonah visited Nineveh, B.C.
770.

The next dynasty commences with Tiglath-Pileser II., who carried on wars
against Babylon and Syria and Israel. This was in the time of Ahaz, B.C.
729.

His son, Shalmanezer, made Hosea, king of Israel, his vassal, and
reduced the country of the ten tribes to a province of his empire,
Conquests and carried the people away into captivity. Hezekiah was also, for a
of time, his vassal. He was succeeded by Sargon, B.C. 721, according
Shalmanez to Smith, but 715 B.C., according to others. He reigned, as
er. Geseneus thinks, but two or three years; but fifteen according to
Rawlinson, and built that splendid palace, the ruins of which, at
Khorsabad, have supplied the Louvre with its choicest remains of
Assyrian antiquity. He was one of the greatest of the Assyrian conquerors.
He invaded Babylon and drove away its kings; he defeated the Philistines,
took Ashdod and Tyre, received tribute from the Greeks at Cyprus, invaded
even Egypt, whose king paid him tribute, and conquered Media.

[pg 084]

His son, Sennacherib, who came to the throne, B.C. 702, is an
interesting historical personage, and under him the Assyrian empire
Sennacheri reached its culminating point. He added to the palace of Nineveh,
b. and built one which exceeded all that had existed before him. No
Culminati monarch surpassed this one in the magnificence of his buildings.
on of theHe erected no less than thirty temples, shining with silver and gold.
power ofOne of the halls of his palace was two hundred and twenty feet
Nineveh. long, and one hundred and one wide. He made use of Syrian,
Greek, and Phœnician artists. It is from the ruins of this palace at
Koyunjik that Mr. Layard made those valuable discoveries which
have enriched the British Museum. He subdued Babylonia, Upper
Mesopotamia, Syria, Phœnicia, Philistia, Idumaen, and a part of Egypt,
which, with Media, a part of Armenia, and the old Assyrian territory,

formed his vast empire—by far greater than the Egyptian monarchy at any
period. He chastised also the Jews for encouraging a revolt among the
Philistines, and carried away captive two hundred thousand people, and
only abstained from laying siege to Jerusalem by a present from Hezekiah
of three hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold. The destruction of his
host, as recorded by Scripture, is thought by some to have occurred in a
subsequent invasion of Judea, when it was in alliance with Egypt. That “he
returned to Nineveh and dwelt there” is asserted by Scripture, but only to be
assassinated by his sons, B.C. 680.

His son Esar-Haddon succeeded him, a warlike monarch, who fought the
Egyptians, and colonized Samaria with Babylonian settlers. He also built
the palace of Nimrod, and cultivated art.

The civilization of the Assyrians shows a laborious and patient
people. Its chief glory was in architecture. Sculpture was imitated
Assyrian from nature, but had neither the grace nor the ideality of the
civilisation Greeks. War was the grand business of kings, and hunting their
. pleasure. The people were ground down by the double tyranny of
[pg 085] kings and priests. There is little of interest in the Assyrian
annals, and what little we know of their life and manners is chiefly
drawn by inductions from the monuments excavated by Botta and Layard.
The learned treatise of Rawlinson sheds a light on the annals of the
monarchy, which, before the discoveries of Layard, were exceedingly
obscure, and this treatise has been most judiciously abridged, by Smith,
whom I have followed. It would be interesting to consider the mythology of
the Assyrians, but it is too complicated for a work like this.

Under his successors, the empire rapidly declined. Though it
nominally included the whole of Western Asia, from the
Decline ofMediterranean to the desert of Iran, and from the Caspian Sea and
the the mountains of Armenia to the Persian Gulf, it was wanting in
monarchy. unity. It embraced various kingdoms, and cities, and tribes, which
simply paid tribute, limited by the power of the king to enforce it.
The Assyrian armies, which committed so great devastations, did
not occupy the country they chastised, as the Romans and Greeks did. Their
conquests were like those of Tamerlane. As the monarchs became

effeminated, new powers sprung up, especially Media, which ultimately
completed the ruin of Assyria, under Cyaxares. The last of the monarchs
was probably the Sardanapalus of the Greeks.

The decline of this great monarchy was so rapid and complete, that
even Nineveh, the capital city, was blotted out of existence. No
Destructio traces of it remained in the time of Herodotus, and it is only from
n ofrecent excavations that its site is known. Still, it must have been a
Nineveh. great city. The eastern wall of it, as it now appears from the
Its excavations, is fifteen thousand nine hundred feet (about three
remains. miles); but the city probably included vast suburbs, with fortified
towers, so as to have been equal to four hundred and eighty stadias
in circumference, or sixty miles—the three days' journey of Jonah.
It is supposed, with the suburbs, to have contained five hundred thousand
[pg 086] people. The palaces of the great were large and magnificent; but
the dwellings of the people were mean, built of brick dried in the sun. The
palaces consisted of a large number of chambers around a central hall, open
to the sky, since no pillars are found necessary to support a roof. No traces
of windows are found in the walls, which were lined with slabs of coarse
marble, with cuneiform inscriptions. The façade of the palaces we know
little about, except that the entrances to them were lined by groups of
colossal bulls. These are sculptured with considerable spirit, but art, in the
sense that the Greeks understood it, did not exist. In the ordinary appliances
of life the Assyrians were probably on a par with the Egyptians; but they
were debased by savage passions and degrading superstitions. They have
left nothing for subsequent ages to use. Nothing which has contributed to
civilization remains of their existence. They have furnished no models of
literature, art, or government.

While Nineveh was rising to greatness, Babylon was under an
eclipse, and thus lasted six hundred and fifty years. It was in the
Growth ofyear 1273 that this eclipse began. But a great change took place in
Babylon. the era of Narbonassar, B.C. 747, when Babylon threatened to
secure its independence, and which subsequently compelled Esar-
Haddon, the Assyrian monarch, to assume, in his own person, the
government of Babylon, B.C. 680.

In 625 B.C. the old Chaldeans recovered their political importance,
probably by an alliance with the Medes, and Nabopolassar obtained
The undisputed possession of Babylon, and founded a short but brilliant
Chaldean dynasty. He obtained a share of the captives of Nineveh, and
monarchy. increased the population of his capital. His son, Nebuchadnezzar,
was sent as general against the Egyptians, and defeated their king,
Neko, reconquered all the lands bordering on Egypt, and received
the submission of Jehoiakim, of Jerusalem. The death of Nabopolassar
recalled his son to Babylon, and his great reign began B.C. 604.

[pg 087]

It was he who enlarged the capital to so great an extent that he may
almost be said to have built it. It was in the form of a square, on
Nebuchad both banks of the Euphrates, forty-eight miles in circuit, according
nezzar. to Herodotus, with an area of two hundred square miles—large
Magnifice enough to support a considerable population by agriculture alone.
nce ofThe walls of this city, if we accept the testimony of Herodotus,
Babylon. were three hundred and fifty feet high, and eighty-seven feet thick,
and were strengthened by two hundred and fifty towers, and
pierced with one hundred gates of brass. The river was lined by
quays, and the two parts of the city were united by a stone bridge, at each
end of which was a fortified palace. The greatest work of the royal architect
was the new palace, with the adjoining hanging garden—a series of terraces
to resemble hills, to please his Median queen. This palace, with the garden,
was eight miles in circumference, and splendidly decorated with statues of
men and animals. Here the mighty monarch, after his great military
expeditions, solaced himself, and dreamed of omnipotence, until a sudden
stroke of madness—that form which causes a man to mistake himself for a
brute animal—sent him from his luxurious halls into the gardens he had
planted. His madness lasted seven years, and he died, after a reign of forty-
three years, B.C. 561, and Evil-Merodach, his son, reigned in his stead.

He was put to death two years after, for lawlessness and
intemperance, and was succeeded by his brother-in-law and
Fall of themurderer, Neriglissar. So rapid was the decline of the monarchy,
Monarchy. that after a few brief reigns Babylon was entered by the army of

Cyrus, and the last king, Bil-shar-utzur, or Bilshassar, associated with his
father Nabonadius, was slain, B.C. 538. Thus ended the Chaldean
monarchy, seventeen hundred and ninety-six years after the building of
Babel by Nimrod, according to the chronology it is most convenient to
assume.

[pg 088]

CHAPTER IX.

THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS.

The third of the great Oriental monarchies brought in contact with
the Jews was that of the Medes and Persians, which arose on the
The dissolution of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires. The nations
country ofwe have hitherto alluded to were either Hamite or Shemite. But our
the Medesattention is now directed to a different race, the descendants of
and Japhet. Madai, the third son of Japhet, was the progenitor of the
Persians. Medes, whose territory extended from the Caspian Sea on the
The north, to the mountains of Persia on the south, and from the
martial highlands of Armenia and the chain of Tagros on the west, to the
character great desert of Iran on the east. It comprised a great variety of
of theclimate, and was intersected by mountains whose valleys were
people. fruitful in corn and fruits. “The finest part of the country is an
Early elevated region inclosed by the offshoots of the Armenian
kings ofmountains, and surrounding the basin of the great lake Urumizu,
Media. four thousand two hundred feet above the sea, and the valleys of
the ancient Mardus and the Araxes, the northern boundary of the
land. In this mountain region stands Tabris, the delightful summer
seat of the modern Persian shahs. The slopes of the Tagros furnish excellent
pasture; and here were reared the famous horses which the ancients called
Nisæan. The eastern districts are flat and pestilential, where they sink down
to the shores of the Caspian Sea; rugged and sterile where they adjoin the
desert of Iran.” The people who inhabited this country were hardy and bold,
and were remarkable for their horsemanship. They were the greatest
warriors [pg 089] of the ancient world, until the time of the Greeks. They
were called Aryans by Herodotus. They had spread over the highlands of
Western Asia in the primeval ages, and formed various tribes. The first
notice of this Aryan (or Arian) race, appears in the inscriptions on the black
obelisk of Nimrod, B.C. 880, from which it would appear that this was
about the period of the immigration into Media, and they were then exposed
to the aggressions of the Assyrians. “The first king who menaced their
independence was the monarch whose victories are recorded on the black

obelisk in the British Museum.” He made a raid into, rather than a conquest
of, the Median country. Sargon, the third monarch of the Lower Empire,
effected something like a conquest, and peopled the cities which he founded
with Jewish captives from Samaria, B.C. 710. Media thus became the most
eastern province of his empire, but the conquest of it was doubtless
incomplete. The Median princes paid tribute to the kings of Nineveh, or
withheld it, according to their circumstances.

According to Ctesias, the Median monarchy commenced B.C. 875;
but Herodotus, with greater probable accuracy, places the
Deioces. beginning of it B.C. 708. The revolt of Media from Assyria was
followed by the election of Deioces, who reigned fifty-three years.
The history of this king is drawn through Grecian sources, and can
not much be depended upon. According to the legends, the seven tribes of
the Medes, scattered over separate villages, suffered all the evils of anarchy,
till the reputation of Deioces made him the arbiter of their disputes. He then
retired into private life; anarchy returned, a king was called for, and Deioces
was elected. He organized a despotic power, which had its central seat in
Ecbatana, which he made his capital, built upon a hill, on the summit of
which was the royal palace, where the king reigned in seclusion, transacting
all business through spies, informers, petitions, and decrees. Such is the
account which Rawlinson gives, and which Smith follows.

[pg 090]

The great Median kingdom really began with Cyaxares, about the
year B.C. 633, when the Assyrian empire was waning. He emerges
Cyaxares. from the obscurity like Attila and Gengis Khan, and other eastern
conquerors, at the head of irresistible hordes, sweeps all away
before him, and builds up an enormous power. This period was
distinguished by a great movement among the Turanian races
(Cimmerians), living north of the Danube, which, according to Herodotus,
made a great irruption into Asia Minor, where some of the tribes effected a
permanent settlement; while the Scythians, from Central Asia, overran
Media, crossed the Zagros mountains, entered Mesopotamia, passed
through Syria to Egypt, and held the dominion of Western Asia, till expelled
by Cyaxares. He only established his new kingdom after a severe conflict

between the Scythian and Aryan races, which had hitherto shared the
possession of the tablelands of Media.

From age to age the Turanian races have pressed forward to occupy
the South, and it was one of these great movements which
The Cyaxares opposed, and opposed successfully—the first recorded in
irruption history. These nomads of Tartary, or Scythian tribes, which overran
of theWestern Asia in the seventh century before Christ, under the new
Turanian names of Huns, Avari, Bulgarians, Magyars, Turks, Mongols,
races. devastated Europe and Asia for fifteen successive centuries. They
have been the scourge of the race, and they commenced their
incursions before Grecian history begins.

Learning from these Scythian invaders many arts, not before
practiced in war, such as archery and cavalry movements, Cyaxares
Conquests was prepared to extend his empire to the west over Armenia and
of Asia Minor, as far as the river Halys. He made war in Lydia with
Cyaxares. the father of Crœsus. But before these conquests were made, he
probably captured Nineveh and destroyed it, B.C. 625. He was here
assisted by the whole force of the Babylonians, under
Nabopolassar, an old general of the Assyrians, but who had rebelled. In
reward he obtained for his son, Nebuchadnezzar, [pg 091] the hand of the
daughter of Cyaxares. The last of the Assyrian monarchs, whom the Greeks
have called Sardanapalus, burned himself in his palace rather than fall into
the hands of the Median conqueror.

The fall of Nineveh led to the independence of Babylon, and its
wonderful growth, and also to the conquests of the Medes as far as
War withLydia to the west. The war with Lydia lasted six years, and was
Lydia. carried on with various success, until peace was restored by the
mediation of a Babylonian prince. The reason that peace was made
was an eclipse of the sun, which happened in the midst of a great
battle, which struck both armies with superstitious fears. On the conclusion
of peace, the son of the Median king, Astyages, married the daughter of the
Lydian monarch, Alyattes, and an alliance was formed between Media and
Lydia.

At this time Lydia comprised nearly all of Asia Minor, west of the
Halys. The early history of this country is involved in obscurity.
The The dynasty on the throne, when invaded by the Medes, was
Lydian founded by Gyges, B.C. 724, who began those aggressions on the
monarchy. Grecian colonies which were consummated by Crœsus. Under the
reign of Ardys, his successor, Asia Minor was devastated by the
Cimmerians, a people who came from the regions north of the
Black Sea, between the Danube and the Sea of Azov, being driven away by
an inundation of Scythians, like that which afterward desolated Media.
These Cimmerians, having burned the great temple of Diana, at Ephesus,
and destroyed the capital city of Sardis, were expelled from Lydia by
Alyattes, the monarch against whom Cyaxares had made war.

Cyaxares reigned forty years, and was succeeded by Astyages, B.C.
593, whose history is a total blank, till near the close of his long
Astyages. reign of thirty-five years, when the Persians under Cyrus arose to
power. He seems to have resigned himself to the ordinary condition
of Oriental kings—to effeminacy and luxury—brought [pg 092]
about by the prosperity which he inherited. He was contemporary with
Crœsus, the famous king of Lydia, whose life has been invested with so
much romantic interest by Herodotus—the first of the Asiatic kings who
commenced hostile aggression on the Greeks. After making himself master
of all the Greek States of Asia Minor, he combated a power which was
destined to overturn the older monarchies of the East—that of the Persians
—a race closely connected with the Medes in race, language, and religion.

The Persians first appear in history as a hardy, warlike people,
simple in manners and scornful of luxury. They were uncultivated
The earlyin art and science, but possessed great wit, and a poetical
history ofimagination. They lived in the mountainous region on the
the southwest of Iran, where the great plain descends to the Persian
Persians. Gulf. The sea-coast is hot and arid, as well as the eastern region
where the mountains pass into the table-land of Iran. Between these
tracts, resembling the Arabian desert, lie the high lands at the
extremity of the Zagros chain. These rugged regions, rich in fruitful valleys,
are favorable to the cultivation of corn, of the grape, and fruits, and afford
excellent pasturage for flocks. In the northern part is the beautiful plain of

Shiraz, which forms the favorite residence of the modern shahs. In the
valley of Bend-amir was the old capital of Persepolis, whose ruins attest the
magnificent palaces of Darius and Xerxes. Persia proper was a small
country, three hundred miles from north to south, and two hundred and
eighty from east to west, inhabited by an Aryan race, who brought with
them, from the country beyond the Indus, a distinctive religion, language,
and political institutions. Their language was closely connected with the
Aryan dialects of India, and the tongues of modern Europe. Hence the
Persians were noble types of the great Indo-European family, whose
civilization has spread throughout the world. Their religion was the least
corrupted of the ancient races, and was marked by a keen desire to arrive at
truth, and entered, in the time of the Gnostics, into the [pg 093] speculations
of the Christian fathers, of whom Origen was the type. Their teachers were
the Magi, a wise and learned caste, some of whom came to Jerusalem in the
time of Herod, guided by the star in the East, to institute inquiries as to the
birth of Christ. They attempted to solve the mysteries of creation, but their
elemental principle of religion was worship of all the elements, especially
of fire. But the Persians also believed in the two principles of good and evil,
which were called the principle of dualism, and which they brought from
India. It is thought by Rawlinson that the Persians differed in their religion
from the primeval people of India, whose Vedas, or sacred books, were
based on monotheism, in its spiritual and personal form, and that, for the
heresy of “dualism,” they were compelled to migrate to the West. The
Medes, with whom they subsequently became associated, were inclined to
the old elemental worship of nature, which they learned from the Turanian
or Scythic population.

The great man among the Persians was Zoroaster—or Zerdusht,
born, probably, B.C. 589. He is immortal, not from his personal
Zoroaster. history, the details of which we are ignorant, but from his ideas,
His which became the basis of the faith of the Persians. He stamped his
religion. mind on the nation, as Mohammed subsequently did upon Arabia.
His central principle was “dualism”—the two powers of good and
evil—the former of which was destined ultimately to conquer. But
with this dualistic creed of the old Persian, he also blended a reformed
Magian worship of the elements, which had gained a footing among the
Chaldean priests, and which originally came from the Scythic invaders.

Magism could not have come from the Semitic races, whose original
religion was theism, like that of Melchisedek and Abraham; nor from the
Japhetic races, or Indo-European, whose worship was polytheism—that of
personal gods under distinct names, like Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The
first to yield to this Magism were the Medes, who adopted the religion of
older settlers,—the Scythic tribes, [pg 094] their subjects,—and which faith
superseded the old Aryan religion.

The Persians, the flower of the Aryan races, were peculiarly
military in all their habits and aspirations. Their nobles, mounted
Character on a famous breed of horses, composed the finest cavalry in the
of theworld. Nor was their infantry inferior, armed with lances, shields,
Persians. and bows. Their military spirit was kept alive by their mountain life
and simple habits and strict discipline.

Astyages, we have seen, was the last of the Median kings. He
married his daughter, according to Herodotus, to Cambyses, a
Rise ofPersian noble, preferring him to a higher alliance among the
Cyrus. Median princes, in order that a dream might not be fulfilled that her
offspring should conquer Asia. On the return of the dream he
sought to destroy the child she was about to bear, but it was
preserved by a herdsman; and when the child was ten years of age he was
chosen by his playfellows on the mountains to be their king. As such he
caused the son of a noble Median to be scourged for disobedience, who
carried his complaint to Astyages. The Median monarch finds out his
pedigree from the herdsman, and his officer, Harpagns, to whom he had
intrusted the commission for his destruction. He invites, in suppressed
anger, this noble to a feast, at which he serves up the flesh of his own son.
Harpagus, in revenge, conspires with some discontented nobles, and invites
Cyrus, this boy-king, now the bravest of the youths of his age and country,
to a revolt. Cyrus leads his troops against Astyages, and gains a victory, and
also the person of the sovereign, and his great reign began, B.C. 558.

The dethronement of Astyages caused a war between Lydia and
Persia. Crœsus hastens to attack the usurper and defend his father-
His wars. in-law. He forms a league with Babylonia and Egypt. Thus the
three most powerful monarchs of the world are arrayed against

Cyrus, who is prepared to meet the confederation. Crœsus is defeated, and
retreats to his capital, Sardis; and the next [pg 095] spring, while
summoning his allies, is attacked unexpectedly by Cyrus, and is again
defeated. He now retires to Sardia, which is strongly fortified, and the city
is besieged, by the Persians, and falls after a brief siege. Crœsus himself is
spared, and in his adversity gives wise counsel to his conqueror.

Cyrus leaves a Lydian in command of the captured city, and departs
for home. A revolt ensues, which leads to a collision between
His greatPersia and the Greek colonies, and the subjection of the Grecian
empire. cities by Harpagus, the general of Cyrus. Then followed the
conquest of Asia Minor, which required several years, and was
conducted by the generals of Cyrus. He was required in Media, to
consolidate his power. He then extended his conquests to the East, and
subdued the whole plateau of Iran, to the mountains which divided it from
the Indus. Thus fifteen years of splendid military successes passed before he
laid siege to Babylon, B.C. 538.

On the fall of that great city Cyrus took up his residence in it, as the
imperial capital of his vast dominion. Here he issued his decree for
He makesthe return of the Jews to their ancient territory, and for the
Babylon rebuilding of their temple, after seventy years' captivity. This
his capital. decree was dictated by the sound military policy of maintaining the
frontier territory of Palestine against his enemies in Asia Minor,
which he knew the Jews would do their best to preserve, and this
policy he carried out with noble generosity, and returned to the Jews the
captured vessels of silver and gold which Nebuchadnezzar had carried
away; and for more than two centuries Persia had no warmer friends and
allies than the obedient and loyal subjects of Judea.

Cyrus fell in battle while fighting a tribe of Scythians at the east of
the Caspian Sea, B.C. 529, He was the greatest general that the
Greatness Oriental world ever produced, and well may rank with Alexander
of thehimself. His reign of twenty-nine years was one constant
reign ofsuccession of wars, in which he was uniformly successful, and in
Cyrus. which [pg 096] success was only equaled by his magnanimity. His

empire extended from the Indus to the Hellespont and the Syrian coast, far
greater than that of either Assyria or Babylonia.

The result of the Persian conquest on the conquerors themselves
was to produce habits of excessive luxury, a wide and vast
Degenerac departure from their original mode of life, which enfeebled the
y of theempire, and prepared the way for a rapid decline.
Persian
conquerors Cambyses, however, the son and successor of Cyrus,
. carried out his policy and conquests. He was, unlike his
Cambyses. father, a tyrant and a sensualist, but possessed considerable
military genius. He conquered Phœnicia, and thus became
master of the sea as well as of the land. He then quarreled
with Amasis, the king of Egypt, and subdued his kingdom.

Like an eastern despot, he had, while in Egypt, in an hour of
madness and caprice, killed his brother, Smerdis. It happened there
His follies. was a Magian who bore a striking resemblance to the murdered
prince. With the help of his brother, whom the king had left
governor of his household, this Magian usurped the throne of
Persia, while Cambyses was absent, the death of the true Smerdis having
been carefully concealed.

The news of the usurpation reached Cambyses while returning
from an expedition to Syria. An accidental wound from the point of
Usurpation his sword proved mortal, B.C. 522. But Cambyses, about to die,
of thecalled his nobles around him, and revealed the murder of his
Magians. brother, and exhorted them to prevent the kingdom falling into the
hands of the Medes. He left no children.

The usurper proved a tyrant. A conspiracy of Persians followed,
headed by the descendants of Cyrus; and Darius, the chief of these
Darius. —the son of Hystaspes, became king of Persia, after Smerdis had
reigned seven months. But this reign, brief as it was, had restored
the old Magian priests to power, who had, by their magical arts, [pg
097] great popularity with the people, not only Medes, but Persians.

Darius restored the temples and the worship which the Magian
priests had overthrown, and established the religion of Zoroaster.
His The early years of his reign were disturbed by rebellions in
conquests. Babylonia and Media, but these were suppressed, and Darius
prosecuted the conquests which Cyrus had begun. He invaded both
India and Scythia, while his general, Megabazus, subdued Thrace
and the Greek cities of the Hellespont.

The king of Macedonia acknowledged the supremacy of the great
monarch of Asia, and gave the customary present of earth and
His water. Darius returned at length to Susa to enjoy the fruit of his
greatness. victories, and the pleasures which his great empire afforded. For
twenty years his glories were unparalleled in the East, and his life
was tranquil.

But in the year B.C. 500, a great revolt of the Ionian cities took
place. It was suppressed, at first, but the Atticans, at Marathon,
The revoltdefeated the Persian warriors, B.C. 490, and the great victory
of thechanged the whole course of Asiatic conquest. Darius made vast
Ionian preparations for a new invasion of Greece, but died before they
cities. were completed, after a reign of thirty-six years, B.C. 485, leaving
a name greater than that of any Oriental sovereign, except Cyrus.

Unfortunately for him and his dynasty, he challenged the spirit of
western liberty, then at its height among the cities of Greece. His
Xerxes. successor, Xerxes, inherited his power, but not his genius, and
rashly provoked Europe by new invasions, while he lived
ingloriously in his seraglio. He was murdered in his palace, the fate
of the great tyrants of eastern monarchies, for in no other way than by the
assassin's dagger could a change of administration take place—a poor
remedy, perhaps, but not worse than the disease itself. This tyrant was the
Ahasuerus of the Scriptures.

[pg 098]

We need not follow the fortunes of the imbecile princes who succeeded
Xerxes, for the Persian monarchy was now degenerate and weakened, and

easily fell under the dominion of Alexander, who finally overthrew
the power of Persia, B.C. 330.
Fate of the
Persian And this was well. The Persian monarchy was an absolute
empire. despotism, like that of Turkey, and the monarch not only
Its controlled the actions of his subjects, but was the owner
characteris even of their soil. He delegated his power to satraps, who
tics. ruled during his pleasure, but whose rule was disgraced by
every form of extortion—sometimes punished, however,
when it became outrageous and notorious. The satraps, like
pashas, were virtually independent princes, and exercised all the rights of
sovereigns so long as they secured the confidence of the supreme monarch,
and regularly remitted to him the tribute which was imposed. The satrapies
were generally given to members of the royal family, or to great nobles
connected with it by marriage. The monarch governed by no council, and
the laws centered in the principle that the will of the king was supreme. The
only check which he feared was assassination, and he generally spent his
life in the retirement of his seraglio, at Susa, Babylon, or Ecbatana.

The Persian empire was the last of the great monarchies of the Oriental
world, and these flourished for a period of two thousand years. When
nations became wicked or extended over a large territory, the patriarchal
rule of the primitive ages no longer proved an efficient government. Men
must be ruled, however, in some way, and the irresponsible despotism of the
East, over all the different races, Semitic, Hamite, and Japhetic, was the
government which Providence provided, in a state of general rudeness, or
pastoral simplicity, or oligarchal usurpations. The last great monarchy was
the best; it was that which was exercised by the descendants of Japhet,
according to the prediction that he should dwell in the tents of Shem, and
Canaan should be his servant.

[pg 099]
Before we follow the progress of the descendants of Japhet in Greece,
among whom a new civilization arose, designed to improve the condition of
society by the free agency displayed in art, science, literature, and
government—the rise, in short, of free institutions—we will glance at the

nations in Asia Minor which were brought in contact with the powers we
have so briefly considered.

[pg 100]

CHAPTER X.

ASIA MINOR AND PHŒNICIA.

Concerning the original inhabitants of Asia Minor our information
is very scanty. The works of Strabo shed an indefinite light, and the
Original author of the Iliad seems to have been but imperfectly acquainted
inhabitants with either the geography or the people of that extensive country.
of AsiaAccording to Herodotus, the river Halys was the most important
Minor. geographical limit; nor does he mention the great chain of Taurus,
which begins from the southern coast of Lycia, and strikes
northeastward as far as Armenia—the most important boundary
line in the time of the Romans. Northward of Mount Taurus, on the upper
portion of the river Halys, was situated the spacious plain of Asia Minor.
The northeast and south of this plain was mountainous, and was bounded by
the Euxine, the Ægean, and the Pamphylian seas. The northwestern part
included the mountainous region of Ida, Temnus, and Olympus. The
peninsula was fruitful in grains, wine, fruit, cattle, and oil.

Along the western shores of this great peninsula were Pelasgians,
Mysians, Bythinians, Phrygians, Lydians, and other nations, before
Its variousthe Greeks established their colonies. Further eastward were
nations. Lycians, Pisidians, Phrygians, Cappadocians, Paphlagonians, and
others. The Phrygians, Mysians, and Teucrians were on the
northwest. These various nations were not formed into large
kingdoms or confederacies, nor even into large cities, but were
inconsiderable tribes, that presented no formidable resistance to external
enemies. The most powerful people were the Lydians, whose capital was
Sardis, who were ruled by [pg 101] Gyges, 700 B.C. This monarchy
extinguished the independence of the Greek cities on the coast, without
impeding their development in wealth and civilization. All the nations west
of the river Halys were kindred in language and habits. East of the Halys
dwelt Semitic races, Assyrians, Syrians, Cappadocians, and Cilicians. Along
the coast of the Euxine dwelt Bythinians, Marandynians, and Paphlagonians
—branches of the Thracian race. Along the southern coast of the Propontis

were the Doliones and Pelasgians. In the region of Mount Ida were the
Teucrians and Mysians. All these races had a certain affinity with the
Thracians, and all modified the institutions of the Greeks who settled on the
coast for purposes of traffic or colonization. The music of the Greeks was
borrowed from the Phrygians and Lydians. The flute is known to have been
invented, or used by the Phrygians, and from them to have passed to Greek
composers.

The ancient Phrygians were celebrated chiefly for their flocks and
agricultural produce, while the Lydians, dwelling in cities,
The possessed much gold and and silver. But there are few great
Phrygians historical facts connected with either nation. There is an interesting
legend connected with the Phrygian town of Gordium. The
primitive king, Gordius, was originally a poor husbandman, upon
the yoke of whose team, as he tilled the field, an eagle perched. He
consulted the augurs to explain the curious portent, and was told that the
kingdom was destined for his family. His son was Midas, offspring of a
maiden of prophetic family. Soon after, dissensions breaking out among the
Phrygians, they were directed by an oracle to choose a king, whom they
should first see approaching in a wagon. Gordius and his son Midas were
the first they saw approaching the town, and the crown was conferred upon
them. The wagon was consecrated, and became celebrated for a knot which
no one could untie. Whosoever should untie that knot was promised the
kingdom of Asia. It remained untied until Alexander the Great cut it with
his sword.

[pg 102]

The Lydians became celebrated for their music, of which the chief
instruments were the flute and the harp. Their capital, Sardis, was
The situated on a precipitous rock, and was deemed impregnable.
Lydians. Among their kings was Crœsus, whose great wealth was derived
Gyges. from the gold found in the sands of the river Pactolus, which
flowed toward the Hermus from Mount Tmolus, and also from the
industry of his subjects. They were the first on record to coin gold
and silver. The antiquity of the Lydian monarchy is very great, and was
traced to Heracles. The Heracleid dynasty lasted five hundred and five

years, and ended with Myrsus, or Kandaules. His wife was of exceeding
beauty, and the vanity of her husband led him to expose her person to
Gyges, commander of his guard. The affronted wife, in revenge, caused her
husband to be assassinated, and married Gyges. A strong party opposed his
ascent to the throne, and a civil war ensued, which was terminated by a
consultation of the oracle, which decided in favor of Gyges, the first
historical king of Lydia, about the year 715 B.C.

With this king commenced the aggressions from Sardis on the
Asiatic Greeks, which ended in their subjection. How far the
His Lydian kingdom of Sardis extended during the reign of Gyges is
prosperous not known, but probably over the whole Troad, to Abydus, on the
reign. Hellespont. Gyges reigned thirty-eight years, and was succeeded by
his son Ardys, during whose reign was an extensive invasion of the
Cimmerians, and a collision between the inhabitants of Lydia and
those of Upper Asia, under the Median kings, who first acquired importance
about the year 656 B.C. under a king called, by the Greeks, Phraortes, son
of Deioces, who built the city of Ecbatana.

Phraortes greatly extended the empire of the Medes, and conquered
the Persians, but was defeated and slain by the Assyrians of
Alliance ofNineveh. His son, Cyaxares (636-595 B.C.) continued the Median
Lydia withconquests to the river Halys, which was the boundary between the
Persia. [pg 103] Lydian and Median kingdoms. A war between these two
powers was terminated by the marriage of the daughter of the
Lydian king with the son of the Median monarch, Cyaxares, who
shortly after laid siege to Nineveh, but was obliged to desist by a sudden
inroad of Scythians.

This inroad of the Scythians in Media took place about the same
time that the Cimmerians invaded Lydia, a nomad race which
Scythian probably inhabited the Tauric Chersonessus (Crimea), and had once
inroads. before desolated Asia Minor before the time of Homer. The
Their Cimmerians may have been urged forward into Asia Minor by an
characteris invasion of the Scythians themselves, a nomadic people who
tics. neither planted nor reaped, but lived on food derived from animals
—prototypes of the Huns, and also progenitors—a formidable race

of barbarians, in the northern section of Central Asia, east of the Caspian
Sea. The Cimmerians fled before this more warlike race, abandoned their
country on the northern coast of the Euxine, and invaded Asia Minor. They
occupied Sardis, and threatened Ephesus, and finally were overwhelmed in
the mountainous regions of Cilicia. Some, however, effected a settlement in
the territory where the Greek city of Sinope was afterward built.

Ardys was succeeded by his son Tadyattes, who reigned twelve
years; and his son and successor, Alyattes, expelled the Cimmerians
Scythian from Asia Minor. But the Scythians, who invaded Media, defeated
conquests. the king, Cyaxares, and became masters of the country, and spread
as far as Palestine, and enjoyed their dominion twenty-eight years,
until they were finally driven away by Cyaxares. These nomadic
tribes from Tartary were the precursors of Huns, Avars, Bulgarians,
Magyars, Turks, Mongols, and Tartars, who, at different periods, invaded
the civilized portions of Asia and Europe, and established a dominion more
or less durable.

Cyaxares, after the expulsion of the Scythians, took Nineveh, and
reduced the Assyrian empire, while Alyattes, the king of Lydia,
Crœsus. after the Cimmerians were subdued, made [pg 104] war on the
Greet city of Miletus, and reduced the Milesians to great distress,
and also took Smyrna. He reigned fifty-seven years with great
prosperity, and transmitted his kingdom to Crœsus, his son by an Ionian
wife. His tomb was one of the architectural wonders of that day, and only
surpassed by the edifices of Egypt and Babylon.

Crœsus made war on the Asiatic Greeks, and as the twelve Ionian
cities did not co-operate with any effect, they were subdued. He
His extended his conquests over Asia Minor, until he had conquered the
prosperity. Phrygians, Mysians, and other nations, and created a great empire,
of which Sardia was the capital. The treasures lie amassed
exceeded any thing before known to the Greeks, though inferior to
the treasures accumulated at Susa and other Persian capitals when
Alexander conquered the East.

But the Lydian monarchy under Crœsus was soon absorbed in the Persian
empire, together with the cities of the Ionian Greeks, as has been narrated.

But there was another power intimately connected with the
kingdom of Judea,—the Phœnician, which furnished Solomon
The artists and timber for his famous temple. We close this chapter with
Phœnician a brief notice of the greatest merchants of the ancient world, the
s. Phœnicians.

They belonged, as well as the Assyrians, to the Semitic or
Syro-Arabian family, comprising, besides, the Syrians,
Their Jews, Arabians, and in part the Abyssinians. They were at a
Semitic very early period a trading and mercantile nation, and the
origin. variegated robes and golden ornaments fabricated at Sidon
were prized by the Homeric heroes. They habitually
traversed the Ægean Sea, and formed settlements on its
islands.

The Phœnician towns occupied a narrow slip of the coast of Syria
and Palestine, about one hundred and twenty miles in length, and
The generally about twenty in breadth—between Mount Libanus and
country. the sea, Aradus was the northernmost, and Tyre the southernmost
city. Between these were situated Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, and
Byblus. Within this [pg 105] confined territory was concentrated a
greater degree of commercial wealth and enterprise, also of manufacturing
skill, than could be found in the other parts of the world at the time. Each
town was an independent community, having its own surrounding territory,
and political constitution and hereditary prince. Tyre was a sort of presiding
city, having a controlling political power over the other cities. Mount
Libanus, or Lebanon, touched the sea along the Phœnician coast, and
furnished abundant supplies for ship-building.

The great Phœnician deity was Melkarth, whom the Greeks called
Hercules, to whom a splendid temple was erected at Tyre, coeval,
Phœnician perhaps, with the foundation of the city two thousand three hundred
cities. years before the time of Herodotus. In the year 700 B.C., the
Phœnicians seemed to have reached their culminating power, and
they had colonies in Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. Carthage,
Utica, and Gades were all flourishing cities before the first Olympiad. The
commerce of the Phœnicians extended through the Red Sea and the coast of

Arabia in the time of Solomon. They furnished the Egyptians, Assyrians,
and Persians with the varied productions of other countries at a very remote
period.

The most ancient colonies were Utica and Carthage, built in what is
now called the gulf of Tunis; and Cades, now Cadiz, was
Phœnician prosperous one thousand years before the Christian era. The
colonies. enterprising mariners of Tyre coasted beyond the pillars of
Hercules without ever losing sight of land. The extreme
productiveness of the southern region of Spain in the precious
metals tempted the merchants to that distant country. But Carthage was by
far the most important centre for Tyrian trade, and became the mistress of a
large number of dependent cities.

When Psammetichus relaxed the jealous exclusion of ships from the mouth
of the Nile, the incitements to traffic were greatly increased, and the
Phœnicians, as well as Ionian merchants, visited Egypt. But the Phœnicians
were [pg 106] jealous of rivals in profitable commerce, and concealed their
tracks, and magnified the dangers of the sea. About the year 600 B.C., they
had circumnavigated Africa, starting from the Red Sea, and going round the
Cape of Good Hope to Gades, and from thence returning by the Nile.

It would seem that Nechos, king of Egypt, anxious to procure a
water communication between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean,
Voyage ofbegan digging a canal from one to the other. In the prosecution of
the this project he dispatched Phœnicians on an experimental voyage
Phœnician round Libya, which was accomplished, in three years. The mariners
s. landed in the autumn, and remained long enough to plant corn and
raise a crop for their supplies. They reached Egypt through the
Straits of Gibraltar, and recounted a tale, which, says Herodotus,
“others may believe it if they choose, but I can not believe, that in sailing
round Libya, they had the sun on their right and—to the north.” In going
round Africa they had no occasion to lose sight of land, and their vessels
were amply stored. The voyage, however, was regarded as desperate and
unprofitable, and was not repeated.

Besides the trade which the Phœnicians carried on along the coasts, they
had an extensive commerce in the interior of Asia. But we do not read of

any great characters who arrested the attention of their own age or
succeeding ages, Phœnician history is barren in political changes and great
historical characters, as is that of Carthage till the Roman wars.

Between the years 700 and 530 B.C., there was a great decline of
Phœnician power, which was succeeded by the rise of the Greek
Decline ofmaritime cities. Nebuchadnezzar reduced the Phœnician cities to
Phœnician the same dependence that the Ionian cities were reduced by Crœsus
power. and Cyrus. The opening of the Nile to the Grecian commerce
contributed to the decline of Phœnicia. But to this country the
Greeks owed the alphabet and the first standard of weights and
measures.

[pg 107]

Carthage, founded 819 B.C., by Dido, had a flourishing commerce
in the sixth century before Christ, and also commenced, at this
Carthage. time, their encroachments in Sicily, which led to wars for two
hundred and fifty years with the Greek settlements. It contained, it
is said, at one time, seven hundred thousand people. But a further
notice of their great city is reserved until allusion is made to the Punic wars
which the Romans waged with this powerful State.

[pg 108]

CHAPTER XI.

JEWISH HISTORY FROM THE BABYLONIAN
CAPTIVITY TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST.—THE
HIGH PRIESTS AND THE ASMONEAN AND
IDUMEAN KINGS.

We have seen how the ten tribes were carried captive to Assyria, on
the fall of Samaria, by Shalmanezer, B.C., 721. From that time
Absorptio history loses sight of the ten tribes, as a distinct people. They were
n of theprobably absorbed with the nations among whom they settled,
ten tribes. although imagination has loved to follow them into inaccessible
regions where they await their final restoration. But there are no
reliable facts which justify this conclusion. They may have been the
ancestors of the Christian converts afterward found among the Nestorians.
They may have retained in the East, to a certain extent, some of their old
institutions. But nothing is known with certainty. All is vain conjecture
respecting their ultimate fortunes.

The Jews of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin never entirely
departed from their ancient faith, and their monarchs reigned in
The Jewsregular succession till the captivity of the family of David. They
at were not carried to Babylon for one hundred and twenty-three years
Babylon. after the dispersion of the ten tribes, B.C. 598.

During the captivity, the Jews still remained a separate
people, governed by their own law and religion. It is
Daniel. supposed that they were rather colonists than captives, and
were allowed to dwell together in considerable bodies—
that they were not sold as slaves, and by degrees became
possessed of considerable wealth. What region, from time immemorial, has
not witnessed their thrift and their love of money? Well may a Jew say, as
well as a Greek, “Quæ [pg 109] regio in terris nostri non plena laboris.”

Taking the advice of Jeremiah they built houses, planted gardens, and
submitted to their fate, even if they bewailed it “by the rivers of Babylon,”
in such sad contrast to their old mountain homes. They had the free
enjoyment of their religion, and were subjected to no general and grievous
religious persecutions. And some of their noble youth, like Daniel, were
treated with great distinction during the captivity. Daniel had been
transported to Babylon before Jerusalem fell, as a hostage, among others, of
the fidelity of their king. These young men, from the highest Jewish
families, were educated in all the knowledge of the Babylonians, as Joseph
had been in Egyptian wisdom. They were the equals of the Chaldean priests
in knowledge of astronomy, divination, and the interpretation of dreams.
And though these young hostages were maintained at the public expense,
and perhaps in the royal palaces, they remembered their distressed
countrymen, and lived on the simplest fare. It was as an interpreter of
dreams that Daniel maintained his influence in the Babylonian court. Twice
was he summoned by Nebuchadnezzar, and once by Belshazzar to interpret
the handwriting on the wall. And under the Persian monarch, when Babylon
fell, Daniel became a vizier, or satrap, with great dignity and power.

When the seventy years' captivity, which Jeremiah had predicted,
came to an end, the empire of the Medes and Persians was in the
His hands of Cyrus, under whose sway he enjoyed the same favor and
beautiful rank that he did under Darius, or any of the Babylonian princes.
character. The miraculous deliverance of this great man from the lion's den,
into which he had been thrown from the intrigues of his enemies
and the unalterable law of the Medes, resulted in a renewed
exaltation. Josephus ascribes to Daniel one of the noblest and most
interesting characters in Jewish history, a great skill in architecture, and it is
to him that the splendid mausoleum at Ecbatana is attributed. But Daniel,
with all his honors, was not corrupted, and it was probably [pg 110] through
his influence, as a grand vizier, that the exiled Jews obtained from Cyrus the
decree which restored them to their beloved land.

The number of the returned Jews, under Zerubbabel, a descendant
of the kings of Judah, were forty-two thousand three hundred and
Return ofsixty men—a great and joyful caravan—but small in number
the Jews. compared with the Israelites who departed from Egypt with Moses.

On their arrival in their native land, they were joined by great numbers of
the common people who had remained. They bore with them the sacred
vessels of the temple, which Cyrus generously restored. They arrived in the
spring of the year B.C. 536, and immediately made preparations for the
restoration of the temple; not under those circumstances which enabled
Solomon to concentrate the wealth of Western Asia, but under great
discouragements and the pressure of poverty. The temple was built on the
old foundation, but was not completed till the sixth year of Darius
Hystaspes, B.C. 515, and then without the ancient splendor.

It was dedicated with great joy and magnificence, but the sacrifice
of one hundred bullocks, two hundred rams, four hundred lambs,
Dedication and twelve goats, formed a sad contrast to the hecatombs which
of theSolomon had offered.
Temple.
Nothing else of importance marked the history of the dependent,
impoverished, and humiliated Jews, who had returned to the
country of their ancestors during the reign of Darius Hystaspes.

It was under his successor, Xerxes, he who commanded the
Hellespont to be scourged—that mad, luxurious, effeminated
Mordecai monarch, who is called in Scripture Ahasuerus,—that Mordecai
and figured in the court of Persia, and Esther was exalted to the throne
Ahasuerus.itself. It was in the seventh year of his reign that this inglorious
The storyking returned, discomfited, from the invasion of Greece.
of Esther. Abandoning himself to the pleasures of his harem, he marries the
Jewess [pg 111] maiden, who is the instrument, under Providence,
of averting the greatest calamity with which the Jews were ever
threatened. Haman, a descendant of the Amalekitish kings, is the favorite
minister and grand vizier of the Persian monarch. Offended with Mordecai,
his rival in imperial favor, the cousin of the queen, he intrigues for the
wholesale slaughter of the Jews wherever they were to be found, promising
the king ten thousand talents of silver from the confiscation of Jewish
property, and which the king needed, impoverished by his unsuccessful
expedition into Greece. He thus obtains a decree from Ahasuerus for the
general massacre of the Jewish nation, in all the provinces of the empire, of
which Judea was one. The Jews are in the utmost consternation, and look to

Mordecai. His hope is based on Esther, the queen, who might soften, by her
fascinations, the heart of the king. She assumes the responsibility of saving
her nation at the peril of her own life—a deed of not extraordinary self-
devotion, but requiring extraordinary tact. What anxiety must have pressed
the soul of that Jewish woman in the task she undertook! What a
responsibility on her unaided shoulders? But she dissembles her grief, her
fear, her anxiety, and appears before the king radiant in beauty and
loveliness. The golden sceptre is extended to her by her weak and cruel
husband, though arrayed in the pomp and power of an Oriental monarch,
before whom all bent the knee, and to whom, even in his folly, he appears
as demigod. She does not venture to tell the king her wishes. The stake is
too great. She merely invites him to a grand banquet, with his minister
Haman. Both king and minister are ensnared by the cautious queen, and the
result is the disgrace of Haman, the elevation of Mordecai, and the
deliverance of the Jews from the fatal sentence—not a perfect deliverance,
for the decree could not be changed, but the Jews were warned and allowed
to defend themselves, and they slew seventy-five thousand of their enemies.
The act of vengeance was followed by the execution of [pg 112] the ten
sons of Haman, and Mordecai became the real governor of Persia. We see in
this story the caprice which governed the actions, in general, of Oriental
kings, and their own slavery to their favorite wives. The charms of a woman
effect, for evil or good, what conscience, and reason, and policy, and
wisdom united can not do. Esther is justly a favorite with the Christian and
Jewish world; but Vashti, the proud queen who, with true woman's dignity,
refuses to grace with her presence the saturnalia of an intoxicated monarch,
is also entitled to our esteem, although she paid the penalty of disobedience;
and the foolish edict which the king promulgated, that all women should
implicitly obey their husbands, seems to indicate that unconditional
obedience was not the custom of the Persian women.

The reign of Artaxerxes, the successor of Xerxes, was favorable to
the Jews, for Judea was a province of the Persian empire. In the
Return toseventh year of his reign, B.C. 458, a new migration of Jews from
Palestine Babylonia took place, headed by Ezra, a man of high rank at the
of JewsPersian court. He was empowered to make a collection among the
under Jews of Babylonia for the adornment of the temple, and he came to
Ezra. Jerusalem laden with treasures. He was, however, affected by the

sight of a custom which had grown up, of intermarriage of the Jews with
adjacent tribes. He succeeded in causing the foreign wives to be repudiated,
and the old laws to be enforced which separated the Jews from all other
nations. And it is probably this stern law, which prevents the Jews from
marriage with foreigners, that has preserved their nationality, in all their
wanderings and misfortunes, more than any other one cause.

A renewed commission granted to Nehemiah, B.C. 445, resulted in
a fresh immigration of Jews to Palestine, in spite of all the
Nehemiah. opposition which the Samaritan and other nations made. Nehemiah
Rebuilding was cup-bearer to the Persian king, and devoted to the Persian
of interests. At that time Persia had suffered a fatal blow at the battle
Jerusalem. [pg 113] of Cindus, and among the humiliating articles of peace
Revival ofwith the Athenian admiral was the stipulation that the Persians
ancient should not advance within three days' journey of the sea. Jerusalem
laws. being at this distance, was an important post to hold, and the
Persian court saw the wisdom of intrusting its defense to faithful
allies. In spite of all obstacles, Nehemiah succeeded, in fifty-two
days, in restoring the old walls and fortifications; the whole population, of
every rank and order having devoted themselves to the work. Moreover,
contributions for the temple continued to flow into the treasury of a once
opulent, but now impoverished and decimated people. After providing for
the security of the capital and the adornment of the temple, the leaders of
the nation turned their attention to the compilation of the sacred books and
the restoration of religion. Many important literary works had been lost
during their captivity, including the work of Solomon on national history,
and the ancient book of Jasher. But the books on the law, the historical
books, the prophetic writings, the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the
Songs of Solomon, were collected and copied. The law, revised and
corrected, was publicly read by Ezra; the Feast of Tabernacles was
celebrated with considerable splendor; and a renewed covenant was made
by the people to keep the law, to observe the Sabbath, to avoid idolatry, and
abstain from intermarriage with strangers. The Jewish constitution was
restored, and Nehemiah, a Persian satrap in reality, lived in a state of
considerable magnificence, entertaining the chief leaders of the nation, and
reforming all disorders. Jerusalem gradually regained political importance,

while the country of the ten tribes, though filled with people, continued to
be the seat of idolaters.

On the death of Nehemiah, B.C. 415, the history of the Jews
becomes obscure, and we catch only scattered glimpses of the state
Obscurity of the country, till the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 175,
of Jewishwhen the Syrian monarch had erected a new kingdom on the ruins
history of the Persian empire. For more [pg 114] than two centuries, when
after the Greeks and Romans flourished, Jewish history is a blank, with
Nehemiah. here and there some scattered notices and traditions which
Josephus has recorded. The Jews, living in vassalage to the
successors of Alexander during this interval, had become animated
by a martial spirit, and the Maccabaic wars elevated them into sufficient
importance to become allies of Rome—the new conquering power, destined
to subdue the world. During this period the Jewish character assumed the
hard, stubborn, exclusive cast which it has ever since maintained—an
intense hostility to polytheism and all Gentile influences. The Jewish
Scriptures took their present shape, and the Apocryphal books came to light.
The sects of the Jews arose, like Pharisees and Sadducees, and religious and
political parties exhibited an unwonted fierceness and intolerance. While
the Greeks and Romans were absorbed in wars, the Jews perfected their
peculiar economy, and grew again into political importance. The country,
by means of irrigation and cultivation, became populous and fertile, and
poetry and the arts regained their sway. The people took but little interest in
the political convulsions of neighboring nations, and devoted themselves
quietly to the development of their own resources. The captivity had cured
them of war, of idolatry, and warlike expeditions.

During this two hundred years of obscurity, but real growth,
unnoticed and unknown by other nations, a new capital had arisen
Obscurity in Egypt; Alexandria became a great mart of commerce, and the
and seat of revived Grecian learning. The sway of the Ptolemaic kings,
growth ofGrecian in origin, was favorable to letters, and to arts. The Jews
the Jews. settled in their magnificent city, translated their Scriptures into
Greek, and cultivated the Greek philosophy.

Meanwhile the internal government of the Jews fell into the hands
of the high priests—the Persian governors exercising only a general
The superintendence. At length the country, once again favored, was
ascendenc subjected to the invasion of Alexander. After the fall of Tyre, the
y of theconqueror advanced to [pg 115] Gaza, and totally destroyed it. He
high then approached Jerusalem, in fealty to Persia. The high priest
priests. made no resistance, but went forth in his pontifical robes, followed
by the people in white garments, to meet the mighty warrior.
Alexander, probably encouraged by the prophesies of Daniel, as
explained by the high priest, did no harm to the city or nation, but offered
gifts, and, as tradition asserts, even worshiped the God of the Jews. On the
conquest of Persia, Judea came into the possession of Laomedon, one of the
generals of Alexander, B.C. 321. On his defeat by Ptolemy, another general,
to whom Egypt had fallen as his share, one hundred thousand Jews were
carried captive to Alexandria, where they settled and learned the Greek
language. The country continued to be convulsed by the wars between the
generals of Alexander, and fell into the hands, alternately, of the Syrian and
Egyptian kings—successors of the generals of the great conqueror.

On the establishment of the Syro-Grecian kingdom by Seleucus,
Antioch, the capital, became a great city, and the rival of
Persecutio Alexandria. Syria, no longer a satrapy of Persia, became a powerful
n of themonarchy, and Judea became a prey to the armies of this ambitious
Jews byState in its warfare with Egypt, and was alternately the vassal of
Antiochus. each—Syria and Egypt. Under the government of the first three
Ptolemies—those enlightened and magnificent princes, Soter,
Philadelphus, and Evergetes, the Jews were protected, both at home
and in Alexandria, and their country enjoyed peace and prosperity, until the
ambition of Antiochus the Great again plunged the nation in difficulties. He
had seized Judea, which was then a province of the Egyptian kings, but was
defeated by Ptolemy Philopator. This monarch made sumptuous presents to
the temple, and even ventured to enter the sanctuary, but was prevented by
the high priest. Although filled with fear in view of the tumult which this
act provoked, he henceforth hated and persecuted the Jews. Under his
successor, Judea was again invaded by Antiochus, and again was Jerusalem
wrested [pg 116] from his grasp by Scopas, the Egyptian general. Defeated,
however, near the source of the Jordan, the country fell into the hands of

Antiochus, who was regarded as a deliverer. And it continued to be subject
to the kings of Syria, until, with Jerusalem, it suffered calamities scarcely
inferior to those inflicted by the Babylonians.

It is difficult to trace, with any satisfaction, the internal government
of the Jews during the two hundred years when the chief power was
The reignin the hands of the high priests—this period marked by the wars
of the highbetween Syria and Egypt, or rather between the successors of the
priests. generals of Alexander. The government of the high priests at
Their Jerusalem was not exempt from those disgraceful outrages which
turbulent occasionally have marked all the governments of the world—
reigns. whether in the hands of kings, or in an oligarchy of nobles and
Popular priests. Nehemiah had expelled from Jerusalem, Manasseh, the son
tumults. of Jehoiada, who succeeded Eliashib in the high priesthood, on
Misery ofaccount of his unlawful marriage with a stranger. Manasseh, invited
the Jews. to Samaria by the father of the woman he had married, became
high priest of the temple on Mount Gerizim, and thus perpetuated
the schism between the two nations. Before the conquests of
Alexander, while the country was under the dominion of Persia, a high
priest by the name of John murdered his brother Jesus within the precincts
of the sanctuary, which crime was punished by the Persian governor, by a
heavy fine imposed upon the whole nation. Jaddua was the high priest in
the time of Alexander, and by his dignity and tact won over the conqueror
of Asia. Onias succeeded Jaddua, and ruled for twenty-one years, and he
was succeeded by Simon the Just, a pontiff on whose administration Jewish
tradition dwells with delight. Simon was succeeded by his uncles, Eleazar
and Manasseh, and they by Onias II., son of Simon, through whose
misconduct, or indolence, in omitting the customary tribute to the Egyptian
king, came near involving the country in fresh calamities—averted,
however, by his nephew Joseph, who pacified the [pg 117] Egyptian court,
and obtained the former generalship of the revenues of Judea, Samaria, and
Phœnicia, which he enjoyed to the time of Antiochus the Great. Onias II.
was succeeded by his son Simon, under whose pontificate the Egyptian
monarch was prevented from entering the temple, and he by Onias III.,
under whose rule a feud took place with the sons of Joseph, disgraced by
murders, which called for the interposition of the Syrian king, who then
possessed Judea. Joshua, or Jason, by bribery, obtained the pontificate, but

he allowed the temple worship to fall into disuse, and was even alienated
from the Jewish faith by his intimacy with the Syrian court. He was
outbidden in his high office by Onias, his brother, who was disgraced by
savage passions, and who robbed the temple of its golden vessels. The
people, indignant, rose in a tumult, and slew his brother, Lysimachus.
Meanwhile, Jason, the dispossessed high priest, recovered his authority, and
shut up Onias, or Menelaus, as he called himself, in a castle. This was
interpreted by Antiochus as an insurrection, and he visited on Jerusalem a
terrible penalty—slaughtering forty thousand of the people, and seizing as
many more for slaves. He then abolished the temple services, seized all the
sacred vessels, collected spoil to the amount of eighteen hundred talents,
defiled the altar by the sacrifice of a sow, and suppressed every sign of
Jewish independence. He meditated the complete extirpation of the Jewish
religion, dismantled the capitol, harassed the country people, and inflicted
unprecedented barbarities. The temple itself was dedicated to Jupiter
Olympius, and the reluctant and miserable Jews were forced to join in all
the rites of pagan worship, including the bacchanalia, which mocked the
virtue of the older Romans.

From this degradation and slavery the Jews were rescued by a line
of heroes whom God raised up—the Asmoneans, or Maccabees.
The The head of this heroic family was Mattathias, a man of priestly
Maccabees origin, living in the town of Modin, commanding a view of the sea
. —an old man of wealth and influence who refused to depart from
Mattathias.the faith [pg 118] of his fathers, while most of the nation had
His relapsed into the paganism of the Greeks. He slew with his own
successes. hand an apostate Jew, who offered sacrifice to a pagan deity, and
then killed the royal commissioner, Apelles, whom Antiochus had
sent to enforce his edicts. The heroic old man, who resembled
William Tell, in his mission and character, summoned his countrymen, who
adhered to the old faith, and intrenched himself in the mountains, and
headed a vigorous revolt against the Syrian power, even fighting on the
Sabbath day. The ranks of the insurrectionists were gradually filled with
those who were still zealous for the law, or inspired with patriotic desires
for independence. Mattathias was prospered, making successful raids from
his mountain fastnesses, destroying heathen altars, and punishing apostate
Jews. Two sects joined his standard with peculiar ardor—the Zadikim, who

observed the written law of Moses, from whom the Sadducees of later times
sprang, and the more zealous and austere Chasidim, who added to the law
the traditions of the elders, from whom the Pharisees came.

Old men are ill suited to conduct military expeditions when great fatigue
and privation are required, and the aged Mattathias sank under the weight
which he had so nobly supported, and bequeathed his power to Judas, the
most valiant of his sons.

This remarkable man, scarcely inferior to Joshua and David in
military genius and heroic qualities, added prudence and discretion
His sonto personal bravery. When his followers had gained experience and
Judas. Hiscourage by various gallant adventures, he led them openly against
heroic his enemies. The governor of Samaria, Apollonius, was the first
deeds. whom he encountered, and whom he routed and slew. Seron, the
deputy governor of Cœlesyria, sought to redeem the disgrace of the
Syrian arms; but he also was defeated at the pass of Bethoron. At
the urgent solicitation of Philip, governor of Jerusalem, Antiochus then sent
a strong force of forty thousand foot and seven thousand horse to [pg 119]
subdue the insurgents, under the command of Ptolemy Macron. Judas, to
resist these forces, had six thousand men; but he relied on the God of Israel,
as his fathers had done in the early ages of Jewish history, and in a sudden
attack he totally routed a large detachment of the main army, under Gorgias,
and spoiled their camp. He then defeated another force beyond the Jordan,
and the general fled in the disguise of a slave, to Antioch. Thus closed a
triumphant campaign.

The next year, Lysias, the lieutenant-general of Antiochus, invaded
Judea with a large force of sixty-five thousand men. Judas met it
Syria with ten thousand, and gained a brilliant victory, which proved
invades decisive, and which led to the re-establishment of the Jewish power
Palestine. at Jerusalem. Judas fortified the city and the temple, and assumed
the offensive, and recovered, one after another, the cities which had
fallen under the dominion of Syria. In the mean time, Antiochus,
the bitterest enemy which the Jews ever had, died miserably in Persia—the
most powerful of all the Syrian kings.

On the accession of Antiochus Eupater, Lysias again attempted the
subjugation of Judea, This time he advanced with one hundred
Another thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, and thirty-two elephants. But
unsuccessf this large force wasted away in an unsuccessful attack on
ul Jerusalem, harassed by the soldiers of the Maccabees. A treaty of
invasion. peace was concluded, by which full liberty of worship was granted
to the Jews, with permission to be ruled by their own laws.

Demetrius, the lawful heir of Antiochus the Great, had been
detained at Rome as a hostage, in consequence of which Antiochus
Continued Eupater had usurped his throne. Escaping from Rome, he
hostilities overpowered his enemies and recovered his kingdom. But he was
between even more hostile to the Jews than his predecessor, and succeeded
Syria andin imposing a high priest on the nation friendly to his interests. His
Palestine. cruelties and crimes once more aroused [pg 120] the Jews to
resistance, and Judas gained another decisive victory, and Nicanor,
the Syrian general, was slain.

Judas then adopted a policy which was pregnant with important
consequences. He formed a league with the Romans, then bent on
The Jewsthe conquest of the East. The Roman senate readily entered into a
force ancoalition with the weaker State, in accordance with its uniform
alliance custom of protecting those whom they ultimately absorbed in their
with thevast empire: but scarcely was the treaty ratified when the gallant
Romans. Judas died, leaving the defense of his country to his brothers, B.C.
161.

Jonathan, on whom the leadership fell, found the forces under his
control disheartened by the tyranny of the high priest, Alcimus,
Jonathan whom the nation had accepted. Leagued with Bacchides, the Syrian
Maccabeu general, the high priest had every thing his own way, until
s master ofJonathan, emerging from his retreat, delivered his countrymen once
Judea. Hisagain, and another peace was made. Several years then passed in
rule. Johntranquillity, Jonathan being master of Judea. A revolution in Syria
Hyrcanus added to his power, and his brother Simon was made captain-
as highgeneral of all the country from Tyre to Egypt. Jonathan,
priest. unfortunately, was taken in siege, and the leadership of the nation

devolved upon Simon, the last of this heroic family. He ruled with great
wisdom, consolidated his power, strengthened his alliance with Rome,
repaired Jerusalem, and restored the peace of the country. He was, on a
present of one thousand pounds of gold to the Romans, decreed to be prince
of Judea, and taken under the protection of his powerful ally. But the peace
with Syria, from the new complications to which that kingdom was
subjected from rival aspirants to the throne, was broken in the old age of
Simon, and he was treacherously murdered, with his oldest son, Judas, at a
banquet in Jerusalem. The youngest son, John Hyrcanus, inherited the vigor
of his family, and was declared high priest, and sought to revenge the
murder of his father and brother. Still, a Syrian army [pg 121] overran the
country, and John Hyrcanus, shut up in Jerusalem, was reduced to great
extremities. A peace was finally made between him and the Syrian
monarch, Antiochus, by which Judea submitted to vassalage to the king of
Syria. An unfortunate expedition of Antiochus into Parthia enabled
Hyrcanus once again to throw off the Syrian yoke, and Judea regained its
independence, which it maintained until compelled to acknowledge the
Roman power. Hyrcanus was prospered in his reign, and destroyed the rival
temple on Mount Gerizim, while the temple of Jerusalem resumed its
ancient dignity and splendor.

At this period the Jews, who had settled in Alexandria, devoted
themselves to literature and philosophy in that liberal and elegant
The Jewscity, and were allowed liberty of worship. But they became
in entangled in the mazes of Grecian speculation, and lost much of
Alexandria their ancient spirit. By compliance with the opinions and customs
. of the Greeks, they reached great honors and distinction, and even
high posts in the army.

Hyrcanus, supreme in Judea, now reduced Samaria and Idumea,
and was only troubled by the conflicting parties of Pharisees and
The rule ofSadducees, whose quarrels agitated the State. He joined the party of
John the Sadducees, who asserted free will, and denied the more
Hyrcanus. orthodox doctrines of the Pharisees, a kind of epicureans, opposed
to severities and the authority of traditions. It is one proof of the
advance of the Hebrew mind over the simplicity of former ages,

that the State could be agitated by theological and philosophical questions,
like the States of Greece in their highest development.

Hyrcanus reigned twenty-nine years, and was succeeded by his son,
Aristobulus, B.C. 106. His brief and inglorious reign was disgraced
Succeeded by his starving to death his mother in a dungeon, and imprisoning
by his son. his three brothers, and assassinating a fourth, Antigonus, who was a
victorious general. This prince died in an agony of remorse and
horror on the spot where his brother was assassinated.

[pg 122]
Alexander Jannaus succeeded to the throne of the Asmonean princes, who
possessed the whole region of Palestine, except the port of Ptolemais, and
the city of Gaza. In an attempt to recover the former he was signally
defeated, and came near losing his throne. He was more successful in his
attack on Gaza, which finally surrendered, after Alexander had incurred
immense losses.

While this priest-king was celebrating the Feast of Tabernacles, a
meeting, incited by the Pharisaic party, broke out, which resulted in
Turbulent the slaughter of ten thousand people. While invading the country to
reign ofthe east of the Jordan, the rebellion was renewed, and the nation,
Alexander. for six years, suffered all the evils of civil war. Routed in a battle
with the Syrian monarch, whose aid the insurgents had invoked, he
was obliged to flee to the mountains; but recovering his authority,
at the head of sixty thousand men,—which shows the power of Judea at this
period,—he marched upon Jerusalem, and inflicted a terrible vengeance,
eight hundred men being publicly crucified, and eight thousand more forced
to abandon the city. Under his iron sway, the country recovered its political
importance, for his kingdom comprised the greater part of Palestine. He
died, after a turbulent reign of twenty-seven years, B.C. 77, invoking his
queen to throw herself into the arms of the Pharisaic party, which advice
she followed, as it was the most powerful and popular.

The high priesthood devolved on his eldest son, Hyrcanus II., while
the reins of government were held by his queen, Alexandra. She
Queen reigned vigorously and prosperously for nine years, punishing the
Alexandra. murderers of the eight hundred Pharisees who had been executed.

Hyrcanus was not equal to his task amid the bitterness of party strife. His
brother Aristobulus, belonging to the party of the Sadducees, and who had
taken Damascus, was popular with the people, and compelled his elder
brother to abdicate in his favor, and an end came to Pharisaic rule.

But now another family appears upon the stage, which [pg 123]
ultimately wrested the crown from the Asmodean princes.
The Antipater, a noble Idumean, was the chief minister of the feeble
Idumean Hyrcanus. He incited, from motives of ambition, the deposed
family. prince to reassert his rights, and influenced by his counsels, he fled
to Aretas, the king of Arabia, whose capital, Petra, had become a
great commercial emporium. Aretas, Antipater, and Hyrcanus,
marched with an army of fifty thousand men against Aristobulus, who was
defeated, and fled to Jerusalem.

At this time Pompey was pursuing his career of conquests in the
East, and both parties invoked his interference, and both offered
All partiesenormous bribes. This powerful Roman was then at Damascus,
invoke thereceiving the homage and tribute of Oriental kings. The Egyptian
aid ofmonarch sent as a present a crown worth four thousand pieces of
Pompey. gold. Aristobulus, in command of the riches of the temple, sent a
golden vine worth five hundred talents. Pompey, intent on the
conquest of Arabia, made no decision; but, having succeeded in his
object, assumed a tone of haughtiness irreconcilable with the independence
of Judea. Aristobulus, patriotic yet vacillating,—“too high-minded to yield,
too weak to resist,”—fled to Jerusalem and prepared for resistance.

Pompey approached the capital, weakened by those everlasting
divisions to which the latter Jews were subjected by the zeal of
Jerusalem their religious disputes. The city fell, after a brave defense of three
falls intomonths, and might not have fallen had the Jews been willing to
the handsabate from the rigid observance of the Sabbath, during which the
of Romans prepared for assault. Pompey demolished the fortifications
Pompey. of the city, and exacted tribute, but spared the treasures of the
temple which he profaned by his heathen presence. He nominated
Hyrcanus to the priesthood, but withheld the royal diadem, and

limited the dominions of Hyrcanus to Judea. He took Aristobulus to Rome
to grace his triumph.

But he contrived to escape, and, with his son Alexander, again
renewed the civil strife; but taken prisoner, he was [pg 124] again
Reorganiz sent as a captive to the “eternal city.” Gabinius, the Roman general
ation of—for Hyrcanus had invoked the aid of the Romans—now deprived
the the high priest of the royal authority, and reorganized the whole
governme government of Judea; establishing five independent Sanhedrims in
nt. the principal cities, after the form of the great Sanhedrim, which
had existed since the captivity. This form lasted until Julius Cæsar
reinvested Hyrcanus with the supreme dignity.

Jerusalem was now exposed to the rapacity of the Roman generals
who really governed the country. Crassus plundered all that
Jerusalem Pompey spared. He took from the temple ten thousand talents—
governed about ten million dollars when gold and silver had vastly greater
by Romanvalue than in our times. These vast sums had been accumulated
generals. from the contributions of Jews scattered over the world—some of
whom were immensely wealthy.

Aristobulus and his son Alexander were assassinated during the
great civil war between the partisans of Cæsar and Pompey. After
Herod the fall of the latter. Cæsar confirmed Hyrcanus in the high
governor priesthood, and allowed him to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. But
of Galilee. Antipater, presuming on the incapacity of Hyrcanus, renewed his
ambitious intrigues, and contrived to make his son, Phasael,
governor of Jerusalem, and Herod, a second son, governor of
Galilee.

Herod developed great talents, and waited for his time. After the
battle of Philippi Herod made acceptable offerings to the
Receives conquering party, and received the crown of Judea, which had been
the crownrecently ravaged by the Parthians, through the intrigues of
of Judea.Antigonas, the surviving son of Aristobulus. By his marriage with
And reignsMariamne, of the royal line of the Asmoneans, he cemented the
tyrannicall power he had won by the sword and the favor of Rome. He was the
y. Hislast of the independent sovereigns of Palestine. He reigned

miserable tyrannically, and was guilty of great crimes, having caused the
life. death of the aged Hyrcanus, and the imprisonment [pg 125] and
execution of his wife on a foul suspicion. He paid the same court to
Augustus that he did to Antony, and was confirmed in the
possession of his kingdom. The last of the line of the Asmonæans had
perished on the scaffold, beautiful, innocent, and proud, the object of a
boundless passion to a tyrant who sacrificed her to a still greater one—
suspicion. Alternating between his love and resentment, Herod sank into a
violent fit of remorse, for he had more or less concern in the murder of the
father, the grandfather, the brother, and the uncle of his beautiful and
imperious wife. At all times, even amid the glories of his palace, he was
haunted with the image of the wife he had destroyed, and loved with
passionate ardor. He burst forth in tears, he tried every diversion, banquets
and revels, solitude and labor—still the murdered Mariamne is ever present
to his excited imagination. He settles down in a fixed and indelible gloom,
and his stern nature sought cruelty and bloodshed. His public administration
was, on the whole, favorable to the peace and happiness of the country,
although he introduced the games and the theatres in which the Romans
sought their greatest pleasures. For these innovations he was exposed to
incessant dangers; but he surmounted them all by his vigilance and energy.
He rebuilt Samaria, and erected palaces. But his greatest work was the
building of Cæsarea—a city of palaces and theatres. His policy of reducing
Judea to a mere province of Rome was not pleasing to his subjects, and he
was suspected of a design of heathenizing the nation. Neither his
munificence nor severities could suppress the murmurs of an indignant
people. The undisguised hostility of the nation prompted him to an act of
policy by which he hoped to conciliate it forever. The pride and glory of the
Jews was their temple. This Herod determined to rebuild with extraordinary
splendor, so as to approach its magnificence in the time of Solomon. He
removed the old structure, dilapidated by the sieges, and violence, and wear
of five hundred years; and the new edifice gradually arose, glittering with
gold, and imposing with marble pinnacles.

[pg 126]

But in spite of all his magnificent public works, whether to gratify the pride
of his people, or his own vanity—in spite of his efforts to develop the

resources of the country over which he ruled by the favor of Rome
—in spite of his talents and energies—one of the most able of the
The hatredmonarchs who had sat on the throne of Judea, he was obnoxious to
in whichhis subjects for his cruelties, and his sympathy with paganism, and
he washe was visited in his latter days by a terrible disorder which racked
held. Hishis body with pain, and inflamed his soul with suspicions, while his
death. court was distracted with cabals from his own family, which
poisoned his life, and led him to perpetrate unnatural cruelties. He
had already executed two favorite sons, by Mariamne whom he
loved, all from court intrigues and jealousy, and he then executed his son
and heir, by Doris, his first wife, whom he had divorced to marry
Mariamne, and under circumstances so cruel that Augustus remarked that
he had rather be one of his swine than one of his sons. Among other
atrocities, he had ordered the massacre of the Innocents to prevent any one
to be born “as king of the Jews.” His last act was to give the fatal mandate
for the execution of his son Antipater, whom he hoped to make his heir, and
then almost immediately expired in agonies, detested by the nation, and
leaving a name as infamous as that of Ahab, B.C. 4.

Herod had married ten wives, and left a numerous family. By his
will, he designated the sons of Malthace, his sixth wife, and a
His Samaritan, as his successors. These were Archelaus, Antipas, and
kingdom isOlympias. The first inherited Idumea, Samaria, and Judea; to the
divided second were assigned Galilee and Peræa. Archelaus at once
among hisassumed the government at Jerusalem; and after he had given his
sons. Thefather a magnificent funeral, and the people a funeral banquet, he
claims ofentered the temple, seated himself on a golden throne, and made, as
the rivalis usual with monarchs, a conciliatory speech, promising reform
princes. and alleviations from taxes and oppression. But even this did not
prevent one of those disgraceful seditions which have ever marked
the people of [pg 127] Jerusalem, in which three thousand were
slain, caused by religious animosities. After quelling the tumult by the
military, he set out for Rome, to secure his confirmation to the throne. He
encountered opposition from various intrigues by his own family, and the
caprice of the emperor. His younger brother, Antipas, also went to Rome to
support his claim to the throne by virtue of a former will. While the cause of
the royal litigants was being settled in the supreme tribunal of the civilized

world, new disturbances broke out in Judea, caused by the rapacities of
Sabinus, the Roman procurator of Syria. The whole country was in a state
of anarchy, and adventurers flocked from all quarters to assert their claims
in a nation that ardently looked forward to national independence, or the
rise of some conqueror who should restore the predicted glory of the land
now rent with civil feuds, and stained with fratricidal blood. Varus, the
prefect of Syria, attempted to restore order, and crucified some two
thousand ringleaders of the tumults. Five hundred Jews went to Rome to
petition for the restoration of their ancient constitution, and the abolition of
kingly rule.

At length the imperial edict confirmed the will of Herod, and
Archelaus was appointed to the sovereignty of Jerusalem, Idumea,
The and Samaria, under the title of ethnarch; Herod Antipas obtained
Romans Galilee and Peræa; Philip, the son of Herod and Cleopatra of
confirm Jerusalem, was made tetrarch of Ituræa. Archelaus governed his
the will ofdominions with such injustice and cruelty, that he was deposed by
Herod. the emperor, and Judea became a Roman province. The sceptre
departed finally from the family of David, of the Asmonæans, and
of Herod, and the kingdom sank into a district dependent on the
prefecture of Syria, though administered by a Roman governor.

[pg 128]

CHAPTER XII.

THE ROMAN GOVERNORS.

The history of the Jews after the death of Herod is marked by the
greatest event in human annals. In four years after he expired in
Birth ofagonies of pain and remorse, Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem,
Christ. whose teachings have changed the whole condition of the world,
and will continue to change all institutions and governments until
the seed of the woman shall have completely triumphed over all the
wiles of the serpent. We can not, however, enter upon the life or mission of
the Saviour, or the feeble beginnings of the early and persecuted Church
which he founded, and which is destined to go on from conquering to
conquer. We return to the more direct history of the Jewish nation until their
capital fell into the hands of Titus, and their political existence was
annihilated.

They were now to be ruled by Roman governors—or by mere
vassal kings whom the Romans tolerated and protected. The first of
The rule ofthese rulers was P. Sulpicius Quirinus—a man of consular rank,
Roman who, as proconsul of Syria, was responsible for the government of
governors. Judea, which was intrusted to Coponius. He was succeeded by M.
Ambivius, and he again by Annius Rufus. A rapid succession of
governors took place till Tiberius appointed Valerius Gratus, who
was kept in power eleven years, on the principle that a rapid succession of
rulers increased the oppression of the people, since every new governor
sought to be enriched. Tiberius was a tyrant, but a wise emperor, and the
affairs of the Roman world were never better administered than during his
reign. These provincial governors, like the [pg 129] Herodian kings,
appointed and removed the high priests, and left the internal management of
the city of Jerusalem to them. They generally resided themselves at
Cæsarea, to avoid the disputes of the Jewish sects, and the tumults of the
people.

Pontius Pilate succeeded Gratus A.D. 27,—under whose
memorable rule Jesus Christ was crucified and slain—a man cruel,
Pontius stern, and reckless of human life, but regardful of the peace and
Pilate. tranquillity of the province. He sought to transfer the innocent
criminal to the tribunal of Herod, to whose jurisdiction he belonged
as a Galilean, but yielded to the importunities of the people, and
left him at the mercy of the Jewish priesthood.

The vigilant jealousy of popular commotion, and the reckless disregard of
human life, led to the recall of Pilate; but during the forty years which had
elapsed since the death of Herod, his sons had quietly reigned over their
respective provinces. Antipas at Sepphoris, the capital of Galilee, and Philip
beyond the Jordan. The latter prince was humane and just, and died without
issue, and his territory was annexed to Syria.

Herod Antipas was a different man. He seduced and married his
niece Herodias, wife of Herod Philip, daughter of Aristobolus, and
Herod granddaughter of Mariamne, whom Herod the Great had sacrificed
Antipas. in jealousy—the last scion of the Asmonæan princes. It was for her
that John the Baptist was put to death. But this marriage proved
unfortunate, since it involved him in difficulties with Aretas, king
of Arabia, father of his first and repudiated wife. He ended his days in exile
at Lyons, having provoked the jealousy or enmity of Caligula, the Roman
emperor, through the intrigues of Herod Agrippa, the brother of Herodias,
and consequently, a grandson of Herod the Great and Mariamne. The
Herodian family, of Idumean origin, never was free from disgraceful
quarrels and jealousies and rivalries.

The dominions of Herod Antipas were transferred to Herod
Agrippa, who had already obtained from Caligula the tetrarchate of
Herod Ituræa, on the death of Philip, with the title [pg 130] of king. The
Agrippa. fortunes of this prince, in whose veins flowed the blood of the
Asmonæans and the Herodians, surpassed in romance and
vicissitude any recorded of Eastern princes; alternately a fugitive
and a favorite, a vagabond and a courtier, a pauper and a spendthrift—
according to the varied hatred and favor of the imperial family at Rome. He
had the good luck to be a friend of Caligula before the death of Tiberius.

When he ascended the throne of the Roman world, he took his friend from
prison and disgrace, and gave him a royal title and part of the dominions of
his ancestors.

Agrippa did all he could to avert the mad designs of Caligula of
securing religious worship as a deity from the Jews, and he was
His moderate in his government and policy. On the death of the Roman
brilliant tyrant, he received from his successor Claudius the investiture of
reign. all the dominions which belonged to Herod the Great. He reigned
in great splendor, respecting the national religion, observing the
Mosaic law with great exactness, and aiming at the favor of the
people. He inherited the taste of his great progenitor for palace building,
and theatrical representations. He greatly improved Jerusalem, and
strengthened its fortifications, and yet he was only a vassal king. He reigned
by the favor of Rome, on whom he was dependent, and whom he feared,
like other kings and princes of the earth, for the emperor was alone
supreme.

Agrippa sullied his fair fame by being a persecutor of the
Christians, and died in the forty-fourth year of his age, having
Persecutes reigned seven years over part of his dominions, and three over the
the whole of Palestine. He died in extreme agony from internal pains,
Christians. being “eaten of worms.” He left one son, Agrippa, and three
daughters, Drusilla, Berenice, and Mariamne, the two first of whom
married princes.

On his death Judea relapsed into a Roman province, his son,
Agrippa, being only seventeen years of age, and too young to
Judea amanage such a turbulent, unreasonable, and stiff-necked people as
Roman the Jews, rent [pg 131] by perpetual feuds and party animosities,
province. and which seem to have characterized them ever since the captivity,
when they renounced idolatry forever.

What were these parties? For their opinions and struggles and
quarrels form no inconsiderable part of the internal history of the
Jewish Jews, both under the Asmonæan and Idumean dynasties.
parties.

The most powerful and numerous were the Pharisees, and most
popular with the nation. The origin of this famous sect is involved
The in obscurity, but probably arose not long after the captivity. They
Pharisees. were the orthodox party. They clung to the Law of Moses in its
Their most minute observances, and to all the traditions of their religion.
doctrines They were earnest, fierce, intolerant, and proud. They believed in
and angels, and in immortality. They were bold and heroic in war, and
character. intractable and domineering in peace. They were great zealots,
devoted to proselytism. They were austere in life, and despised all
who were not. They were learned and decorous, and pragmatical.
Their dogmatism knew no respite or palliation. They were predestinarians,
and believed in the servitude of the will. They were seen in public with
ostentatious piety. They made long prayers, fasted with rigor, scrupulously
observed the Sabbath, and paid tithes to the cheapest herbs. They assumed
superiority in social circles, and always took the uppermost seats in the
synagogue. They displayed on their foreheads and the hem of their
garments, slips of parchment inscribed with sentences from the law. They
were regarded as models of virtue and excellence, but were hypocrites in
the observance of the weightier matters of justice and equity. They were, of
course, the most bitter adversaries of the faith which Christ revealed, and
were ever in the ranks of persecution. They resembled the most austere of
the Dominican monks in the Middle Ages. They were the favorite teachers
and guides of the people, whom they incited in their various seditions. They
were theologians who stood at the summit of legal Judaism. “They fenced
round their [pg 132] law hedges whereby its precepts were guarded against
any possible infringement.” And they contrived, by an artful and technical
interpretation, to find statutes which favored their ends. They wrought out
asceticism into a system, and observed the most painful ceremonials—the
ancestors of rigid monks; and they united a specious casuistry, not unlike
the Jesuits, to excuse the violation of the spirit of the law. They were a
hierarchical caste, whose ambition was to govern, and to govern by legal
technicalities. They were utterly deficient in the virtues of humility and
toleration, and as such, peculiarly offensive to the Great Teacher when he
propounded the higher code of love and forgiveness. Outwardly, however,
they were the most respectable as well as honorable men of the nation—
dignified, decorous, and studious of appearances.

The next great party was that of the Sadducees, who aimed to
restore the original Mosaic religion in its purity, and expunge every
The thing which had been added by tradition. But they were deficient in
Sadducees.a profound sense of religion, denied the doctrine of immortality,
and hence all punishment in a future life. They made up for their
denial of the future by a rigid punishment of all crimes. They
inculcated a belief of Divine Providence by whom all crime was supposed
to be avenged in this world. The party was not so popular as that of their
rivals, but embraced men of high rank. In common with the Pharisees, they
maintained the strictness of the Jewish code, and professed great
uprightness of morals. They had, however, no true, deep religious life, and
were cold and heartless in their dispositions. They were mostly men of ease
and wealth, and satisfied with earthly enjoyments, and inclined to the
epicureanism which marked many of the Greek philosophers. Nor did they
escape the hypocrisy which disgraced the Pharisees, and their bitter
opposition to the truths of Christianity.

In addition to these two great parties which controlled the people,
were the Essenes. But they lived apart from men, in the deserts
The round the Dead Sea, and [pg 133] dreaded cities as nurseries of
Essenes. vice. They allowed no women to come within their settlements.
They were recruited by strangers and proselytes, who thought all
pleasure to be a sin. They established a community of goods, and
prosecuted the desire of riches. They were clothed in white garments which
they never changed, and regulated their lives by the severest forms. They
abstained from animal food, and lived on roots and bread. They worked and
ate in silence, and observed the Sabbath with great precision. They were
great students, and were rigid in morals, and believed in immortality. They
abhorred oaths, and slavery, and idolatry. They embraced the philosophy of
the Orientals, and supposed that matter was evil, and that mind was divine.
They were mystics who reveled in the pleasures of abstract contemplation.
Their theosophy was sublime, but Brahminical. Practically they were
industrious, ascetic, and devout—the precursors of those monks who fled
from the abodes of man, and filled the solitudes of Upper Egypt and Arabia
and Palestine, the loftiest and most misguided of the Christian sects in the
second and third centuries, But the Essenes had no direct influence over the

people of Judea like the Pharisees and Sadducees, except in encouraging
obedience and charity.

All these sects were in a flourishing state on the death of Agrippa.
Judea was henceforth to be ruled directly by Roman governors.
State ofCuspius Fadus, Tiberius Alexander, Ventidius Cumanus, Felix
the Portius, Festus Albinus, and Gessius Florus successively
country. administered the affairs of a discontented province. Their brief
Miserable administrations were marked by famines and tumults. King
condition Agrippa, meanwhile, with mere nominal power, resided in
of theJerusalem, in the palace of the Asmonæan princes, which stood on
Jews. Mount Zion, toward the temple. Robbers infested the country, and
Popular murders and robbery were of constant occurrence. High priests
Commotio were set up, and dethroned. The people were oppressed by taxation
ns. Warsand irritated by pillage. Prodigies, wild and awful, filled the land
and with dread of [pg 134] approaching calamities. Fanatics alarmed
rumors ofthe people. The Christians predicted the ruin of the State. Never
wars. was a population of three millions of people more discontented and
oppressed. Outrage, and injustice, and tumults, and insurrections,
marked the doomed people. The governors were insulted, and
massacred the people in retaliation. Florus, at one time, destroyed three
thousand six hundred people, A.D. 66. Open war was apparent to the more
discerning, Agrippa in vain counseled moderation and reconciliation,
showing the people how vain resistance would be to the overwhelming
power of Rome, which had subdued the world; and that the refusal of
tribute, and the demolition of Roman fortifications, were overt acts of war.
But he talked to people doomed. Every day new causes of discord arose.
Some of the higher orders were disposed to be prudent, but the people
generally were filled with bigotry and fanaticism. Some of the boldest of
the war party one day seized the fortress of Masada, near the Dead Sea,
built by Jonathan the Maccabean, and fortified by Herod. The Roman
garrison was put to the sword, and the banner of revolt was unfolded. In the
city of Jerusalem, the blinded people refused to receive, as was customary,
the gifts and sacrifices of foreign potentates offered in the temple to the
God of the Jews. This was an insult and a declaration of war, which the
chief priests and Pharisees attempted in vain to prevent. The insurgents,
urged by zealots and assassins, even set fire to the palace of the high priest

and of Agrippa and Berenice, and also to the public archives, where the
bonds of creditors were deposited, which destroyed the power of the rich.
They then carried the important citadel of Antonia, and stormed the palace.
A fanatic, by the name of Manahem, son of Judas of Galilee, openly
proclaimed the doctrine that it was impious to own any king but God, and
treason to pay tribute to Cæsar. He became the leader of the war party
because he was the most unscrupulous and zealous, as is always the case in
times of excitement and passion. He entered the city, in the pomp of a [pg
135] conqueror, and became the captain of the forces, which took the palace
and killed the defenders. The high priest, Ananias, striving to secure order,
was stoned. Then followed dissensions between the insurgents themselves,
during which Manahem was killed. Eleazar, another chieftain, pressed the
siege of the towers, defended by Roman soldiers, which were taken, and the
defenders massacred. Meanwhile, twenty thousand Jews were slain by the
Greeks in Cæsarea, which drove the nation to madness, and led to a general
insurrection in Syria, and a bloody strife between the Greco-Syrians and
Jews, There were commotions in all quarters—wars and rumors of wars, so
that men fled to the mountains, Wherever the Jews had settled were
commotions and massacres, especially at Alexandria, when fifty thousand
bodies were heaped up for burial.

Nero was now on the imperial throne, and stringent measures were
adopted to suppress the revolt of the Jews, now goaded to
Incipient desperation by the remembrance of their oppressions, and the
rebellion. conviction that every man's hand was against them. Certius, the
prefect of Syria, advanced with ten thousand Roman troops and
thirteen hundred allies, and desperate war seemed now inevitable.
Agrippa, knowing how fatal it would be to the Jewish nation, attempted to
avert it. He argued to infatuated men. Certius undertook to storm Jerusalem,
the head-quarters of the insurrection, but failed, and was obliged to retreat,
with loss of a great part of his army—a defeat such as the Romans had not
received since Varus was overpowered in the forests of Germany.

Judea was now in open rebellion against the whole power of Rome
—a mad and desperate revolt, which could not end but in the
Open political ruin of the nation. Great preparations were made for the
rebellion approaching contest, in which the Jews were to fight single-handed
of Judea.

and unassisted by allies. The fortified posts were in the hands of the
insurgents, but they had no organized and disciplined forces, and were
divided among themselves. Agrippa, the representative [pg 136] of the
Herodian kings, openly espoused the cause of Rome. The only hope of the
Jews was in their stern fanaticism, their stubborn patience, and their daring
valor. They were to be justified for their insurrection by all those principles
which animate oppressed people striving to be free, and they had glorious
precedents in the victories of the Maccabees; but it was their misfortune to
contend against the armies of the masters of the world. They were not
strong enough for revolt.

The news of the insurrection, and the defeat of a Roman prefect,
made a profound sensation at Rome. Although Nero affected to
Sensation treat the affair with levity, he selected, however, the ablest general
at Rome.of the empire, Vespasian, and sent him to Syria. The storm broke
Roman out in Galilee, whose mountain fastnesses were intrusted by the
preparatio Jews to Joseph, the son of Matthias—lineally descended from an
ns for war. illustrious priestly family, with the blood of the Asmonæan running
in his veins—a man of culture and learning—a Pharisee who had at
first opposed the insurrection, but drawn into it after the defeat of
Certius. He is better known to us as the historian Josephus. His measures of
defence were prudent and vigorous, and he endeavored to unite the various
parties in the contest which he knew was desperate. He raised an army of
one hundred thousand men, and introduced the Roman discipline, but was
impeded in his measures by party dissensions and by treachery. In the city
of Jerusalem, Ananias, the high priest, took the lead, but had to contend
with fanatics and secret enemies.

The first memorable event of the war was the unsuccessful
expedition against Ascalon, sixty-five miles from Jerusalem, in
Expedition which Roman discipline prevailed against numbers. This was soon
against followed by the advance of Vespasian to Ptolemais, while Titus, his
Ascalon. lieutenant and son, sailed from Alexandria to join him. Vespasian
Fall ofhad an army of sixty thousand veterans. Josephus could not openly
Jotaphata. contend against this force, but strengthened his fortified [pg 137]
cities. Vespasian advanced cautiously in battle array, and halted on
the frontiers of Galilee. The Jews, under Josephus, fled in despair.

Gabaia was the first city which fell, and its inhabitants were put to the
sword—a stern vengeance which the Romans often exercised, to awe their
insurgent enemies. Josephus retired to Tiberius, hopeless and discouraged,
and exhorted the people of Jerusalem either to re-enforce him with a
powerful army, or make submission to the Romans. They did neither. He
then threw himself into Jotaphata, where the strongest of the Galilean
warriors had intrenched themselves. Vespasian advanced against the city
with his whole army, and drew a line of circumvallation around it, and then
commenced the attack. The city stood on the top of a lofty hill, and was
difficult of access, and well supplied with provisions. As the works of the
Romans arose around the city, its walls were raised thirty-five feet by the
defenders, while they issued out in sallies and fought with the courage of
despair. The city could not be taken by assault, and the siege was converted
into a blockade. The besieged, supplied with provisions, issued out from
behind their fortifications, and destroyed the works of the Romans. The
fearful battering-rams of the besiegers were destroyed by the arts and
inventions of the besieged. The catapults and scorpions swept the walls, and
the huge stones began to tell upon the turrets and the towers. The whole city
was surrounded by triple lines of heavy armed soldiers, ready for assault.
The Jews resorted to all kinds of expedients, even to the pouring of boiling
oil on the heads of their assailants. The Roman general was exasperated at
the obstinate resistance, and proceeded by more cautious measures. He
raised the embankments, and fortified them with towers, in which he placed
slingers and archers, whose missiles told with terrible effect on those who
defended the walls. Forty-seven days did the gallant defenders resist all the
resources of Vespasian, But they were at length exhausted, and their ranks
were thinned, Once again a furious assault was made by the whole army,
and Titus scaled the walls. The city fell [pg 138] with the loss of forty
thousand men on both sides, and Josephus surrendered to the will of God,
but was himself spared by the victors by adroit flatteries, in which he
predicted the elevation of Vespasian to the throne of Nero.

It would be interesting to detail the progress of the war, but our
limits forbid. The reader is referred to Josephus. City after city
Fall ofgradually fell into the hands of Vespasian, who now established
Joppa. himself in Cæsarea. Joppa shared the fate of Jotaphata; the city was
razed, but the citadel was fortified by the Romans.

The intelligence of these disasters filled Jerusalem with
consternation and mourning, for scarcely a family had not to
Fall ofdeplore the loss of some of its members. Tiberius and Tarichea, on
Gamala. the banks of the beautiful lake of Galilee, were the next which fell,
followed by atrocious massacres, after the fashion of war in those
days. Galilee stood appalled, and all its cities but three surrendered.
Of these Gamala, the capital, was the strongest, and more inaccessible than
Jotaphata. It was built upon a precipice, and was crowded with fugitives,
and well provisioned. But it was finally taken, as well as Gischala and
Itabyriun, and all Galilee was in the hands of the Romans.

Jerusalem, meanwhile, was the scene of factions and dissensions. It
might have re-enforced the strongholds of Galilee, but gave itself
Factions atup to party animosities, which weakened its strength. Had the Jews
Jerusalem. been united, they might have offered a more successful resistance.
But their fate was sealed. I can not describe the various intrigues
and factions which paralyzed the national arm, and forewarned the
inhabitants of their doom.

Meanwhile, Nero was assassinated, and Vespasian was elevated to the
imperial throne. He sent his son Titus to complete the subjugation which
had hitherto resisted his conquering legions.

Jerusalem, in those days of danger and anxiety, was still rent by
factions, and neglected her last chance of organizing her forces to
Infatuation resist the common enemy. Never was a city [pg 139] more
of the city.insensible of its doom. Three distinct parties were at war with each
Its other, shedding each others' blood, reckless of all consequences,
fortificatio callous, fierce, desperate. At length the army of Titus advanced to
ns. Thethe siege of the sacred city, still strong and well provisioned. Four
temple. legions, with mercenary troops and allies, burning to avenge the
past, encamped beneath the walls, destroying the orchards and
olive-grounds and gardens which everywhere gladdened the
beautiful environs. The city was fortified with three walls where not
surrounded by impassable ravines, not one within the other, but inclosing
distinct quarters; and these were of great strength, the stones of which were
in some parts thirty-five feet long, and so thick that even the heaviest

battering-rams could make no impression. One hundred and sixty-four
towers surmounted these heavy walls, one of which was one hundred and
forty feet high, and forty-three feet square; another, of white marble,
seventy-six feet in height, was built of stones thirty-five feet long, and
seventeen and a half wide, and eight and a half high, joined together with
the most perfect masonry. Within these walls and towers was the royal
palace, surrounded by walls and towers of equal strength. The fortress of
Antonia, seventy feet high, stood on a rock of ninety feet elevation, with
precipitous sides. High above all these towers and hills, and fortresses,
stood the temple, on an esplanade covering a square of a furlong on each
side. The walls which surrounded this fortress-temple were built of vast
stones, and were of great height; and within these walls, on each side, was a
spacious double portico fifty-two and a half feet broad, with a ceiling of
cedar exquisitely carved, supported by marble columns forty-three and
three-quarters feet high, hewn out of single stones. There were one hundred
and sixty-two of these beautiful columns. Within this quadrangle was an
inner wall, seventy feet in height, inclosing the inner court, around which,
in the interior, was another still more splendid portico, entered by brazen
gates adorned with gold. These doors, or gates, [pg 140] were fifty-two and
a half feet high and twenty-six and a quarter wide. Each gateway had two
lofty pillars, twenty-one feet in circumference. The gate called Beautiful
was eighty-seven and a half feet high, made of Corinthian brass, and plated
with gold. The quadrangle, entered by nine of these gates, inclosed still
another, within which was the temple itself, with its glittering façade. This
third and inner quadrangle was entered by a gateway tower one hundred
and thirty-two and a half feet high and forty-three and a half wide. “At a
distance the temple looked like a mountain of snow fretted with golden
pinnacles.” With what emotions Titus must have surveyed this glorious
edifice, as the sun rising above Mount Moriah gilded its gates and pinnacles
—soon to be so utterly demolished that not one stone should be left upon
another.

Around the devoted city Titus erected towers which overlooked the
walls, from which he discharged his destructive missiles, while the
The siege. battering-rams played against the walls, where they were weakest.
The first wall was soon abandoned, and five days after the second

was penetrated, after a furious combat, and Titus took possession of the
lower city, where most of the people lived.

The precipitous heights of Zion, the tower of Antonia and the temple still
remained, and although the cause was hopeless, the Jews would hear of no
terms of surrender. Titus used every means. So did Josephus, who
harangued the people at a safe distance. The most obstinate fury was added
to presumptuous, vain confidence, perhaps allied with utter distrust of the
promises of enemies whom they had offended past forgiveness.

At length famine pressed. No grain was to be bought. The wealthy
secreted their food. All kind feelings were lost in the general
Famine inmisery. Wives snatched the last morsel from their family and weary
the city. husbands, and children from their parents. The houses were full of
dying and the dead, a heavy silence oppressed every one, yet no
complaints were made. They suffered in sullen gloom, and [pg 141]
despair. From the 14th of April to the 19th of July, A.D. 70, from one
hundred thousand to five hundred thousand, according to different
estimates, were buried or thrown from the walls. A measure of wheat sold
for a talent, and the dunghills were raked for subsistence.

When all was ready, the assault on the places which remained
commenced. On the 5th of July the fortress of Antonia was taken,
The and the siege of the temple was pressed. Titus made one more
assault ofattempt to persuade its defenders to surrender, wishing to save the
Jerusalem. sacred edifice, but they were deaf and obstinate. They continued to
The fall. fight, inch by inch, exhausted by famine, and reduced to despair.
They gnawed their leathern belts, and ate their very children. On
the 8th of August the wall inclosing the portico, or cloisters, was
scaled. On the 10th the temple itself, a powerful fortress, fell, with all its
treasures, into the hands of the victors. The soldiers gazed with admiration
on the plates of gold, and the curious workmanship of the sacred vessels.
All that could be destroyed by fire was burned, and all who guarded the
precincts were killed.

Still the palace and the upper city held out. Titus promised to spare the lives
of the defenders if they would instantly surrender. But they still demanded
terms. Titus, in a fury, swore that the whole surviving population should be

exterminated. It was not till the 7th of September that this last
bulwark was captured, so obstinately did the starving Jews defend
The siegethemselves. A miscellaneous slaughter commenced, till the Romans
and sackwere weary of their work of vengeance. During the whole siege one
of the city. million one hundred thousand were killed, and ninety-seven
thousand made prisoners, since a large part of the population of
Judea had taken refuge within the walls. During the whole war one
million three hundred and fifty-six thousand were killed.

Thus fell Jerusalem, after a siege of five months, the most desperate defense
of a capital in the history of war. It fell never to rise again as a Jewish
metropolis. Never had a [pg 142] city greater misfortunes. Never was
heroism accompanied with greater fanaticism. Never was a prophecy more
signally fulfilled.

The fall of Jerusalem was succeeded by bloody combats before the
whole country was finally subdued. With the final conquest the
Consequen Jews were dispersed among the nations, and their nationality was at
ces of thean end. Their political existence was annihilated. The capital was
fall ofdestroyed, the temple demolished, and the royal house
Jerusalem. extinguished, and the high priesthood buried amid the ruins of the
sacred places.

With the occupation of Palestine by strangers, and the final dispersion of the
Jews over all nations, who, without a country, and without friends,
maintained their institutions, their religion, their name, their peculiarities,
and their associations, we leave the subject—so full of mournful interest,
and of impressive lessons. The student of history should see in their
prosperity and misfortunes the overruling Providence vindicating his
promises, and the awful majesty of eternal laws.

[pg 143]

BOOK II.

THE GRECIAN STATES.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND
ITS EARLY INHABITANTS.

We have seen that the Oriental-world, so favored by nature, so rich
in fields, in flocks, and fruits, failed to realize the higher destiny of
Degenerac man. In spite of all the advantages of nature, he was degraded by
y of thedebasing superstitions, and by the degeneracy which wealth and
oriental ease produced. He was enslaved by vices and by despots. The
states. Assyrian and Babylonian kingdom, that “head of gold,” as seen in
Nebuchadnezzar's dream, became inferior to the “breast and arms
of silver,” as represented by the Persian Empire, and this, in turn,
became subject to the Grecian States, “the belly and the thighs of brass.” It
is the nobler Hellenic race, with its original genius, its enterprise, its stern
and rugged nature, strengthened by toil, and enterprise, and war, that we are
now to contemplate. It is Greece—the land of song, of art, of philosophy—
the land of heroes and freemen, to which we now turn our eyes—the most
interesting, and the most famous of the countries of antiquity.

Let us first survey that country in all its stern ruggedness and
picturesque beauty. It was small compared with Assyria or Persia.
Boundarie Its original name was Hellas, designated by a little district of
s ofThessaly, which lay on the southeast verge of Europe, and extended
Greece. in length from the thirty-sixth to the fortieth degree of latitude. It
[pg 144] contained, with its islands, only twenty-one thousand two
hundred and ninety square miles—less than Portugal or Ireland, but
its coasts exceeded the whole Pyrenean peninsula. Hellas is itself a
peninsula, bounded on the north by the Cambunian and Ceraunian
mountains, which separated it from Macedonia; on the east by the Ægean
Sea, (Archipelago), which separated it from Asia Minor; on the south by the
Cretan Sea, and on the west by the Ionian Sea.

The northern part of this country of the Hellenes is traversed by a
range of mountains, commencing at Acra Ceraunia, on the Adriatic,
The and tending southeast above Dodona, in Epirus, till they join the
mountains Cambunian mountains, near Mount Olympus, which run along the
of Greece.coast of the Ægean till they terminate in the southeastern part of
Between Thessaly, under the names of Ossa, Pelion, and Tisæus. The great
Ossa andrange of Pindus enters Greece at the sources of the Peneus, where it
Olympus crosses the Cambunian mountains, and extends at first south, and
is thethen east to the sea, nearly inclosing Thessaly, and dividing it from
famous the rest of Greece. After throwing out the various spurs of Othrys,
vale ofŒta, and Corax, it loses itself in those famous haunts of the Muses
Tempe. —the heights of Parnassus and Helicon, in Phocis and Bœotia, In
the southern part of Greece are the mountains which intersect the
Peloponnesus in almost every part, the principal of which are
Scollis, Aroanii, and Taygetus. We can not enumerate the names of all these
mountains; it is enough to say that no part of Europe, except Switzerland, is
so covered with mountains as Greece, some of which attain the altitude of
perpetual snow. Only a small part of the country is level.

The rivers, again, are numerous, but more famous for associations
than for navigable importance. The Peneus which empties itself
The rivers. into the Ægean, a little below Tempe; the Achelous, which flows
into the Ionian Sea; the Alpheus, flowing into the Ionian Sea; and
the Eurotas, which enters the Laconican Gulf, are among the most
considerable. The lakes are numerous, but not large. The coasts are lined
[pg 145] by bays and promontories, favorable to navigation in its infancy,
and for fishing. The adjacent seas are full of islands, memorable in Grecian
history, some of which are of considerable size.

Thus intersected in all parts with mountains, and deeply indented
by the sea, Greece was both mountainous and maritime. The
Natural mountains, the rivers, the valleys, the sea, the islands contributed to
advantages make the people enterprising and poetical, and as each State was
for divided from every other State by mountains, or valleys, or gulfs,
political political liberty was engendered. The difficulties of cultivating a
independe barren soil on the highlands inured the inhabitants to industry and
nce. economy, as in Scotland and New England, while the configuration

of the country strengthened the powers of defense, and shut the people up
from those invasions which have so often subjugated a plain and level
country. These natural divisions also kept the States from political union,
and fostered a principle of repulsion, and led to an indefinite multiplication
of self-governing towns, and to great individuality of character.

Situated in the same parallels of latitude as Asia Minor, and the
south of Italy and Spain, Greece produced wheat, barley, flax, wine,
Natural oil, in the earliest times. The cultivation of the vine and the olive
production was peculiarly careful. Barley cakes were more eaten than wheaten.
s. All vegetables and fish were abundant and cheap. But little fresh
meat was eaten. Corn also was imported in considerable quantities
by the maritime States in exchange for figs, olives, and oil. The
climate, clear and beautiful to modern Europeans, was less genial than that
of Asia Minor, but more bracing and variable. It also varied in various
sections.

These various sections, or provinces, or states, into which Greece was
divided, claim a short notice.

The largest and most northerly State was Epirus, containing four
thousand two hundred and sixty square miles, bounded on the north
Epirus. by Macedonia, on the east by Thessaly, on the south by Acarnania,
and on [pg 146] the west by the Ionian Sea. Though mountainous,
it was fertile, and produced excellent cattle and horses. Of the
interesting places of Epirus, memorable in history, ranks first Dodona,
celebrated for its oracle, the most ancient in Greece, and only inferior to
that of Delphi. It was founded by the Pelasgi before the Trojan war and was
dedicated to Jupiter. The temple was surrounded by a grove of oak, but the
oracles were latterly delivered by the murmuring of fountains. On the west
of Epirus is the island of Corcyra (Corfu), famous for the shipwreck of
Ulysses, and for the gardens of Aleinous, and for having given rise to the
Peloponnesian war. Epirus is also distinguished as the country over which
Pyrrhus ruled. The Acheron, supposed to communicate with the infernal
regions, was one of its rivers.

West of Epirus was Thessaly, and next to it in size, containing four thousand
two hundred and sixty square miles. It was a plain inclosed by mountains;

next to Bœotia, the most fertile of all the States of Greece,
abounding in oil, wine, and corn, and yet one of the weakest and
Thessaly. most insignificant politically. The people were rich, but perfidious.
The river Peneus flowed through the entire extent of the country,
and near its mouth was the vale of Tempe, the most beautiful valley
in Greece, guarded by four strong fortresses.

At some distance from the mouth of the Peneus was Larissa, the
city of Achilles, and the general capital of the Pelasgi. At the
The southern extremity of the lake Cælas, the largest in Thessaly, was
famous Pheræ, one of the most ancient cities in Greece, and near it was the
places. fountain of Hyperia. In the southern part of Thessaly was Pharsalia,
the battle-ground between Cæsar and Pompey, and near it was
Pyrrha, formerly called Hellas, where was the tomb of Hellen, son
of Deucalion, whose descendants, Æolus, Dorus and Ion, are said to have
given name to the three nations, Æolians, Dorians, and Ionians, Still further
south, between the inaccessible cliffs of Mount Œta and the marshes [pg
147] which skirt the Maliaeus Bay, were the defiles of Thermopylæ, where
Leonidas and three hundred heroes died defending the pass, against the
army of Xerxes, and which in one place was only twenty-five feet wide, so
that, in so narrow a defile, the Spartans were able to withstand for three
days the whole power of Persia. In this famous pass the Amphictyonic
council met annually to deliberate on the common affairs of all the States.

South of Epirus, on the Ionian Sea, and west of Ætolia, was
Acarnania, occupied by a barbarous people before the Pelasgi
Acarnania. settled in it. It had no historic fame, except as furnishing on its
waters a place for the decisive battle which Augustus gained over
Antony, at Actium, and for the islands on the coast, one of which,
Ithaca, a rugged and mountainous island, was the residence of Ulysses.

Ætolia, to the east of Acarnania, and south of Thessaly, and
separated from Achaia by the Corinthian Gulf, contained nine
Ætolia. hundred and thirty square miles. Its principal city was Thermon,
considered impregnable, at which were held splendid games and
festivals. The Ætolians were little known in the palmy days of
Athens and Sparta, except as a hardy race, but covetous and faithless.

Doris was a small tract to the east of Ætolia, inhabited by one of
the most ancient of the Greek tribes—the Dorians, called so from
Doris. Dorus, son of Deucalion, and originally inhabited that part of
Thessaly in which were the mountains of Olympus and Ossa. From
this section they were driven by the Cadmeans. Doris was the
abode of the Heraclidæ when exiled from the Peloponnesus, and which was
given to Hyllas, the son of Hercules, in gratitude by Ægiminius, the king,
who was reinstated by the hero in his dispossessed dominion.

Locri Ozolæ was another small State, south of Doris, from which it
is separated by the range of the Parnassus situated on the
Locri Corinthian Gulf, the most important city of which was Salona,
Ozolæ. surrounded on all sides by hills. Naupactus was also a considerable
place, known [pg 148] in the Middle Ages as Lepanto, where was
fought one of the decisive naval battles of the world, in which the
Turks were defeated by the Venetians. It contained three hundred and fifty
square miles.

Phocis was directly to the east, bounded on the north by Doris and
the Locri Epicnemidii, and south by the Corinthian Gulf. This State
Phocis. embraced six hundred and ten square miles. The Phocians are
known in history from the sacred or Phocian war, which broke out
in 357 B.C., in consequence of refusing to pay a fine imposed by
the Amphictyonic council. The Thebans and Locrians carried on this war
successfully, joined by Philip of Macedon, who thus paved the way for the
sovereignty of Greece. One among the most noted places was Crissa, famed
for the Pythian games, and Delphi, renowned for its oracle sacred to Apollo.
The priestess, Pythia, sat on a sacred tripod over the mouth of a cave, and
pronounced her oracles in verse or prose. Those who consulted her made
rich presents, from which Delphi became vastly enriched. Above Delphi
towers Parnassus, the highest mountain in central Greece, near whose
summit was the supposed residence of Deucalion.

Bœotia was the richest State in Greece, so far as fertility of soil can
make a State rich. It was bounded on the north by the territory of
Bœotia. the Locri, on the west by Phocis, on the south by Attica, and on the
east by the Eubœan Sea. It contained about one thousand square

miles. Its inhabitants were famed for their stolidity, and yet it furnished
Hesiod, Pindar, Corinna, and Plutarch to the immortal catalogue of names.
Its men, if stupid, were brave, and its women were handsome. It was
originally inhabited by barbarous tribes, all connected with the Leleges. In
its southwestern part was the famous Helicon, famed as the seat of Apollo
and the Muses, and on the southern border was Mount Cithæron, to the
north of which was Platea, where the Persians were defeated by the
confederate Greeks under Pausanias. Bœotia contained the largest lake in
Greece—Copaias, famed for eels. On the borders of this lake was [pg 149]
Coronea, where the Thebans were defeated by the Spartans. To the north of
Coronea was Chæronea, where was fought the great battle with Philip,
which subverted the liberties of Greece. To the north of the river Æsopus, a
sluggish stream, was Thebes, the capital of Bœotia, founded by Cadmus,
whose great generals, Epaminondas and Pelopidas, made it, for a time, one
of the great powers of Greece.

The most famous province of Greece was Attica, bounded on the
north by the mountains Cithæron and Parnes, on the west by the
Attica. bay of Saronicus, on the east by the Myrtoum Sea. It contained but
seven hundred square miles. It derived its name from Atthis, a
daughter of Cranaus; but its earliest name was Cecropia, from its
king, Cecrops. It was divided, in the time of Cecrops, into four tribes. On its
western extremity, on the shores of the Saronic Gulf, stood Eleusis, the
scene of the Eleusinian mysteries, the most famous of all the religious
ceremonials of Greece, sacred to Ceres, and celebrated every four years,
and lasting for nine days. Opposite to Eleusis was Salamis, the birthplace of
Ajax, Teucer, and Solon. There the Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by
the Athenians. The capital, Athens, founded by Cecrops, 1556 B.C.,
received its name from the goddess Neith, an Egyptian deity, known by the
Greeks as Athena, or Minerva. Its population, in the time of Pericles, was
one hundred and twenty thousand. The southernmost point of Attica was
Sunium, sacred to Minerva; Marathon, the scene of the most brilliant
victory which the Athenians ever fought, was in the eastern part of Attica.
To the southeast of Athens was Mount Hymettus, celebrated for its flowers
and honey. Between Hymettus and Marathon was Mount Pentelicus, famed
for its marbles.

Megaris, another small State, was at the west of Attica, between the
Corinthian and the Saronican gulfs. Its chief city, Megara, was a
Megaris. considerable place, defended by two citadels on the hills above it. It
was celebrated as the seat of the Megaric school of philosophy,
founded by Euclid.

[pg 150]

The largest of the Grecian States was the famous peninsula known
as the Peloponnesus, entirely surrounded by water, except the
The isthmus of Corinth, four geographical miles wide. On the west was
Peloponne the Ionian Sea; on the east the Saronic Gulf and the Myrtoum Sea;
sus and itson the north the Corinthian Gulf. It contained six thousand seven
states. hundred and forty-five square miles. It was divided into several
States. It was said to be left by Hercules on his death to the
Heraclidæ, which they, with the assistance of the Dorians,
ultimately succeeded in regaining, about eighty years after the Trojan war.

Of the six States into which the Peloponnesus was divided, Achaia was the
northernmost, and was celebrated for the Achæan league, composed of its
principal cities, as well us Corinth, Sicyon, Phlius, Arcadia, Argolis,
Laconia, Megaris, and other cities and States.

Southwest of Achaia was Elis, on the Ionian Sea, in which stood
Olympia, where the Olympic games were celebrated every four
Elis. years, instituted by Hercules.

Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus,
surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains—a rich and
Arcadia. pastoral country, producing fine horses and asses. It was
the favorite residence of Pan, the god of shepherds, and its
people were famed for their love of liberty and music.

Argolis was the eastern portion of the Peloponnesus, watered by the
Saronic Gulf, whose original inhabitants were Pelasgi. It boasted of
Argolis. the cities of Argos and Mycenæ, the former of which was the oldest
city of Greece. Agamemnon reigned at Mycenæ, the most powerful
of the kings of Greece during the Trojan war.

Laconia, at the southeastern extremity of the peninsula, was the
largest and most important of the States of the Peloponnesus. It was
Laconia. rugged and mountainous, but its people were brave and noble. Its
largest city, Sparta, for several generations controlled the fortune of
Greece, the most warlike of the Grecian cities.

[pg 151]

Messenia was the southwestern part of the peninsula—
mountainous, but well watered, and abounding in pasture. It was
Messenia. early coveted by the Lacedæmonians, inhabitants of Laconia, and
was subjugated in a series of famous wars, called the Messenian.

Such were the principal States of Greece. But in connection with these were
the islands in the seas which surrounded it, and these are nearly as famous
as the States on the main land.

The most important of these was Crete, at the southern extremity of
the Ægean Sea. It was the fabled birthplace of Jupiter. To the south
Crete. of Thrace were Thasos, remarkable for fertility, and for mines of
gold and silver; Samothrace, celebrated for the mysteries of
Cybele; Imbros, sacred to Ceres and Mercury. Lemnos, in latitude
forty, equidistant from Mount Athos and the Hellespont, rendered infamous
by the massacre of all the male inhabitants of the island by the women. The
island of Eubœa stretched along the coast of Attica, Locris, and Bœotia, and
was exceedingly fertile, and from this island the Athenians drew large
supplies of corn—the largest island in the Archipelago, next to Crete. Its
principal city was Chalcis, one of the strongest in Greece.

To the southeast of Eubœa are the Cyclades—a group of islands of
which Delos, Andros, Tenos, Myeonos, Naxos, Paros, Olearos,
The Siphnos, Melos, and Syros, were the most important. All these
Cyclades. islands are famous for temples and the birthplace of celebrated
men.

The islands called the Sporades lie to the south and east of the Cyclades,
among which are Amorgo, Ios, Sicinos, Thera, and Anaphe—some of which
are barren, and others favorable to the vine.

Besides these islands, which belong to the continent of
Europe, are those which belong to Asia—Tenedos, small
The Lesbos, but fertile; Lesbos, celebrated for wine, the fourth in size
Sporades. and otherof all the islands of the Ægean; Chios, also famed for wine;
islands. Samos, famous for the worship of Juno, and [pg 152] the
birthplace of Pythagoras; Patmos, used as a place of
banishment; Cos, the birthplace of Apelles and
Hippocrates, exceedingly fertile; and south of all, Rhodes, the largest island
of the Ægean, after Crete and Eubœa. It was famous for the brazen and
colossal statue of the sun, seventy cubits high. Its people were great
navigators, and their maritime laws were ultimately adopted by all the
Greeks and Romans. It was also famous for its schools of art.

Such were the States and islands of Greece, mountainous, in many parts
sterile, but filled with a hardy, bold, and adventurous race, whose exploits
and arts were the glory of the ancient world.

The various tribes and nations all belonged to that branch of the
Indo-European race to which ethnographers have given the name of
Origin ofPelasgian. They were a people of savage manners, but sufficiently
the civilised to till the earth, and build walled cities. Their religion was
Grecian polytheistic—a personification of the elemental powers and the
nations. heavenly bodies. The Pelasgians occupied insulated points, but
The were generally diffused throughout Greece; and they were probably
Pelasgians.a wandering people before they settled in Greece. The Greek
traditions about their migration rests on no certain ground. Besides
this race, concerning which we have no authentic history, were the
Leleges and Carians. But all of them were barbarous, and have left no
written records. Argos and Sicyon are said to be Pelasgian cities, founded as
far back as one thousand eight hundred and fifty-six years before Christ. It
is also thought that Oriental elements entered into the early population of
Greece. Cecrops imported into Attica Egyptian arts. Cadmus, the
Phœnician, colonized Bœotia, and introduced weights and measures.
Danaus, driven out of Egypt, gave his name to the warlike Danai, and
instructed the Pelasgian women of Argos in the mystic rites of Demetus.
Pelope is supposed to have passed from Asia into Greece, with great
treasures, and his descendants occupied the throne of Argos.

At a period before written history commences, the early [pg 153]
inhabitants of Greece, whatever may have been their origin, which
The is involved in obscurity, were driven from their settlements by a
Hellenes. warlike race, akin, however, to the Pelasgians. These conquerors
The were the Hellenes, who were believed to have issued from the
Æolians. district of Thessaly, north of Mount Othrys. They gave their name
The ultimately to the whole country. Divided into small settlements,
Achæans. they yet were bound together by language and customs, and
cherished the idea of national unity. There were four chief divisions
of this nation, the Dorians, Æolians, Achæans, and Ionians,
traditionally supposed to be descended from the three sons of Hellen, the
son of Deucalion, Dorus, Æolus, and Xuthus, the last the father of Achæus,
and Jon. So the Greek poets represented the origin of the Hellenes—a
people fond of adventure, and endowed by nature with vast capacities,
subsequently developed by education.

Of these four divisions of the Hellenic race, the Æolians spread
over northern Greece, and also occupied the western coast of the
The Peloponnesus and the Ionian islands. It continued, to the latest
Dorians times, to occupy the greater part of Greece. The Achæans were the
and most celebrated in epic poetry, their name being used by Homer to
Ionians. denote all the Hellenic tribes which fought at Troy. They were the
dominant people of the Peloponnesus, occupying the south and
east, and the Arcadians the centre. The Dorians and Ionians were of
later celebrity; the former occupying a small patch of territory on the slopes
of Mount Œta, north of Delphi; the latter living on a narrow slip of the
country along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus, and extending
eastward into Attica.

The principal settlements of the Æolians lay around the Pagasæan
Gulf, and were blended with the Minyans, a race of Pelasgian
Settlement adventurers known in the Argonautic expedition, under Æolian
s of theleaders. In the north of Bœotia arose the city of Orchomenus,
Æolians. whose treasures were compared by Homer to those of the Egyptian
[pg 154] Thebes. Another seat of the Æolians was Ephyra,
afterward known as Corinth, where the “wily Sisyphus” ruled. He
was the father of Phocus, who gave his name to Phocis. The descendants of

Æolus led also a colony to Elis, and another to Pylus. In general, the
Æolians sought maritime settlements in northern Greece, and the western
side of the Peloponnesus.

The Achæans were the dominant race, in very early times, of the
south of Thessaly, and the eastern side of the Peloponnesus, whose
Of thechief seats were Phthia, where Achilles reigned, and Argolis.
Achæans. Thirlwall seems to think they were a Pelasgian, rather than an
Hellenic people. The ancient traditions represent the sons of
Achæus as migrating to Argos, where they married the daughters of
Danaus the king, but did not mount the throne.

The early fortunes of the Dorians are involved in great obscurity,
nor is there much that is satisfactory in the early history of any of
Of thethe Hellenic tribes. Our information is chiefly traditional, derived
Dorians. from the poets. Dorus, the son of Deucalion, occupied the country
over against Peloponnesus, on the opposite side of the Corinthian
Gulf, comprising Ætolia, Phocis, and the Ozolian Locrians. Nor
can the conquests of the Dorians on the Peloponnesus be reconciled upon
any other ground than that they occupied a considerable tract of country.

The early history of the Ionians is still more obscure. Ion, the son
of Xuthus, is supposed to have led his followers from Thessaly to
Of theAttica, and to have conquered the Pelasgians, or effected peaceable
Ionians. settlements with them. Then follows a series of legends which have
more poetical than historical interest, but which will be briefly
noticed in the next chapter.

[pg 155]

CHAPTER XIV.

THE LEGENDS OF ANCIENT GREECE.

The Greeks possessed no authentic written history of that period
which included the first appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly to
The heroicthe first Olympiad, B.C. 776. This is called the heroic age, and is
ages ofknown to us only by legends and traditions, called myths. They
Greece. pertain both to gods and men, and are connected with what we call
mythology, which possesses no historical importance, although it is
full of interest for its poetic life. And as mythology is interwoven
with the literature and the art of the ancients, furnishing inexhaustible
subjects for poets, painters, and sculptors, it can not be omitted wholly in
the history of that classic people, whose songs and arts have been the
admiration of the world.

We have space, however, only for those legends which are of
universal interest, and will first allude to those which pertain to
The gods, such as appear most prominent in the poems of Hesiod and
legends. Homer.

Zeus, or Jupiter, is the most important personage in the
mythology of Greece. Although, chronologically, he comes
Zeus. after Kronos and Uranos, he was called the “father of gods
and men,” whose power it was impossible to resist, and
which power was universal. He was supposed to be the
superintending providence, whose seat was on Mount Olympus, enthroned
in majesty and might, to whom the lesser deities were obedient. With his
two brothers, Poseidon, or Neptune, and Hades, or Pluto, he reigned over
the heavens, the earth, the sea, and hell. Mythology represents him as born
in Crete; and when he had gained sufficient [pg 156] mental and bodily
force, he summoned the gods to Mount Olympus, and resolved to wrest the
supreme power from his father, Kronos, and the Titans. Ten years were
spent in the mighty combat, in which all nature was convulsed, before
victory was obtained, and the Titans hurled into Tartarus. With Zeus now

began a different order of beings. He is represented as having many wives
and a numerous offspring. From his own head came Athene, fully armed,
the goddess of wisdom, the patron deity of Athens. By Themis he begat the
Horæ; by Eurynome, the three Graces; by Mnemosyne, the Muses; by Leto
(Latona), Apollo, and Artemis (Diana); by Demeter (Ceres), Persephone; by
Here (Juno), Hebe, Ares (Mars), and Eileithyia; by Maia, Hermes
(Mercury).

Under the presidency of Zeus were the twelve great gods and
goddesses of Olympus—Poseidon (Neptune), who presided over
The otherthe sea; Apollo, who was the patron of art; Ares, the god of war;
deities. Hephaestos (Vulcan), who forged the thunderbolts; Hermes, who
was the messenger of omnipotence and the protector of merchants;
Here, the queen of heaven, and general protector of the female sex;
Athene (Minerva), the goddess of wisdom and letters; Artemis (Diana), the
protectress of hunters and shepherds; Aphrodite (Venus), the goddess of
beauty and love; Hertia (Vesta), the goddess of the hearth and altar, whose
fire never went out; Demeter (Ceres), mother earth, the goddess of
agriculture.

Scarcely inferior to these Olympian deities were Hades (Pluto), who
presided over the infernal regions; Helios, the sun; Hecate, the goddess of
expiation; Dionysus (Bacchus), the god of the vine; Leto (Latona), the
goddess of the concealed powers; Eos (Aurora), goddess of the morn;
Nemesis, god of vengeance; Æolus, the god of winds; Harmonia; the
Graces, the Muses, the Nymphs, the Nereids, marine nymphs—these were
all invested with great power and dignity.

Besides these were deities who performed special services to the greater
gods, like the Horæ; and monsters, offspring of [pg 157] gods, like the
gorgons, chimera, the dragon of the Hesperides, the Lernæan hydra, the
Nemean lion, Scylla and Charybdis, the centaurs, the sphinx, and others.

It will be seen that these gods and goddesses represent the powers
of nature, and the great attributes of wisdom, purity, courage,
Who fidelity, truth, which belong to man's higher nature, and which are
represent associated with the divine. It was these powers and attributes which
were worshiped—superhuman and adorable. Homer and Hesiod are

the powersthe great authorities of the theogonies of the pagan world, and we
of Nature. can not tell how much of this was of their invention, and how much
was implanted in the common mind of the Greeks, at an age earlier
than 700 B.C. The Orphic theogony belongs to a later date, but
acquired even greater popular veneration than the Hesiodic.

The worship of these divinities was attended by rites more or less
elevated, but sometimes by impurities and follies, like those of
The Bacchus and Venus. Sometimes this worship was veiled in
worship ofmysteries, like those of Eleusis. To all these deities temples were
these erected, and offerings made, sometimes of fruits and flowers, and
deities. then of animals. Of all these deities there were legends—sometimes
absurd, and these were interwoven with literature and religious
solemnities. The details of these fill many a large dictionary, and
are to be read in dictionaries, or in poems. Those which pertain to Ceres, to
Apollo, to Juno, to Venus, to Minerva, to Mercury, are full of poetic beauty
and fascination. They arose in an age of fertile imagination and ardent
feeling, and became the faith of the people.

Besides the legends pertaining to gods and goddesses, are those
which relate the heroic actions of men. Grote describes the different
Legends races of men as they appear in the Hesiodic theogony—the
which offspring of gods. First, the golden race: first created, good and
pertain tohappy, like the gods themselves, and honored after death by being
heroes. made the unseen guardians of men—“terrestrial demons.” Second,
the silver race, inferior in body and mind, was next created, and
being [pg 158] disobedient, are buried in the earth. Third, the
brazen race, hard, pugnacious, terrible, strong, which was continually at
war, and ultimately destroyed itself, and descended into Hades, unhonored
and without privilege. Fourth, the race of heroes, or demigods, such as
fought at Thebes and Troy, virtuous but warlike, which also perished in
battle, but were removed to a happier state. And finally, the iron race,
doomed to perpetual guilt, care, toil, suffering—unjust, dishonest,
ungrateful, thoughtless—such is the present race of men, with a small
admixture of good, which will also end in due time. Such are the races
which Hesiod describes in his poem of the “Works and Days,”—penetrated
with a profound sense of the wickedness and degeneracy of human life, yet

of the ultimate rewards of virtue and truth. His demons are not gods, nor
men, but intermediate agents, essentially good—angels, whose province
was to guard and to benefit the world. But the notions of demons gradually
changed, until they were regarded as both good and bad, as viewed by
Plato, and finally they were regarded as the causes of evil, as in the time of
the Christian writers. Hesiod, who lived, it is supposed, four hundred years
before Herodotus, is a great ethical poet, and embodied the views of his age
respecting the great mysteries of nature and life.

The legends which Hesiod, Homer, and other poets made so attractive by
their genius, have a perpetual interest, since they are invested with all the
fascinations of song and romance. We will not enter upon those which relate
to gods, but confine ourselves to those which relate to men—the early
heroes of the classic land and age; nor can we allude to all—only a few—
those which are most memorable and impressive.

Among the most ancient was the legend relating to the Danaides,
which invest the early history of Argos with peculiar interest.
The Inachus, who reigned 1986 B.C., according to ancient chronology,
Danaides. is also the name of the river flowing beneath the walls of the
ancient city, situated in the eastern part of the Peloponnesus. In the
reign of [pg 159] Krotopos, one of his descendants, Danaus came
with his fifty daughters from Egypt to Argos in a vessel of fifty oars, in
order to escape the solicitations of the fifty sons of Ægyptos, his brother,
who wished to make them their wives. Ægyptos and the sons followed in
pursuit, and Danaus was compelled to assent to their desires, but furnished
each of his daughters with a dagger, on the wedding night, who thus slew
their husbands, except one, whose husband, Lynceus, ultimately became
king of Argos. From Danaus was derived the name of Danai, applied to the
people of the Argeian territory, and to the Homeric Greeks generally. We
hence infer that Argos—one of the oldest cities of Greece, was settled in
part by Egyptians, probably in the era of the shepherd kings, who
introduced not only the arts, but the religious rites of that ancient country.
Among the regal descendants of Lynceus was Danae, whose son Perseus
performed marvelous deeds, by the special favor of Athene, among which
he brought from Libya the terrific head of the Gorgon Medusa, which had
the marvelous property of turning every one to stone who looked at her.

Stung with remorse for the accidental murder of his grandfather, the king,
he retired from Argos, and founded the city of Mycenæ, the ruins of whose
massive walls are still to be seen—Cyclopean works, which seem to show
that the old Pelasgians derived their architectural ideas from the Egyptian
Danauns. The Perseids of Mycenæ thus boasted of an illustrious descent,
which continued down to the last sovereign of Sparta.

The grand-daughter of Perseus was Alcmena, whom mythology
represents as the mother of Hercules by Jupiter. The labors of
Hercules. Hercules are among the most interesting legends of pagan antiquity,
since they are types of the endless toils of a noble soul, doomed to
labor for others, and obey the commands of worthless persecutors.
But the hero is finally rewarded by admission to the family of the gods, and
his descendants are ultimately restored to the inheritance from which they
were deprived by the wrath and jealousy of Juno. A younger branch of the
Perseid [pg 160] family reigned in Lacedæmon—Eurystheus, to whom
Hercules was subject; but he, with all his sons, lost their lives in battle, so
that the Perseid family was represented only by the sons of Hercules—the
Heracleids, or Heraclidæ. They endeavored to regain their possessions, and
invaded the Peloponnesus, from which they had been expelled. Hyllos, the
oldest son, proposed to the army of Ionians, Achæans, and Arcadians, which
met them in defense, that the combat should be decided between himself
and any champion of the invading army, and that, if he were victorious, the
Heracleids should be restored to their sovereignty, but if defeated, should
forego their claim for three generations. Hyllos was vanquished, and the
Heracleids retired and resided with the Dorians. When the stipulated period
had ended, they, assisted by the Dorians, gained possession of the
Peloponnesus. Hence the great Dorian settlement of Argos, Sparta, and
Messenia, effected by the return of the Heracleids.

Another important legend is that which relates to Deucalion and the
deluge, as it is supposed to shed light on the different races that
Deucalion. colonized Greece. The wickedness of the world induced Zeus to
punish it by a deluge; a terrible rain laid the whole of Greece under
water, except a few mountain tops. Deucalion was saved in an ark,
or chest, which he had been forewarned to construct. After floating nine
days, he landed on the summit of Mount Parnassus. Issuing from his ark, he

found no inhabitants, they having been destroyed by the deluge. Instructed,
however, by Zeus, he and his wife, Pyrrha, threw stones over their heads,
and those which he threw became men, and those thrown by his wife
became women. Thus does mythology account for the new settlement of the
country—a tradition doubtless derived from the remote ages through the
children of Japhet, from whom the Greeks descended, and who, after many
wanderings and migrations, settled in Greece.

Deucalion and Pyrrha had two sons, Hellen and Amphictyon. The
eldest, Hellen, by a nymph was the father of Dorus, Æolus, and
Hellen andXuthus, and he gave [pg 161] his name to the nation—Hellenas. In
Pyrrha. dividing the country among his sons, Æolus received Thessaly;
Xuthus, Peloponnesus; and Dorus, the country lying opposite, on
the northern side of the Corinthian Gulf, as has been already
mentioned in the preceding chapter. Substitute Deucalion for Noah, Greece
for Armenia, and Dorus, Æolus, and Xuthus for Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
and we see a reproduction of the Mosaic account of the second settlement
of mankind.

As it is natural for men to trace their origin to illustrious progenitors, so the
Greeks, in their various settlements, cherished the legends which
represented themselves as sprung from gods and heroes—those great
benefactors, whose exploits occupy the heroic ages. As Hercules was the
Argine hero of the Peloponnesus, so Æolus was the father of heroes sacred
in the history of the Æolians, who inhabited the largest part of Greece.
Æolus reigned in Thessaly, the original seat of the Hellenes.

Among his sons was Salmoneus, whose daughter, Tyro, became
enamored of the river Eneipus, and frequenting its banks, the god
Pelias andPoseidon fell in love with her. The fruits of this alliance were the
Neleus. twin brothers, Pelias and Neleus, who quarreled respecting the
possession of Iolchos, situated at the foot of Mount Pelion,
celebrated afterward as the residence of Jason. Pelias prevailed, and
Neleus returned into Peloponnesus and founded the kingdom of Pylos. His
beautiful daughter, Pero, was sought in marriage by princes from all the
neighboring countries, but he refused to entertain the pretensions of any of
them, declaring that she should only wed the man who brought him the

famous oxen of Iphiklos, in Thessaly. Melampus, the nephew of Neleus,
obtained the oxen for his brother Bias, who thus obtained the hand of Pero.
Of the twelve sons of Neleus, Nestor was the most celebrated. It was he
who assembled the various chieftains for the siege of Troy, and was pre-
eminent over all for wisdom.

Another descendant of Æolus was the subject of a beautiful legend.
Admetus, who married a daughter of Pelias, and [pg 162] whose
Admetus. horses were tended by Apollo, for a time incarnated as a slave in
punishment for the murder of the Cyclopes. Apollo, in gratitude,
obtained from the Fates the privilege that the life of Admetus
should be prolonged if any one could be found to die voluntarily for him.
His wife, Alkestes, made the sacrifice, but was released from the grasp of
death (Thanatos) by Hercules, the ancient friend of Admetus.

But a still more beautiful legend is associated with Jason, a great
grandson of Æolus. Pelias, still reigning at Iolchos, was informed
Jason andby the oracle to beware of the man who should appear before him
the with only one sandal. He was celebrating a festival in honor of
Argonauts. Poseidon when Jason appeared, having lost one of his sandals in
crossing a river. As a means of averting the danger, he imposed
upon Jason the task, deemed desperate, of bringing back to Iolchos
the “Golden Fleece.” The result was the memorable Argonautic expedition
of the ship Argo, to the distant land of Colchis, on the eastern coast of the
Black Sea. Jason invited the noblest youth of Greece to join him in this
voyage of danger and glory. Fifty illustrious persons joined him, including
Hercules and Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Mopsus, and Orpheus. They
proceeded along the coast of Thrace, up the Hellespont, past the southern
coast of the Propontis, through the Bosphorus, onward past Bithynia and
Pontus, and arrived at the river Phasis, south of the Caucasian mountains,
where dwelt Æetes, whom they sought. But he refused to surrender the
golden fleece except on conditions which were almost impossible. Medea,
however, his daughter, fell in love with Jason, and by her means, assisted by
Hecate, he succeeded in yoking the ferocious bulls and plowing the field,
and sowing it with dragons' teeth. Still Æetes refused the reward, and
meditated the murder of the Argonauts; but Medea lulled to sleep the
dragon which guarded the fleece, and fled with her lover and his

companions on board the Argo. The adventurers returned to Iolchos in
safety, after innumerable perils, and by courses irreconcilable [pg 163] with
all geographical truths. But Jason could avenge himself on Pelias only
through the stratagem of his wife, and by her magical arts she induced the
daughters of Pelias to cut up their father, and to cast his limbs into a
cauldron, believing that by this method he would be restored to the vigor of
youth, and Jason was thus revenged, and obtained possession of the
kingdom, which he surrendered to a son of Pelias, and retired with his wife
to Corinth. Here he lived ten years in prosperity, but repudiated Medea in
order to marry Glance, the daughter of the king of Corinth; Medea avenged
the insult by the poisoned robe she sent to Glance as a marriage present,
while Jason perished, while asleep, from a fragment of his ship Argo, which
fell upon him. Such is the legend of the Argonauts, which is typical of the
naval adventures of the maritime Greeks, and their restless enterprises.

The legend of Sisyphus is connected with the early history of
Corinth. Sisyphus was the son of Æolus, and founded this wealthy
Sisyphus. city. He was distinguished for cunning and deceit. He detected
Antolycus, the son of Hermes, by marking his sheep under the foot,
so that the arch-thief was obliged to acknowledge the superior craft
of the Æolid, and restore the plunder. He discovered the amour of Zeus with
the nymph Ægina, and told her mother where she was carried, which so
incensed the “father of gods and men,” that he doomed Sisyphus, in Hades,
to the perpetual punishment of rolling up a hill a heavy stone, which, as
soon as it reached the summit, rolled back again in spite of all his efforts.
This legend illustrates the never ending toils and disappointments of men.

Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon, whose beauty made
him the object of a violent passion on the part of Antea, the wife of
Belleropho a king of Argos. He rejected her advances, and became as violently
n. hated. She made false accusations, and persuaded her husband to
kill him. Not wishing to commit the murder directly, he sent him to
his son-in-law, the king of Sykia, in Asia Minor, with a folded
tablet full of destructive symbols, which required [pg 164] him to perform
perilous undertakings, which he successfully performed. He was then
recognized as the son of a god, and married the daughter of the king. This
legend reminds us of Joseph in Egypt.

We are compelled to omit other interesting legends of the Æolids,
the sons and daughters of Æolus, among which are those which
Æolus. record the feats of Atalanta, and turn to those which relate to the
Pelopids, who gave to the Peloponnesus its early poetic interest. Of
this remarkable race were Tantalus, Pelops, Atreus, Thyestes,
Agamemnon, Menelaus, Helen, and Hermione, all of whom figured in the
ancient legendary genealogies.

Tantalus resided, at a remote antiquity, near Mount Sipylus, in
Lydia, and was a man of immense wealth, and pre-eminently
Tantalus. favored both by gods and men. Intoxicated by prosperity, he stole
nectar and ambrosia from the table of the gods, and revealed their
secrets, for which he was punished in the under world by perpetual
hunger and thirst, yet placed with fruit and water near him, which eluded
his grasp when he attempted to touch them. He had two children, Pelops
and Niobe. The latter was blessed with seven sons and seven daughters,
which so inflamed her with pride that she claimed equality with the
goddesses Latona and Diana, who favored her by their friendship. This
presumption so incensed the goddesses, that they killed all her children, and
Niobe wept herself to death, and was turned into a stone, a striking image of
excessive grief.

Pelops was a Lydian king, but was expelled from Asia by Ilus, king
of Troy, for his impieties. He came to Greece, and beat
Pelops. Hippodamenia, whose father was king of Pisa, near Olympia, in
Elis, in a chariot race, when death was the penalty of failure. He
succeeded by the favor of Poseidon, and married the princess, and
became king of Pisa. He gave his name to the whole peninsula, which he
was enabled to do from the great wealth he brought from Lydia, thus
connecting the early settlements of the Peloponnesus with Asia Minor. He
had numerous children, who [pg 165] became the sovereigns of different
cities and states in Argos, Elis, Laconia, and Arcadia. One of them, Atreus,
was king of Mycenæ, who inherited the sceptre of Zeus, and whose wealth
was proverbial. The sceptre was made by Hephæstus (Vulcan) and given to
Zeus; he gave it to Hermes; Hermes presented it to Pelops; and Pelops gave
it to Atreus, the ruler of men. Atreus and his brother, Thyestes, bequeathed
it to Agamemnon, who ruled at Mycenæ, while his brother, Menelaus,

reigned at Sparta. It was the wife of Menelaus, Helen, who was carried
away by Paris, which occasioned the Trojan war. Agamemnon was killed on
his return from Troy, through the treachery of his wife Clytemnestra, who
was seduced by Ægisthus, the son of Thyestes. His only son, Orestes,
afterward avenged the murder, and recovered Mycenæ. Hermione, the only
daughter of Menelaus and Helen, was given in marriage to the son of
Achilles, Neoptolemas, who reigned in Thessaly. Mycenæ maintained its
independence to the Persian invasion, and is rendered immortal by the Iliad
and Odyssey. On the subsequent ascendency of Sparta, the bones of Orestes
were brought from Tegea, where they had reposed for generations, in a
coffin seven cubits long.

The other States of the Peloponnesus, have also their genealogical legends,
which trace their ancestors to gods and goddesses, which I omit, and turn to
those which belong to Attica.

The great Deucalian deluge, according to legend, happened during
the reign of Ogyges, 1796 years B.C., and 1020 before the first
The Olympiad. After a long interval, Cecrops, half man and half
Deucalian serpent, became king of the country. By some he is represented as a
deluge. Pelasgian, by others, as an Egyptian. He introduced the first
elements of civilized life—marriage, the twelve political divisions
of Attica, and a new form of worship, abolishing the bloody
sacrifices to Zeus. He gave to the country the name of Cecropia. During his
reign there ensued a dispute between Athenæ and Poseidon, respecting the
possession of the Acropolis. [pg 166] Poseidon struck the rocks with his
trident, and produced a well of salt water; Athenæ planted an olive tree. The
twelve Olympian gods decided the dispute, and awarded to Athenæ the
coveted possession, and she ever afterward remained the protecting deity of
Athens.

Among his descendants was Theseus, the great legendary hero of
Attica, who was one of the Argonauts, and also one of those who
Theseus. hunted the Calidomian boar. He freed Attica from robbers and wild
beasts, conquered the celebrated Minotaur of Crete, and escaped
from the labyrinth by the aid of Ariadne, whom he carried off and
abandoned. In the Iliad he is represented as fighting against the centaurs,

and in the Hesiodic poems he is an amorous knight-errant, misguided by the
beautiful Ægle. Among his other feats, inferior only to those of Hercules, he
vanquished the Amazons—a nation of courageous and hardy women, who
came from the country about Caucasus, and whose principal seats were near
the modern Trezibond. They invaded Thrace, Asia Minor, Greece, Syria,
Egypt, and the islands of the Ægean. The foundation of several towns in
Asia Minor is ascribed to them. In the time of Theseus, this semi-mythical
and semi-historical race of female warriors invaded Attica, and even
penetrated to Athens, but were conquered by the hero king. Allusion is
made to their defeat throughout the literature of Athens. Although Theseus
was a purely legendary personage, the Athenians were accustomed to regard
him as a great political reformer and legislator, who consolidated the
Athenian commonwealth, distributing the people into three classes.

The legends pertaining to Thebes occupy a prominent place in
Grecian mythology. Cadmus, the son of Agenor, king of Phœnicia,
Theban leaves his country in search of his sister Europa, with whom Zeus,
legends. in the form of a bull, had fallen in love, and carried on his back to
Cadmus. Crete. He first goes to Thrace, and thence to Delphi, to learn tidings
Œdipus. of Europa, but the god directs him not to prosecute his search; he is
to follow the guidance of a cow, and to found a [pg 167] city where
the animal should lie down. The cow stops at the site of Thebes. He
marries Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, after having killed
the dragons which guarded the fountain Allia, and sowed their teeth. From
these armed men sprang up, who killed each other, except five. From these
arose the five great families of Thebes, called Sparti. One of the Sparti
marries a daughter of Cadmus, whose issue was Pentheus, who became
king. It was in his reign that Dionysus appears as a god in Bœotia, the giver
of the vine, and obtains divine honors in Thebes. Among the descendants of
Cadmus was Laius. He is forewarned by an oracle that any son he should
beget would destroy him, and hence he caused the infant Œdipus to be
exposed on Mount Cithanon. Here the herdsmen of Polybus, king of
Corinth, find him, and convey him to their lord who brings him up as his
own child. Distressed by the taunts of companions as to his unknown
parentage, he goes to Delphi, to inquire the name of his real father. He is
told not to return to his own country, for it was his destiny to kill his father
and become the husband of his mother. Knowing no country but Corinth, he

pursues his way to Bœotia, and meets Laius in a chariot drawn by mules. A
quarrel ensues from the insolence of attendants, and Œdipus kills Laius.
The brother of Laius, Creon, succeeds to the throne of Thebes. The country
around is vexed with a terrible monster, with the face of a woman, the
wings of a bird, and the tail of a lion, called the Sphinx, who has learned
from the Muses a riddle, which she proposed to the Thebans, and on every
failure to resolve it one of them was devoured. But no person can solve the
riddle. The king offers his crown and his sister Jocasta, wife of Laius, in
marriage to any one who would explain the riddle. Œdipus solves it, and is
made king of Thebes, and marries Jocasta. A fatal curse rests upon him.
Jocasta, informed by the gods of her relationship, hangs herself in agony.
Œdipus endures great miseries, as well as his children, whom he curses, and
who quarrel about their inheritance, which quarrel leads to [pg 168] the
siege of Thebes by Adrastus, king of Argos, who seeks to restore Polynices
—one of the sons of Œdipus, to the throne of which he was dispossessed.
The Argetan chieftains readily enter into the enterprise, assisted by
numerous auxiliaries from Arcadia and Messenia. The Cadmeans, assisted
by the Phocians, march out to resist the invaders, who are repulsed, in
consequence of the magnanimity of a generous youth, who offers himself a
victim to Ares. Eteocles then proposed to his brother, Polynices, the rival
claimants, to decide the quarrel by single combat. It resulted in the death of
both, and then in the renewal of the general contest, and the destruction of
the Argeian chiefs, and Adrastus's return to Argos in shame and woe.

But Creon, the father of the self-sacrificing Menæceus, succeeds on
the death of the rival brothers, to the administration of Thebes. A
Creon. second siege takes place, conducted by Adrastus, and the sons of
those who had been slain. Thebes now falls, and Thereander, the
son of Polynices, is made king. The legends of Thebes have
furnished the great tragedians Sophocles and Euripides, with their finest
subjects. In the fable of the Sphinx we trace a connection between Thebes
and ancient Egypt.

But all the legends of ancient Greece yield in interest to that of Troy, which
Homer chose as the subject of his immortal epic.

Dardanus, a son of Zeus, is the primitive ancestor of the Trojan
kings, whose seat of power was Mount Ida. His son, Erichthonius,
Dardanus. became the richest of mankind, and had in his pastures three
thousand mares. His son, Tros, was the father of Ilus, Assarcus, and
Ganymede. The latter was stolen by Zeus to be his cup-bearer.

Ilus was the father of Laomedon, under whom Apollo and
Poseidon, in mortal form, went through a temporary servitude—the
Ilus. former tending his flocks, the latter building the walls of Ilium.
Laomedon was killed by Hercules, in punishment for his perfidy in
giving him mortal horses for his destruction of a sea monster,
instead of the immortal [pg 169] horses, as he had promised, the gift of
Zeus to Tros.

Among the sons of Laomedon was Priam, who was placed upon the
throne. He was the father of illustrious sons, among whom were
Priam. Hector and Paris. The latter was exposed on Mount Ida, to avoid
Helen. the fulfillment of an evil prophecy, but grew up beautiful and active
among the flocks and herds. It was to him that the three goddesses,
Here, Athenæ, and Aphrodite (Juno, Minerva, and Venus),
presented their respective claims to beauty, which he awarded to Aphrodite,
and by whom he was promised, in recompense, Helen, wife of the Spartan
king, Menelaus, and daughter of Zeus. Aphrodite caused ships to be built
for him, and he safely arrived in Sparta, and was hospitably entertained by
the unsuspecting monarch. In the absence of Menelaus in Crete, Paris
carries away to Troy both Helen, and a large sum of money belonging to the
king. Menelaus hastens home, informed of the perfidy, and consults his
brother, Agamemnon, and the venerable Nestor. They interest the Argeian
chieftains, who resolve to recover Helen. Ten years are spent in
preparations, consisting of one thousand one hundred and eighty-six ships,
and one hundred thousand men, comprised of heroes from all parts of
Greece, among whom are Ajax, Diomedes, Achilles, and Odysseus. The
heroes set sail from Aulis, and after various mistakes, reach Asia.

Meanwhile the Trojans assemble, with a large body of allies, to
resist the invaders, who demand the redress of a great wrong. The
The TrojanTrojans are routed in battle, and return within their walls. After
war.

various fortunes, the city is taken, at the end of ten years, by stratagem, and
the Grecian chieftains who were not killed seek to return to their own
country, with Helen among the spoils. They meet with many misfortunes,
from the anger of the gods, for not having spared the altars of Troy. Their
chieftains quarrel among themselves, and even Agamemnon and Menelaus
lose their fraternal friendship. After long wanderings, and [pg 170] bitter
disappointments, and protracted hopes, the heroes return to their homes—
such as war had spared—to recount their adventures and sufferings, and
reconstruct their shattered States, and mend their broken fortunes—a type
of war in all the ages, calamitous even to conquerors. The wanderings of
Ulysses have a peculiar fascination, since they form the subject of the
Odyssey, one of the noblest poems of antiquity. Nor are the adventures of
Æneas scarcely less interesting, as presented by Virgil, who traces the first
Settlement of Latium to the Trojan exiles. We should like to dwell on the
siege of Troy, and its great results, but the subject is too extensive and
complicated. The student of the great event, whether historical or mystical,
must read the detailed accounts in the immortal epics of Homer. We have
only space for the grand outlines, which can be scarcely more than
allusions.

Scarcely inferior to the legend of Troy, is that which recounts the
return of the descendants of Hercules to the ancient inheritance on
The legendthe Peloponnesus, which, it is supposed, took place three or four
of thehundred years before authentic history begins, or eighty years after
Heraclidæ. the Trojan war.

We have briefly described the geographical position of the most
important part of ancient Greece—the Peloponnesus—almost an island,
separated from the continent only by a narrow gulf, resembling in shape a
palm-tree, indented on all sides by bays, and intersected with mountains,
and inhabited by a simple and warlike race.

We have seen that the descendants of Perseus, who was a descendant of
Danaus, reigned at Mycenæ in Argolis—among whom was Amphitryon,
who fled to Thebes, on the murder of his uncle, with Alemena his wife.
Then Hercules, to whom the throne of Mycenæ legitimately belonged, was
born, but deprived of his inheritance by Eurystheus—a younger branch of

the Perseids—in consequence of the anger and jealousy of Juno, and to
whom, by the fates, Hercules was made subject. We have seen how the sons
of Hercules, [pg 171] under Hyllos, attempted to regain their kingdom, but
were defeated, and retreated among the Dorians.

After three generations, the Heraclidæ set out to regain their
inheritance, assisted by the Dorians. They at length, after five
Their expeditions, gained possession of the country, and divided it,
settlement among the various chieftains, who established their dominion in
in Sparta. Argos, Mycenæ, and Sparta, which, at the time of the Trojan war,
was ruled by Agamemnon and Menelaus, descendants of Pelops. In
the next generation, Corinth was conquered by the Dorians, under
an Heraclide prince.

The Achæans, thus expelled by the Dorians from the south and east
of the Peloponnesus, fell back upon the northwest coast, and drove
The away the Ionians, and formed a confederacy of twelve cities, which
wandering in later times became of considerable importance. The dispossessed
s of theIonians joined their brethren of the same race in Attica, but the
dispossess rugged peninsula was unequal to support the increased population,
ed and a great migration took place to the Cyclades and the coasts of
Achæans. Lydia. The colonists there built twelve cities, about one hundred
and forty years after the Trojan war. Another body of Achæans,
driven out of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians, first settled in
Bœotia, and afterward, with Æolians, sailed to the isle of Lesbos, where
they founded six cities, and then to the opposite mainland. At the foot of
Mount Ida they founded the twelve Æolian cities, of which Smyrna was the
principal.

Crete was founded by a body of Dorians and conquered Achæans.
Rhodes received a similar colony. So did the island of Cos. The
Crete. cities of Lindus, Ialysus, Camirus, Cos, with Cnidus and
Halicarnassus, on the mainland, formed the Dorian Hexapolis of
Caria, inferior, however, to the Ionian and Æolian colonies.

At the beginning of the mythical age the dominant Hellenic races were the
Achæans and Æolians; at the close, the Ionians and Dorians were
predominant. The Ionians extended their maritime possessions [pg 172]

from Attica to the Asiatic colonies across the Ægean, and gradually
took the lead of the Asiatic Æolians, and formed a great maritime
The empire under the supremacy of Athens. The Hellenic world
Dorians ultimately was divided and convulsed by the great contest for
and supremacy between the Dorians and Ionians, until the common
Ionians danger from the Persian invasion united them together for a time.
become
the leading Thus far we have only legend to guide us in the early
tribes. history of Greece. The historical period begins with the
First First Olympiad, B.C. 776. Before this all is uncertain, yet
Olympiad, as probable as the events of English history in the mythical
the era ofperiod between the departure of the Romans and the
the historicestablishment of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom. The history is
period. not all myth; neither is it clearly authenticated.

The various Hellenic tribes, though separated by
political ambition, were yet kindred in language
Grecian and institutions. They formed great leagues, or
leagues. associations, of neighboring cities, for the
performance of religious rites. The Amphictyonic
Council, which became subsequently so famous,
was made up of Thessalians, Bœotians, Dorians, Ionians, Achæans,
Locrians, and Phocians—all Hellenic in race. Their great centre was the
temple of Apollo at Delphi. The different tribes or nations also came
together regularly to take part in the four great religious festivals or games
—the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemæan—the two former of which
were celebrated every four years.

In the Homeric age the dominant State was Achæa, whose capital
was Mycenæ. The next in power was Lacedæmon. After the Dorian
Early conquest, Argos was the first, Sparta the second, and Messenia the
dominant third State in importance. Argos, at the head of a large confederacy
states. of cities on the northeast of the Peloponnesus, was governed by
Phidon—an irresponsible ruler, a descendant of Hercules, to whom
is inscribed the coinage of silver and copper money, and the
introduction of weights and measures. He flourished B.C. 747.

[pg 173]

All these various legends, though unsupported by history, have a
great ethical importance, as well as poetic interest. The passions,
Interest tohabits, and adventures of a primitive and warlike race are presented
be by the poets with transcendent effect, and we read lessons of
attached tohuman nature as in the dramas of Shakespeare. Hence, one of the
the most learned and dignified of the English historians deems it
legends ofworthy of his pen to devote to these myths a volume of his noble
Greece. work. Nor is it misplaced labor. These legends furnished subjects to
the tragic and epic poets of antiquity, as well as to painters and
sculptors, in all the ages of art. They are identified with the
development of Grecian genius, and are as imperishable as history itself.
They were to the Greeks realities, and represent all that is vital in their
associations and worship. They stimulated the poetic faculty, and taught
lessons of moral wisdom which all nations respect and venerate. They
contributed to enrich both literature and art. They make Æschylus,
Euripides, Pindar, Homer, and Hesiod great monumental pillars of the
progress of the human race. Therefore, we will not willingly let those
legends die in our memories or hearts.

They are particularly important as shedding light on the manners,
customs, and institutions of the ancient Greeks, although they give
Their no reliable historical facts. They are memorials of the first state of
historical Grecian society, essentially different from the Oriental world. We
importanc see in them the germs of political constitutions—the rise of liberty
e. —the pre-eminence of families which forms the foundation for
oligarchy, or the ascendency of nobles. We see also the first
beginnings of democratic influence—the voice of the people
asserting a claim to be heard in the market-place. We see again the
existence of slavery—captives taken in war doomed to attendance in
princely palaces, and ultimately to menial labor on the land. In those
primitive times a State was often nothing but a city, with the lands
surrounding it, and therefore it was possible for all the inhabitants to
assemble in the agora with the king and nobles. We find, in [pg 174] the
early condition of Greece, kings, nobles, citizens, and slaves.

The king was seldom distinguished by any impassable barrier between
himself and subjects. He was rather the chief among his nobles, and his

supremacy was based on descent from illustrious ancestors. It
passed generally to the eldest son. In war he was a leader; in peace,
The earlya protector. He offered up prayers and sacrifices for his people to
governme the gods in whom they all alike believed. He possessed an ample
nt of thedomain, and the produce of his lands was devoted to a generous but
Hellenes. rude hospitality. He had a large share of the plunder taken from an
The king. enemy, and the most alluring of the female captives. It was,
however, difficult for him to retain ascendency without great
personal gifts and virtues, and especially bravery on the field of
battle, and wisdom in council. To the noblest of these kings the legends
ascribe great bodily strength and activity.

The kings were assisted by a great council of chieftains or nobles,
whose functions were deliberation and consultation; and after
The having talked over their intentions with the chiefs, they announced
councils. them to the people, who assembled in the market-place, and who
were generally submissive to the royal authority, although they
were regarded as the source of power. Then the king, and
sometimes his nobles, administered justice and heard complaints. Public
speaking was favorable to eloquence, and stimulated intellectual
development, and gave dignity to tho people to whom the speeches were
addressed.

In those primitive times there was a strong religious feeling, great
reverence for the gods, whose anger was deprecated, and whose
Religious favor was sought. The ties of families were strong. Paternal
and socialauthority was recognized and revered. Marriage was a sacred
life. institution. The wife occupied a position of great dignity and
influence. Women were not secluded in a harem, as were the
Asiatics, but employed in useful labors. Children were obedient,
and brothers, [pg 175] sisters, and cousins were united together by strong
attachments. Hospitality was a cherished virtue, and the stranger was ever
cordially welcome, nor questioned even until refreshed by the bath and the
banquet. Feasts were free from extravagance and luxury, and those who
shared in them enlivened the company by a recital of the adventures of gods
and men. But passions were unrestrained, and homicide was common. The
murderer was not punished by the State, but was left to the vengeance of

kindred and friends, appeased sometimes by costly gifts, as among the
ancient Jews.

There was a rude civilization among the ancient Greeks, reminding
us of the Teutonic tribes, but it was higher than theirs. We observe
Early the division of the people into various trades and occupations—
forms ofcarpenters, smiths, leather-dressers, leeches, prophets, bards, and
civilizatio fishermen, although the main business was agriculture. Cattle were
n. the great staple of wealth, and the largest part of the land was
devoted to pasture. The land was tilled chiefly by slaves, and
women of the servile class were doomed to severe labor and
privations. They brought the water, and they turned the mills. Spinning and
weaving were, however, the occupations of all, and garments for men and
women were alike made at home. There was only a limited commerce,
which was then monopolized by the Phœnicians, who exaggerated the
dangers of the sea. There were walled cities, palaces, and temples. Armor
was curiously wrought, and arms were well made. Rich garments were
worn by princes, and their palaces glittered with the precious metals.
Copper was hardened so as to be employed in weapons of war. The warriors
had chariots and horses, and were armed with sword, dagger, and spear, and
were protected by helmets, breastplates, and greaves. Fortified cities were
built on rocky elevations, although the people generally lived in unfortified
villages. The means of defense were superior to those of offense, which
enabled men to preserve their acquisitions, for the ancient chieftains
resembled the feudal barons [pg 176] of the Middle Ages in the passion for
robbery and adventure. We do not read of coined money nor the art of
writing, nor sculpture, nor ornamental architecture among the Homeric
Greeks; but they were fond of music and poetry. Before history commences,
they had their epics, which, sung by the bards and minstrels, furnished
Homer and Hesiod with materials for their noble productions. It is supposed
by Grote that the Homeric poems were composed eight hundred and fifty
years before Christ, and preserved two hundred years without the aid of
writing—of all poems the most popular and natural, and addressed to
unlettered minds.

Such were the heroic ages with their myths, their heroes, their simple
manners, their credulity, their religious faith, their rude civilization. We

have now to trace their progress through the historical epoch.

[pg 177]

CHAPTER XV.

THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES TO
THE PERSIAN WARS.

We come now to consider those States which grew into importance about
the middle of the eighth century before Christ, at the close of the legendary
period.

The most important of these was Sparta, which was the leading
State. We have seen how it was conquered by Dorians, under
Lycurgus. Heraclic princes. Its first great historic name was Lycurgus, whom
some historians, however, regard as a mythical personage.

Sparta was in a state of anarchy in consequence of the Dorian
conquest, a contest between the kings, aiming at absolute power,
His and the people, desirous of democratic liberty. At this juncture the
legislation. king, Polydectes, died, leaving Lycurgus, his brother, guardian of
the realm, and of the infant heir to the throne. The future lawgiver
then set out on his travels, visiting the other States of Greece, Asia
Minor, Egypt, and other countries, and returned to Sparta about the period
of the first Olympiad, B.C. 776, with a rich store of wisdom and
knowledge. The State was full of disorders, but he instituted great reforms,
aided by the authority of the Delphic oracle, and a strong party of
influential men. His great object was to convert the citizens of Sparta into
warriors united by the strongest bonds, and trained to the severest
discipline, governed by an oligarchy under the form of the ancient
monarchy. In other words, his object was to secure the ascendency of the
small body of Dorian invaders that had conquered Laconia.

The descendants of these invaders, the Spartans, alone possessed
the citizenship, and were equal in political rights. [pg 178] They
Spartan were the proprietors of the soil, which was tilled by Helots. The
citizens. Spartans disdained any occupation but war and government. They

lived within their city, which was a fortified camp, and ate in common at
public tables, and on the simplest fare. Every virtue and energy were
concentrated on self-discipline and sacrifice, in order to fan the fires of
heroism and self-devotion. They were a sort of stoics—hard, severe, proud,
despotic, and overbearing. They cared nothing for literature, or art, or
philosophy. Even eloquence was disdained, and the only poetry or music
they cultivated were religions hymns and heroic war songs. Commerce was
forbidden by the constitution, and all the luxuries to which it leads. Only
iron was allowed for money, and the precious metals were prohibited. Every
exercise, every motive, every law, contributed to make the Spartans
soldiers, and nothing but soldiers. Their discipline was the severest known
to the ancients. Their habits of life were austere and rigid. They were
trained to suffer any hardship without complaint.

Besides these Spartan citizens were the Periœci—remnants of the
old Achæan population, but mixed with an inferior class of
The oldDorians. They had no political power, but possessed personal
Achæan freedom. They were landed proprietors, and engaged in commerce
population and manufactures.
.
Below this class were the Helots—pure Greeks, but
reduced to dependence by conquest. They were bound to
The the soil, like serfs, but dwelt with their families on the
Helots. farms they tilled. They were not bought and sold as slaves.
They were the body servants of the Spartan citizens, and
were regarded as the property of the State. They were
treated with great haughtiness and injustice by their masters, which bred at
last an intense hatred.

All political power was in the hands of the citizen warriors, only
about nine thousand in number in the time of Lycurgus. From them
The emanated all delegated authority, except that of kings. This
Ecclesia. assembly, or ecclesia, of Spartans over thirty years of age, met at
stated intervals to decide [pg 179] on all important matters
submitted to them, but they had no right of amendment—only a
simple approval or rejection.

The body to which the people, it would seem, delegated
considerable power, was the Senate, composed of thirty members,
The not under sixty years of age, and elected for life. They were a
Senate. deliberative body, and judges in all capital charges against
Spartans. They were not chosen for noble birth or property
qualifications, but for merit and wisdom.

At the head of the State, at least nominally, were two kings, who
were numbered with the thirty senators. They had scarcely more
The kings. power than the Roman consuls; they commanded the armies, and
offered the public sacrifices, and were revered as the descendants
of Hercules.

The persons of most importance were the ephors, chosen annually
by the people, who exercised the chief executive power, and
The without responsibility. They could even arrest kings, and bring
Ephors. them to trial before the Senate. Two of the five ephors accompanied
the king in war, and were a check on his authority.

It would thus seem that the government of Sparta was a republic of
an aristocratic type. There were no others nobler than citizens, but
Aristocrati these citizens composed but a small part of the population. They
c form ofwere Spartans—a handful of conquerors, in the midst of hostile
governme people—a body of lords among slaves and subjects. They
nt. Thesympathized with law and order, and detested the democratical
citizen lostturbulence of Athens. They were trained, by their military
in theeducation, to subordination, obedience, and self-sacrifice. They, as
State. citizens or as soldiers, existed only for the State, and to the State
every thing was subordinate. In our times, the State is made for the
people; in Sparta, the people for the State. This generated an
intense patriotism and self-denial. It also permitted a greater interference of
the State in personal matters than would now be tolerated in any despotism
in Europe. It made the citizens submissive to a division of property, which
if not [pg 180] a perfect community of goods, was fatal to all private
fortunes. But the property which the citizens thus shared was virtually
created by the Helots, who alone tilled the ground. The wealth of nations is
in the earth, and it is its cultivation which is the ordinary source of property.

The State, not individual masters, owned the Helots; and they toiled for the
citizens. In the modern sense of liberty, there was very little in Sparta,
except that which was possessed by the aristocratic citizens—the
conquerors of the country—men, whose very occupation was war and
government, and whose very amusement were those which fostered warlike
habits. The Roman citizens did not disdain husbandry, nor the Puritan
settlers of New England, but the Spartan citizens despised both this and all
trade and manufacture. Never was a haughtier class of men than these
Spartan soldiers. They exceeded in pride the feudal chieftain.

Such an exclusive body of citizens, however, jealous of their
political privileges, constantly declined in numbers, so that, in the
Number oftime of Aristotle, there were only one thousand Spartan citizens;
citizens. and this decline continued in spite of all the laws by which the
citizens were compelled to marry, and those customs, so abhorrent
to our Christian notions, which permitted the invasion of marital
rights for the sake of healthy children.

As it was to war that the best energies of the Spartans were
directed, so their armies were the admiration of the ancient world
Spartan for discipline and effectiveness. They were the first who reduced
armies. war to a science. The general type of their military organization
was the phalanx, a body of troops in close array, armed with a long
spear and short sword. The strength of an army was in the heavy
armed infantry; and this body was composed almost entirely of citizens,
with a small mixture of Periœci. From the age of twenty to sixty, every
Spartan was liable to military service; and all the citizens formed an army,
whether congregated at Sparta, or absent on foreign service.

Such, in general, were the social, civil, and military institutions [pg 181] of
Sparta, and not peculiar to her alone, but to all the Dorians, even in Crete;
from which we infer that it was not Lycurgus who shaped them, but that
they existed independent of his authority. He may have re-established the
old regulations, and gave his aid to preserve the State from corruption and
decay. And when we remember that the constitution which he re-established
resisted both the usurpations of tyrants and the advances of democracy, by

which other States were revolutionized, we can not sufficiently admire the
wisdom which so early animated the Dorian legislators.

The Spartans became masters of the country after a long struggle,
and it was henceforth called Laconia. The more obstinate Achæans
The became Helots. After the conquest, the first memorable event in
Spartans Spartan history was the reduction of Messenia, for which it took
obtain thetwo great wars.
ascendenc
y on the Messenia has already been mentioned as the southwestern
Peninsula. part of the Peloponnesus, and resembling Laconia in its
Messenia. general aspects. The river Parnisus flows through its entire
The warlength, as Eurotas does in Laconia, forming fertile valleys
with and plains, and producing various kinds of cereals and
Sparta. fruits, even as it now produces oil, silk, figs, wheat, maize,
cotton, wine, and honey. The area of Messenia is one
thousand one hundred and ninety-two square miles, not so
large as one of our counties. The early inhabitants had been conquered by
the Dorians, and it was against the descendants of these conquerors that the
Spartans made war. The murder of a Spartan king, Teleclus, at a temple on
the confines of Laconia and Messenia, where sacrifices were offered in
common, gave occasion for the first war, which lasted nineteen years, B.C.
743. Other States were involved in the quarrel—Corinth on the side of
Sparta, and Sicyon and Arcadia on the part of the Messenians. The Spartans
having the superiority in the field, the Messenians retreated to their
stronghold of Ithome, where they defended themselves fifteen years. But at
[pg 182] last they were compelled to abandon it, and the fortress was razed
to the ground. The conquered were reduced to the condition of Helots—
compelled to cultivate the land and pay half of its produce to their new
masters. The Spartan citizens became the absolute owners of the whole soil
of Messenia.

After thirty-nine years of servitude, a hero arose among the
conquered Messenians, Aristomenes, like Judas Maccabeus, or
Aristomen William Wallace, who incited his countrymen to revolt. The whole
es. of the Peloponnesus became involved in the new war, and only
Conquest Corinth became the ally of Sparta; the remaining States of Argos,

of Sicyon, Arcadia, and Pisa, sided with the Messenians. The Athenian
Messenia. poet, Tyrtæus, stimulated the Spartans by his war-songs. In the first
great battle, the Spartans were worsted; in the second, they gained a
signal victory, so that the Messenians were obliged to leave the
open country and retire to the fortress on Mount Ira. Here they maintained
themselves eleven years, the Spartans being unused to sieges, and trained
only to conflict in the open field. The fortress was finally taken by
treachery, and the hero who sought to revive the martial glories of his State
fled to Rhodes. Messenia became now, B.C. 668, a part of Laconia, and it
was three hundred years before it appeared again in history.

The Spartans, after the conquest of Messenia, turned their eyes
upon Arcadia—that land of shepherds, free and simple and brave
Aggrandiz like themselves. The city of Tegea long withstood the arms of the
ement ofSpartans, but finally yielded to superior strength, and became a
Sparta. subject ally, B.C. 560. Sparta was further increased by a part of
Argos, and a great battle, B.C. 547, between the Argives and
Spartans, resulted in the complete ascendency of Sparta in the
southern part of the Peloponnesus, about the time that Cyrus overthrew the
Lydian empire. The Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor invoked their aid against
the Persian power, and Sparta proudly rallied in their defense.

[pg 183]

Meanwhile, a great political revolution was going on in the other
States of Greece, in no condition to resist the pre-eminence of
Political Sparta, The patriarchal monarchies of the heroic ages had gradually
changes. been subverted by the rising importance of the nobility, enriched by
The age ofconquered lands. Every conquest, every step to national
Tyrants. advancement, brought the nobles nearer to the crown, and the
government passed into the hands of those nobles who had
formerly composed the council of the king. With the growing
power of nobles was a corresponding growth of the political power of the
people or citizens, in consequence of increased wealth and intelligence. The
political changes were rapid. As the nobles had usurped the power of the
kings, so the citizens usurped the power of the nobles. The everlasting war
of classes, where the people are intelligent and free, was signally illustrated

in the Grecian States, and democracy succeeded to the oligarchy which had
prostrated kings. Then, when the people had gained the ascendency,
ambitious and factious demagogues in turn, got the control, and these
adventurers, now called Tyrants, assumed arbitrary powers. Their power
was only maintained by cruelty, injustice, and unscrupulous means, which
caused them finally to be so detested that they were removed by
assassination. These natural changes, from a monarchy, primitive and just
and limited, to an oligarchy of nobles, and the gradual subversion of their
power by wealthy and enlightened citizens, and then the rise of
demagogues, who became tyrants, have been illustrated in all ages of the
world. But the rapidity of these changes in the Grecian States, with the
progress of wealth and corruption, make their history impressive on all
generations. It is these rapid and natural revolutions which give to the
political history of Greece its permanent interest and value. The age of the
Tyrants is generally fixed from B.C. 650 to B.C. 500—about one hundred
and fifty years.

No State passed through these changes of government more
signally than Corinthia, which, with Megaris, formed the isthmus
Corinthia. [pg 184] which connected the Peloponnesus with Greece Proper. It
was a small territory, covered with the ridges and the spurs of the
Geranean and and Oneian mountains, and useless for purposes of
agriculture. Its principal city was Corinth; was favorably situated for
commerce, and rapidly grew in population and wealth. It also commanded
the great roads which led from Greece Proper through the defiles of the
mountains into the Peloponnesus. It rapidly monopolized the commerce of
the Ægean Sea, and the East through the Saronic Gulf; and through the
Corinthian Gulf it commanded the trade of the Ionian and Sicilian seas.

Corinth, by some, is supposed have been a Phœnician colony.
Before authentic history begins, it was inhabited by a mixed
Changes inpopulation of Æolians and Ionians, the former of whom were
Corinth. dominant. Over them reigned Sisyphus, according to tradition, the
grandfather of Bellerophon who laid the foundation of mercantile
prosperity. The first historical king was Aletes, B.C. 1074, the
leader of Dorian invaders, who subdued the Æolians, and incorporated them
with their own citizens. The descendants of Aletes reigned twelve

generations, when the nobles converted the government into an oligarchy,
under Bacchis, who greatly increased the commercial importance of the
city. In 754, B.C., Corinth began to colonize, and fitted out a war fleet for
the protection of commerce. The oligarchy was supplanted by Cypselus,
B.C. 655, a man of the people, whose mother was of noble birth, but
rejected by her family, of the ruling house of the Bacchiadæ, on account of
lameness. His son Periander reigned forty years with cruel despotism, but
made Corinth the leading commercial city of Greece, and he subjected to
her sway the colonies planted on the islands of the Ionian Sea, one of which
was Corcyra (Corfu), which gained a great mercantile fame. It was under
his reign that the poet Arion, or Lesbos, flourished, to whom he gave his
patronage. In three years after the death of Periander, 585 B.C., the
oligarchal power was restored, and Corinth allied herself with Sparta in her
schemes of aggrandizement.

[pg 185]

The same change of government was seen in Megara, a
neighboring State, situated on the isthmus, between Corinth and
Changes inAttica, and which attained great commercial distinction. As a result
Megara. of commercial opulence, the people succeeded in overthrowing the
government, an oligarchy of Dorian conquerors, and elevating a
demagogue, Theagenes, to the supreme power, B.C. 630. He ruled
tyrannically, in the name of the people, for thirty years, but was expelled by
the oligarchy, which regained power. During his reign all kinds of popular
excesses were perpetrated, especially the confiscation of the property of the
rich.

Other States are also illustrations of this change of government
from kings to oligarchies, and oligarchies to demagogues and
Changes intyrants, as on the isle of Lesbos, where Pittacus reigned dictator,
other but with wisdom and virtue—one of the seven wise men of Greece
States. —and in Samos, where Polycrates rivaled the fame of Periander,
and adorned his capital with beautiful buildings, and patronized
literature and art. One of his friends was Anacreon, the poet. He
was murdered by the Persians, B.C. 522.

But the State which most signally illustrates the revolutions in government
was Athens.

“Where on the Ægean shore a city stands,—
Built nobly; pure the air, and light the soil:
Athena, the eye of Greece, mother of arts
And eloquence, native to famous wits.”

Every thing interesting or impressive in the history of classical
antiquity clusters round this famous city, so that without Athens
Early there could be no Greece. Attica, the little State of which it was the
history ofcapital, formed a triangular peninsula, of about seven hundred
Athens. square miles. The country is hilly and rocky, and unfavorable to
Theseus. agriculture; but such was the salubrity of the climate, and the
Codrus. industry of the people, all kinds of plants and animals flourished.
The history of the country, like that of the other States, is mythical,
to the period of the first Olympiad. Ogyges has the reputation of
being the first king of a people who [pg 186] claimed to be indigenous,
about one hundred and fifty years before the arrival of Cecrops, who came,
it is supposed, from Egypt, and founded Athens, and taught the simple but
savage natives a new religion, and the elements of civilized life, 1556 B.C.
It received its name from the goddess Neith, introduced by him from Egypt,
under the name of Athena, or Minerva. It was also called Cecropia, from its
founder. Until the time of Theseus it was a small town, confined to the
Acropolis and Mars Hill. This hero is the great name of ancient Athenian
legend, as Hercules is to Greece generally. He cleared the roads of robbers,
and formed an aristocratical constitution, with a king, who was only the
first of his nobles. But he himself, after having given political unity, was
driven away by a conspiracy of nobles, leaving the throne to Menesthius, a
descendant of the ancient kings. This monarch reigned twenty-four years,
and lost his life at the siege of Troy. The whole period of the monarchy lies
within the mythical age. Tradition makes Codrus the last king, who was
slain during an invasion of the Dorians, B.C. 1045. Resolving to have no
future king, the Athenians substituted the office of archon, or ruler, and
made his son, Medus, the superior magistrate. This office remained
hereditary in the family of Codrus for thirteen generations. In B.C. 752, the
duration of the office was fixed for ten years. It remained in the family of

Codrus thirty-eight years longer, when it was left open for all the nobles. In
683 B.C. nine archons were annually elected from the nobles, the first
having superior dignity.

The first of these archons, of whom any thing of importance is
recorded, was Draco, who governed Athens in the year 624 B.C.,
Draco. who promulgated written laws, exceedingly severe, inflicting
capital punishment for slight offenses. The people grew weary of
him and his laws, and he was banished to Ægina, where he died,
from a conspiracy headed by Cylon, one of the nobles, who seized the
Acropolis, B.C. 612. His insurrection, however, failed, and he was
treacherously put to death by one of the archons, [pg 187] which led to the
expulsion of the whole body, and a change in the constitution.

This was effected by Solon, the Athenian sage and law-giver—
himself of the race of Codrus, whom the Athenians chose as
Solon. archon, with full power to make new laws. Intrusted with absolute
power, he abstained from abusing it—a patriot in the most exalted
sense, as well as a poet and philosopher. Urged by his friends to
make himself tyrant, he replied that tyranny might be a fair country, only
there was no way out of it.

When he commenced his reforms, the nobles, or Eupatridæ, were
in possession of most of the fertile land of Attica, while the poorer
His citizens possessed only the sterile highlands. This created an
institutions unhappy jealousy between the rich and poor. Besides, there was
. another class that had grown rich by commerce, animated by the
spirit of freedom. But their influence tended to widen the gulf
between the rich and poor. The poor got into debt, and fell in the
power of creditors, and sunk to the condition of serfs, and many were even
sold in slavery, for the laws were severe against debtors, as in ancient
Rome. Solon, like Moses in his institution of the Year of Jubilee, set free all
the estates and persons that had fallen in the power of creditors, and
ransomed such as were sold in slavery.

Having removed the chief source of enmity between the rich and poor, he
repealed the bloody laws of Draco, and commenced to remodel the political
constitution. The fundamental principles which he adopted was a

distribution of power to all citizens according to their wealth. But
the nobles were not deprived of their ascendency, only the way was
Loss ofopened to all citizens to reach political distinction, especially those
aristocratic who were enriched by commerce. He made an assessment of the
power. landed property of all the citizens, taking as the medium a standard
Different of value which was equivalent to a drachma of annual produce. The
classes. first class, who had no aristocratic titles, were called Pentacosio
medimni, from possessing five hundred medimni or upward. [pg
188] They alone were eligible to the archonship and other high
offices, and bore the largest share of the public burdens. The second class
was called Knights, because they were bound to serve as cavalry. They
filled the inferior offices, farmed the revenue, and had the commerce of the
country in their hands.

The third class was called Zeugitæ (yokesmen), from their ability
to keep a yoke of oxen. They were small farmers, and served in the
Other heavy-armed infantry, and were subject to a property-tax. All those
political whose incomes fell short of two hundred medimni formed the
changes. fourth class, and served in the light-armed troops, and were exempt
from property-tax, but disqualified for public office, and yet they
had a vote in popular elections, and in the judgment passed upon
archons at the expiration of office. “The direct responsibility of all the
magistrates to the popular assembly, was the most democratic of all the
institutions of Solon; and though the government was still in the hands of
the oligarchy, Solon clearly foresaw, if he did not purposely prepare for, the
preponderance of the popular element.” “To guard against hasty measures,
he also instituted the Senate of four hundred, chosen year by year, from the
four Ionic tribes, whose office was to prepare all business for the popular
assembly, and regulate its meetings. The Areopagus retained its ancient
functions, to which Solon added a general oversight over all the public
institutions, and over the private life of the citizens. He also enacted many
other laws for the administration of justice, the regulation of social life, the
encouragement of commerce, and the general prosperity of the State.” His
whole legislation is marked by wisdom and patriotism, and adaptation to
the circumstances of the people who intrusted to him so much power and
dignity. The laws were, however, better than the people, and his legislative
wisdom and justice place him among the great benefactors of mankind, for

who can tell the ultimate influence of his legislation on Rome and on other
nations. The most beautiful feature was the responsibility of the chief
magistrates [pg 189] to the people who elected them, and from the fact that
they could subsequently be punished for bad conduct was the greatest
security against tyranny and peculation.

After having given this constitution to his countrymen, the lawgiver
took his departure from Athens, for ten years, binding the people by
Departure a solemn oath to make no alteration in his laws. He visited Egypt,
of SolonCyprus, and Asia Minor, and returned to Athens to find his work
from nearly subverted by one of his own kinsmen. Pisistratus, of noble
Athens. origin, but a demagogue, contrived, by his arts and prodigality, to
Pisistratus. secure a guard, which he increased, and succeeded in seizing the
His reign.Acropolis, B.C. 560, and in usurping the supreme authority—so
Hippias. soon are good laws perverted, so easily are constitutions
overthrown, when demagogues and usurpers are sustained by the
people. A combination of the rich and poor drove him into exile;
but their divisions and hatreds favored his return. Again he was exiled by
popular dissension, and a third time he regained his power, but only by a
battle. He sustained his usurpation by means of Thracian mercenaries, and
sent the children of all he suspected as hostages to Naxos. He veiled his
despotic power under the forms of the constitution, and even submitted
himself to the judgment of the Areopagus on the charge of murder. He kept
up his popularity by generosity and affability, by mingling freely with the
citizens, by opening to them his gardens, by adorning the city with beautiful
edifices, and by a liberal patronage of arts and letters. He founded a public
library, and collected the Homeric poems in a single volume. He ruled
beneficently, as tyrants often have,—like Cæsar, like Richelieu, like
Napoleon,—identifying his own glory with the welfare of the State. He died
after a successful reign of thirty-three years, B.C. 527, and his two sons,
Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded him in the government, ruling, like
their father, at first wisely but despotically, cultivating art and letters and
friendship of great men. But sensual passions led to outrages which resulted
in the assassination of Hipparchus. Hippias, having [pg 190] punished the
conspirators, changed the spirit of the government, imposed arbitrary taxes,
surrounded himself with an armed guard, and ruled tyrannically and cruelly.
After four years of despotic government, Athens was liberated, chiefly by

aid of the Lacedæmonians, now at the highest of their power. Hippias
retired to the court of Persia, and planned and guided the attack of Darius
on Greece—a traitor of the most infamous kind, since he combined tyranny
at home with the coldest treachery to his country. His accursed family were
doomed to perpetual banishment, and never succeeded in securing a pardon.
Their power had lasted fifty years, and had been fatal to the liberties of
Athens.

The Lacedæmonians did not retire until their king Cleomenes
formed a close friendship with Isagoras, the leader of the
Cleisthene aristocratic party—and no people were prouder of their birth than
s. Thethe old Athenian nobles. Opposed to him was Cleisthenes, of the
increase ofnoble family of the Alcmæonids, who had been banished in the
the Senate. time of Megacles, for the murder of Cylon, who had been
treacherously enticed from the sanctuary at the altar of Athena.
Cleisthenes gained the ear of the people, and prevailed over
Isagoras, and effected another change in the constitution, by which it
became still more democratic. He remodeled the basis of citizenship,
heretofore confined to the four Ionic tribes; and divided the whole country
into demes, or parishes, each of which managed its local affairs. All
freemen were enrolled in the demes, and became members of the tribes,
now ten in number, instead of the old four Ionian tribes. He increased the
members of the senate from four to five hundred, fifty members being
elected from each tribe. To this body was committed the chief functions of
executive government. It sat in permanence, and was divided into ten
sections, one for each tribe, and each section or committee, called prytany,
had the presidency of the senate and ecclesia during its term. Each prytany
of fifty members was subdivided into committees of ten, each of which held
the [pg 191] presidency for seven days, and out of these a chairman was
chosen by lot every day, to preside in the senate and assembly, and to keep
the keys of the Acropolis and treasury, and public seal. Nothing shows
jealousy of power more than the brief term of office which the president
exercised.

The ecclesia, or assembly of the people, was the arena for the
debate of all public measures. The archons were chosen according
The to the regulations of Solon, but were stripped of their power, which
ecclesia.

was transferred to the senate and ecclesia. The generals were elected by the
people annually, one from each tribe. They were called strategi, and had
also the direction of foreign affairs. It was as first strategus that Pericles
governed—“prime minister of the people.”

In order to guard against the ascendency of tyrants—the great evil
of the ancient States, Cleisthenes devised the institution of
Ostracism. ostracism, by which a suspected or obnoxious citizen could be
removed from the city for ten years, though practically abridged to
five. It simply involved an exclusion from political power, without
casting a stigma on the character. It was virtually a retirement, during which
his property and rights remained intact, and attended with no disgrace. The
citizens, after the senate had decreed the vote was needful, were required to
write a name in an oyster shell, and he who had less than six thousand votes
was obliged to withdraw within ten days from the city. The wisdom of this
measure is proved in the fact that no tyrannical usurpation occurred at
Athens after that of Pisistratus. This revolution which Cleisthenes effected
was purely democratic, to which the aristocrats did not submit without a
struggle. The aristocrats called to their aid the Spartans, but without other
effect than creating that long rivalry which existed between democracy and
oligarchy in Greece, in which Sparta and Athens were the representatives.

About this time began the dominion of Athens over the islands of the
Ægean and the system of colonizing conquered [pg 192] States, This was
the period which immediately preceded the Persian wars, when Athens
reached the climax of political glory.

Next in importance to the States which have been briefly
mentioned was Bœotia, which contained fourteen cities, united in a
Bœotia. confederacy, of which Thebes took the lead. They were governed
by magistrates, called bœtarchs, elected annually. In these cities
aristocratic institutions prevailed. The people were chiefly of
Æolian descent, with a strong mixture of the Dorian element, and were dull
and heavy, owing, probably, to the easy facilities of support, in consequence
of the richness of the soil.

At the west of Bœotia, Phocis, with its small territory, gained great
consideration from the possession of the Delphic oracle; but its people thus

far, of Achæan origin, played no important part in the politics of
Greece.
Phocis.
North of the isthmus lay the extensive plains of Thessaly,
inclosed by lofty mountains. Nature favored this State
Thessaly. more than any other in Greece for political pre-eminence,
but inhabitants of Æolian origin were any thing but
famous. At first they were governed by kings, but
subsequently an aristocratic government prevailed. They were represented
in the Amphictyonic Council.

The history of Macedonia is obscure till the time of the Persian
wars; but its kings claimed an Heraclid origin. The Doric dialect
Macedonia predominated in a rude form.
.
Epirus, west of Thessaly and Macedonia, was inhabited by
various tribes, under their own princes, until the kings of
Epirus. Molossus, claiming descent from Achilles, founded the
dynasty which was so powerful under Pyrrus.

There is but little interest connected with the States of Greece, before the
Persian wars, except Sparta, Athens, and Corinth; and hence a very brief
notice is all that is needed.

But the Grecian colonies are of more importance. They [pg 193]
were numerous in the islands of the Ægean Sea, in Epirus, and in
Grecian Asia Minor, and even extended into Italy, Sicily, and Gaul. They
colonies. were said to be planted as early as the Trojan war by the heroes
The Ionianwho lived to return—by Agamemnon on the coast of Asia; by the
cities insons of Theseus in Thrace; by Ialmenus on the Euxine; by Diomed
Asia and others in Italy. But colonization, to any extent, did not take
Minor. place until the Æolians invaded Bœotia, and the Dorians, the
Peloponnesus. The Achæans, driven from their homes by the
Dorians, sought new seats in the East, under chieftains who
claimed descent from Agamemnon and other heroes who went to the siege
of Troy. They settled, first, on the Isle of Lesbos, where they founded six
cities. Others made settlements on the mainland, from the Hermes to Mount
Ida. But the greatest migration was made by the Ionians, who, dislodged by

Achæans, went first to Attica, and thence to the Cyclades and the coasts of
Asia, afterward called Ionia. Twelve independent States were gradually
formed of divers elements, and assumed the Ionian name. Among those
twelve cities, or States, were Sarnos, Chios, Miletus, Ephesus, Colophon,
and Phocæa. The purest Ionian blood was found at Miletus, the seat of
Neleus. These cities were probably inhabited by other races before the
Ionians came. To these another was subsequently added—Smyrna, which
still retains its ancient name. The southwest corner of the Asiatic peninsula,
about the same time, was colonized by a body of Dorians, accompanied by
conquered Achæans, the chief seat of which was Halicarnassus. Crete,
Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus, were colonized also by the same people; but
Rhodes is the parent of the Greek colonies on the south coast of Asia Minor.
A century afterward, Cyprus was founded, and then Sicily was colonized,
and then the south of Italy. They were successively colonized by different
Grecian tribes, Achæan or Æolian, Dorian, and Ionian. But all the colonists
had to contend with races previously established, Iberians, Phœnicians,
Sicanians; and Sicels. Among the Greek cities in [pg 194] Sicily, Syracuse,
founded by Dorians, was the most important, and became, in turn, the
founder of other cities. Sybaris and Croton, in the south of Italy, were of
Achæan origin. The Greeks even penetrated to the northern part of Africa,
and founded Cyrene; while, on the Euxine, along the north coast of Asia
Minor, Cyzicus and Sinope arose. These migrations were generally
undertaken with the approbation and encouragement of the mother States.
There was no colonial jealousy, and no dependence. The colonists,
straitened for room at home, carried the benedictions of their fathers, and
were emancipated from their control. Sometimes the colony became more
powerful than the parent State, but both colonies and parent States were
bound together by strong ties of religion, language, customs, and interests.
The colonists uniformly became conquerors where they settled, but ever
retained their connection with the mother country. And they grew more
rapidly than the States from which they came, and their institutions were
more democratic. The Asiatic colonies especially, made great advances in
civilization by their contact with the East. Music, poetry, and art were
cultivated with great enthusiasm. The Ionians took the lead, and their
principal city, Miletus, is said to have planted no less than eighty colonies.
The greatness of Ephesus was of a later date, owing, in part, to the splendid
temple of Artemis, to which Asiatics as well as Greeks made contributions.

One of the most remarkable of the Greek colonies was Cyrene, on the coast
of Africa, which was of peculiar beauty, and was famous for eight hundred
years.

So the Greeks, although they occupied a small territory, yet, by
their numerous colonies in all those parts watered by the
Political Mediterranean, formed, if not politically, at least socially, a
importanc powerful empire, and exercised a vast influence on the civilized
e of theworld. From Cyprus to Marseilles—from the Crimea to Cyrene,
colonies. numerous States spoke the same language, and practiced the same
rites, which were observed in Athens and Sparta. Hence the great
extent of country in Asia and Europe to which the Greek language
[pg 195] was familiar, and still more the arts which made Athens the centre
of a new civilization. Some of the most noted philosophers and artists of
antiquity were born in these colonies. The power of Hellas was not a
centralized empire, like Persia, or even Rome, but a domain in the heart and
mind of the world. It was Hellas which worked out, in its various States and
colonies, great problems of government, as well as social life. Hellas was
the parent of arts, of poetry, of philosophy, and of all æsthetic culture—the
pattern of new forms of life, and new modes of cultivation. It is this Grecian
civilization which appeared in full development as early as five hundred
years before the Christian era, which we now propose, in a short chapter, to
present—the era which immediately preceded the Persian wars.

[pg 196]

CHAPTER XVI.

GRECIAN CIVILIZATION BEFORE THE
PERSIAN WARS.

Early civilization. We understand by civilization the progress which nations
have made in art, literature, material strength, social culture, and political
institutions, by which habits are softened, the mind enlarged, the soul
elevated, and a wise government, by laws established, protecting the weak,
punishing the wicked, and developing wealth and national resources.

Such a civilization did exist to a remarkable degree among the Greeks,
which was not only the admiration of their own times, but a wonder to all
succeeding ages, since it was established by the unaided powers of man,
and affected the relations of all the nations of Europe and Asia which fell
under its influence.

It is this which we propose briefly to present in this chapter, not the highest
developments of Grecian culture and genius, but such as existed in the
period immediately preceding the Persian wars.

One important feature in the civilization of Greece was the progress
made in legislation by Lycurmis and Solon, But as this has been
Legislatio alluded to, we pass on to consider first those institutions which
n. were more national and universal.

The peculiar situations of the various States, independent
of each other, warlike, encroaching, and ambitious, led
The naturally to numerous wars, which would have been civil
Amphicty wars had all these petty States been united under a
onic common government. But incessant wars, growing out of
Council. endless causes of irritation, would have soon ruined these
States, and they could have had no proper development.
Something [pg 197] was needed to restrain passion and
heal dissensions without a resort to arms, ever attended by dire calamities.

And something was needed to unite these various States, in which the same
language was spoken, and the same religion and customs prevailed. This
union was partially effected by the Amphictyonic Council. It was a
congress, composed of deputies from the different States, and deliberating
according to rules established from time immemorial. Its meetings were
held in two different places, and were convened twice a year, once in the
spring, at Delphi, the other in the autumn, near the pass of Thermopylæ.
Delphi was probably the original place of meeting, and was, therefore, in
one important sense, the capital of Greece. Originally, this council or
congress was composed of deputies from twelve States, or tribes—
Thessalians, Bœotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhæbians, Magnetes, Locrians,
Octæans, Phthiots, Achæans, Melians, and Phocians. These tribes
assembled together before authentic history commences, before the return
of the Heracleids. There were other States which were not represented in
this league—Arcadia, Elis, Æolia, and Acarnania; but the league was
sufficiently powerful to make its decisions respected by the greater part of
Greece. Each tribe, whether powerful or weak, had two votes in the
assembly. Beside those members who had the exclusive power of voting,
there were others, and more numerous, who had the privilege of
deliberation. The object of the council was more for religious purposes than
political, although, on rare occasions and national crises, subjects of a
political nature were discussed. The council laid down the rules of war, by
which each State that was represented was guaranteed against complete
subjection, and the supplies of war were protected. There was no
confederacy against foreign powers. The functions of the league were
confined to matters purely domestic; the object of the league was the
protection of temples against sacrilege. But the council had no common
army to execute its decrees, which were often disregarded. In particular, the
protection of the Delphic [pg 198] oracle, it acted with dignity and effect,
whose responses were universally respected.

As the Delphic oracle was the object which engrossed the most
important duties of the council, and the responses of this oracle in
The early times was a sacred law, the deliberations of the league had
Delphic considerable influence, and were often directed to political
oracle. purposes. But the immediate management of the oracle was in the
hands of the citizens of Delphi. In process of time the responses of

the oracle, by the mouth of a woman, which were thus controlled by the
Delphians, lost much of their prestige, in consequence of the presents or
bribery by which favorable responses were gained.

More powerful than this council, as an institution, were the
Olympic games, solemnized every four years, in which all the
The states of Greece took part. These games lasted four days, and were
Olympic of engrossing interest. They were supposed to be founded by
games. Hercules, and were of very ancient date. During these celebrations
there was a universal truce, and also during the time it was
necessary for the people to assemble and retire to their homes. Elis,
in whose territory Olympia was situated, had the whole regulation of the
festival, the immediate object of which were various trials of strength and
skill. They included chariot races, foot races, horse races, wrestling, boxing,
and leaping. They were open to all, even to the poorest Greeks; no accidents
of birth or condition affected these honorable contests. The palm of honor
was given to the men who had real merit. A simple garland of leaves was
the prize, but this was sufficient to call out all the energies and ambition of
the whole nation. There were, however, incidental advantages to successful
combatants. At Athens, the citizen who gained a prize was rewarded by five
hundred drachmas, and was entitled to a seat at the table of the magistrates,
and had a conspicuous part on the field of battle. The victors had statues
erected to them, and called forth the praises of the poets, and thus these
primitive sports [pg 199] incidentally gave an impulse to art and poetry. In
later times, poets and historians recited their compositions, and were
rewarded with the garland of leaves. The victors of these games thus
acquired a social pre-eminence, and were held in especial honor, like those
heroes in the Middle Ages who obtained the honor of tournaments and tilts,
and, in modern times, those who receive decoration at the hands of kings.

The celebrity of the Olympic games, which drew spectators from
Asia as well as all the States of Greece, led to similar institutions or
The festivals in other places. The Pythian games, in honor of Apollo,
Pythian were celebrated near Delphi every third Olympic year; and various
games. musical contests, exercises in poetry, exhibitions of works of art
were added to gymnastic exercises and chariot and horse races. The
sacrifices, processions, and other solemnities, resemble those at

Olympia in honor of Zeus. They lasted as long as the Olympic games, down
to A.D. 394. Wherever the worship of Apollo was introduced, there were
imitations of these Pythian games in all the States of Greece.

The Nemæan and Ithmian games were celebrated each twice in
every Olympiad, the former on the plain of Nemæa, in Argolis; the
The latter in the Corinthian Isthmus, under the presidency of Corinth.
Nemæan These also claimed a high antiquity, and at these were celebrated
and the same feats of strength as at Olympia. But the Olympic festival
Ithmian was the representation of all the rest, and transcended all the rest in
games. national importance. It was viewed with so much interest, that the
Greeks measured time itself by them. It was Olympiads, and not
years, by which the date of all events was determined. The Romans
reckoned their years from the foundation of their city; modern Christian
nations, by the birth of Christ; Mohammedans, by the flight of the prophet
to Medina; and the Greeks, from the first recorded Olympiad, B.C. 776.

It was in these festivals, at which no foreigner, however eminent,
was allowed to contend for prizes, that the Greeks buried their
Effect ofquarrels, and incited each [pg 200] other to heroism. The places in
these which they were celebrated became marts of commerce like the
festivals. mediæval fairs of Germany; and the vast assemblage of spectators
favored that communication of news, and inventions, and
improvements which has been produced by our modern
exhibitions. These games answered all the purposes of our races, our
industrial exhibitions, and our anniversaries, religious, political,
educational, and literary, and thus had a most decided influence on the
development of Grecian thought and enterprise. The exhibition of sculpture
and painting alone made them attractive and intellectual, while the athletic
exercises amused ordinary minds. They were not demoralizing, like the
sports of the amphitheatre, or a modern bull-fight, or even fashionable
races. They were more like tournaments in the martial ages of Europe, but
superior to them vastly, since no woman was allowed to be present at the
Olympic games under pain of death.

It has already been shown that the form of government in the States of
Ancient Greece, in the Homeric ages, was monarchical. In two or three

hundred years after the Trojan war, the authority of kings had
greatly diminished. The great immigration and convulsions
Changes indestroyed the line of the ancient royal houses. The abolition of
governme royalty was in substance rather than name. First, it was divided
nt. among several persons, then it was made elective, first for life,
Erection ofafterward for a definite period. The nobles or chieftains gained
temples. increasing power with the decline of royalty, and the government
Legal became, in many States, aristocratic. But the nobles abused their
equality power by making an oligarchy, which is a perverted aristocracy.
and This aroused hatred and opposition on the part of the people,
political especially in the maritime cities, where the increase of wealth by
rights. commerce and the arts raised up a body of powerful citizens. Then
followed popular revolutions under leaders or demagogues. These
leaders in turn became tyrants, and their exactions gave rise to
more hatred than that produced by the government of powerful families.
They gained power by stratagem, and perverted [pg 201] it by violence. But
to amuse the people whom they oppressed, or to please them, they built
temples, theatres, and other public buildings, in which a liberal patronage
was extended to the arts. Thus Athens and Corinth, before the Persian wars,
were beautiful cities, from the lavish expenditure of the public treasury by
the tyrants or despots who had gained ascendency. In the mean time, those
who were most eminent for wealth, or power, or virtue, were persecuted, for
fear they would effect a revolution. But the parties which the tyrants had
trampled upon were rather exasperated than ruined, and they seized every
opportunity to rally the people under their standard, and effect an overthrow
of the tyrants. Sparta, whose constitution remained aristocratic, generally
was ready to assist any State in throwing off the yoke of the usurpers. In
some States, like Athens, every change favored the rise of the people, who
gradually obtained the ascendency. They instituted the principle of legal
equality, by which every freeman was supposed to exercise the attributes of
sovereignty. But democracy invariably led to the ascendency of factions,
and became itself a tyranny. It became jealous of all who were distinguished
for birth, or wealth, or talents. It encouraged flatterers and sycophants. It
was insatiable in its demands on the property of the rich, and listened to
charges which exposed them to exile and their estates to confiscation. It
increased the public burdens by unwise expenditures to please the men of
the lower classes who possessed political franchise.

But different forms of government existed in different States. In
Sparta there was an oligarchy of nobles which made royalty a
Different shadow, and which kept the people in slavery and degradation. In
forms ofAthens the democratic principle prevailed. In Argos kings reigned
governme down to the Persian wars. In Corinth the government went through
nt. mutations as at Athens. In all the States and cities experiments in
the various forms of government were perpetually made and
perpetually failed. They existed for a time, and [pg 202] were in
turn supplanted. The most permanent government was that of Sparta; the
most unstable was that of Athens. The former promoted a lofty patriotism
and public morality and the national virtues; the latter inequalities of
wealth, the rise of obscure individuals, and the progress of arts.

The fall of the ancient monarchies and aristocracies was closely
connected with commercial enterprise and the increase of a wealthy
Commerci class of citizens. In the beginning of the seventh century before
al Christ, a great improvement in the art of ship-building was made,
enterprise. especially at Corinth. Colonial settlements kept pace with maritime
enterprise; and both of these fostered commerce and wealth. The
Euxine lost its terrors to navigators, and the Ægean Sea was filled
with ships and colonists. The Adriatic Sea was penetrated, and all the seas
connected with the Mediterranean. From the mouth of the Po was brought
amber, which was highly valued by the ancients. A great number of people
were drawn to Egypt, by the liberal offers of its kings, who went there for
the pursuit of knowledge and of wealth, and from which they brought back
the papyrus as a cheap material for writing. The productions of Greece were
exchanged for the rich fabrics which only Asia furnished, and the cities to
which these were brought, like Athens and Corinth, rapidly grew rich, like
Venice and Genoa in the Middle Ages.

Wealth of course introduced art. The origin of art may have been in
religious ideas—in temples and the statues of the gods—in tombs
Increase ofand monuments of great men. But wealth immeasurably increased
wealth. the facilities both for architecture and sculpture. Artists in old
Introductio times, as in these, sought a pecuniary reward—patrons who could
n of art. afford to buy their productions, and stimulate their genius. Art was
cultivated more rapidly in the Asiatic colonies than in the mother

country, both on account of their wealth, and the objects of interest around
them. The Ionian cities, especially, were distinguished for luxury and
refinement. Corinth took the lead in the early patronage [pg 203] of art, as
the most wealthy and luxurious of the Grecian cities.

The first great impulse was given to architecture. The Pelasgi had
erected Cyclopean structures fifteen hundred years before Christ.
Architectu The Dorians built temples on the severest principles of beauty, and
re. the Doric column arose, massive and elegant. Long before the
Persian wars the temples were numerous and grand, yet simple and
harmonious. The temple of Here, at Samos, was begun in the eighth
century, B.C., and built in the Doric style, and, soon after, beautiful
structures ornamented Athens.

Sculpture rapidly followed architecture, and passed from the
stiffness of ancient times to that beauty which afterward
Sculpture. distinguished Phidias and Polynotus. Schools of art, in the sixth
century, flourished in all the Grecian cities. We can not enter upon
the details, from the use of wood to brass and marble. The temples
were filled with groups from celebrated masters, and their deep recesses
were peopled with colossal forms. Gold, silver, and ivory were used as well
as marble and brass. The statues of heroes adorned every public place. Art,
before the Persian wars, did not indeed reach the refinement which it
subsequently boasted, but a great progress was made in it, in all its forms.
Engraving was also known, and imperfect pictures were painted. But this
art, and indeed any of the arts, did not culminate until after the Persian
wars.

Literature made equal if not greater progress in the early ages of
Grecian history. Hesiod lived B.C. 735; and lyric poetry flourished
Literature. in the sixth and seventh centuries before Christ, especially the
elegiac form, or songs for the dead. Epic poetry was of still earlier
date, as seen in the Homeric poems. The Æolian and Ionic Greeks
of Asia were early noted for celebrated poets. Alcæus and Sappho lived on
the Isle of Lesbos, and were surrounded with admirers. Anacreon of Teos
was courted by the rulers of Athens.

Even philosophy was cultivated at this early age. Thales [pg 204]
of Miletus flourished in the middle of the seventh century, and
Philosoph Anaximander, born B.C. 610—one of the great original
y. mathematicians of the world, speculated like Thales, on the origin
of things. Pythagoras, born in Samos, B.C. 580—a still greater
name, grave and majestic, taught the harmony of the spheres long
before the Ionian revolt.

But neither art, nor literature, nor philosophy reached their full development
till a later era. It is enough for our purpose to say that, before the Persian
wars, civilization was by no means contemptible, in all those departments
which subsequently made Greece the teacher and the glory of the world.

[pg 205]

CHAPTER XVII.

THE PERSIAN WAR.

We come now to the most important and interesting of Grecian history—the
great contest with Persia—the age of heroes and of battle-fields, when
military glory was the master passion of a noble race. What inspiration have
all ages gained from that noble contest in behalf of liberty!

We have seen how Asiatic cities were colonized by Greeks, among
whom the Ionians were pre-eminent. The cities were governed by
Condition tyrants, who were sustained in their usurpation by the power of
of thePersia, then the great power of the world. Darius, then king, had
Ionian absurdly invaded Scythia, with an immense army of six hundred
cities. thousand men, to punish the people for their inroad upon Western
Invasion Asia, subject to his sway, about a century before. He was followed
of Scythiaby his allies, the tyrants of the Ionian cities, to whom he intrusted
by Darius. the guardianship of the bridge of boats by which he had crossed the
Danube, B.C. 510. As he did not return within the time specified—
sixty days—the Greeks were left at liberty to return. A body of
Scythians then appeared, who urged the Greeks to destroy the bridge, as
Darius was in full retreat, and thus secure the destruction of the Persian
army and the recovery of their own liberty. Miltiades, who ruled the
Chersonese—the future hero of Marathon, seconded the wise proposal of
the Scythians, but Histiæus, tyrant of Miletus, feared that such an act would
recoil upon themselves, and favor another inroad of Scythians—a fierce
nation of barbarians. The result was that the bridge was not destroyed, but
the further end of it was severed from the shore. Night arrived, and the [pg
206] Persian hosts appeared upon the banks of the river, but finding no trace
of it, Darius ordered an Egyptian who had a trumpet-voice to summon to
his aid Histiæus, the Milesian. He came forward with a fleet and restored
the bridge, and Darius and his army were saved, and the opportunity was
lost to the Ionians for emancipating themselves from the Persians. The
bridge was preserved, not from honorable fidelity to fulfill a trust, but
selfish regard in the despot of Miletus to maintain his power. For this

service he was rewarded with a principality on the Strymon. Exciting,
however, the suspicion of Darius, by his intrigues, he was carried captive to
the Persian court, but with every mark of honor. Darius left his brother
Artaphernes as governor of all the cities in Western Asia Minor.

A few years after this unsuccessful invasion of Scythia by Darius, a
political conflict broke out in Naxos, an island of the Cyclades,
Revolt ofB.C. 502, which had not submitted to the Persian yoke, and the
the Ionianoligarchy, which ruled the island, were expelled. They applied for
cities fromaid to Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, the largest of the Ionian
Persia. cities, who persuaded the Persian satrap to send an expedition
Defeat ofagainst the island. The expedition failed, which ruined the credit of
the IonianAristagoras, son-in-law to Histiæus, who was himself incensed at
cities. his detention in Susa, and who sent a trusty slave with a message
urging the Ionians to revolt. Aristagoras, as a means of success,
conciliated popular favor throughout Asiatic Greece, by putting
down the various tyrants—the instruments of Persian ascendency. The
flames of revolt were kindled, the despots were expelled, the revolted towns
were put in a state of defense, and Aristagoras visited Sparta to invoke its
aid, inflaming the mind of the king with the untold wealth of Asia, which
would become his spoil. Sparta was then at war with her neighbors, and
unwilling to become involved in so uncertain a contest. Rejected at Sparta,
Aristagoras proceeded to Athens, then the second power in Greece, and was
favorably received, for the Athenians had a powerful sympathy with the
revolted [pg 207] Ionians; they agreed to send a fleet of twenty ships. When
Aristagoras returned, the Persians had commenced the siege of Miletus. The
twenty ships soon crossed the Ægean, and were joined by five Eretrian
ships coming to the succor of Miletus. An unsuccessful attempt of
Aristagoras on Sardis disgusted the Athenians, who abandoned the alliance.
But the accidental burning of the city, including the temple of the goddess
Cybele, encouraged the revolters, and incensed the Persians. Other Greek
cities on the coast took part in the revolt, including the island of Cyprus.
The revolt now assumed a serious character. The Persians rallied their
allies, among whom were the Phœnicians. An armament of Persians and
Phœnicians sailed against Cyprus, and a victory on the land gave the
Persians the control of the island. A large army of Persians and their allies
collected at Sardis, and, under different divisions reconquered all their

principal Ionian cities, except Miletus; but the Ionian fleet kept its
ascendency at sea. Aristagoras as the Persians advanced, lost courage and
fled to Myrkinus, where he shortly afterward perished.

Meanwhile Histiæus presented himself at the gates of Miletus,
having procured the consent of Darius to proceed thither to quell
Histiæus. the revolt. He was, however, suspected by the satrap, Artaphernes,
and fled to Chios, whose people he gained over, and who carried
him back to Miletus. On his arrival, he found the citizens averse to
his reception, and was obliged to return to Chios, and then to Lesbos, where
he abandoned himself to piracy.

A vast Persian host, however, had been concentrated near Miletus,
and with the assistance of the Phœnicians, invested the city by sea
Want ofand land. The entire force of the confederated cities abandoned the
union Milesians to their fate, and took to their ships, three hundred and
among thefifty-three in number, with a view of fighting the Phœnicians, who
Ionian had six hundred ships. But there was a want of union among the
cities. Ionian commanders, and the sailors abandoned themselves to
Their disorder and carelessness; upon which [pg 208] Dionysius, of
signal Phocæa, which furnished but three ships, rebuked the Ionians for
defeat. their neglect of discipline. His rebuke was not thrown away, and
the Ionians having their comfortable tents on shore, submitted
themselves to the nautical labors imposed by Dionysius. At last,
after seven days of work, the Ionian sailors broke out in open mutiny, and
refused longer to be under the discipline of a man whose State furnished the
smallest number of ships. They left their ships, and resumed their pleasures
on the shore, unwilling to endure the discipline so necessary in so great a
crisis. Their camp became a scene of disunion and mistrust. The Samians,
in particular, were discontented, and on the day of battle, which was to
decide the fortunes of Ionia, they deserted with sixty ships, and other
Ionians followed their example. The ships of Chios, one hundred in number,
fought with great fidelity and resolution, and Dionysius captured, with his
three ships, three of the Phœnicians'. But these exceptional examples of
bravery did not compensate the treachery and cowardice of the rest, and the
consequence was a complete defeat of the Ionians at Lade. Dionysius,

seeing the ruin of the Ionian camp, did not return to his own city, and set
sail for the Phœnician coast, doing all he could as a pirate.

This victory of Lade enabled the Persians to attack Miletus by sea
as well as land; the siege was prosecuted with vigor, and the city
Attack ofshortly fell. The adult male population was slain, while the women
Miletus. and children were sent as slaves to Susa. The Milesian territory was
Complete devastated and stripped of its inhabitants. The other States hastened
conquest to make their submission, and the revolt was crushed, B.C. 496,
of thefive years after its commencement. The Persian forces reconquered
Ionian all the Asiatic Greeks, insular and continental, and the Athenian
Greeks. Miltiades escaped with difficulty from his command in the
Chersonese, to his native city. All the threats which were made by
the Persians were realized. The most beautiful virgins were
distributed among the Persian nobles; the [pg 209] cities were destroyed;
and Samos alone remained, as a reward for desertion at the battle of Lade.

The reconquest of Ionia being completed, the satrap proceeded to
organize the future government, the inhabitants now being
Artaphern composed of a great number of Persians. Meanwhile, Darius made
es preparations for the complete conquest of Greece. The wisdom of
organizes the advice of Miltiades, to destroy the bridge over the Danube,
the when Darius and his army would have been annihilated by the
Governme Scythians, was now apparent. Mardonius was sent with a large
nt. Dariusarmy into Ionia, who deposed the despots in the various cities,
prepares whom Artaphernes had reinstated, and left the people to govern
for thethemselves, subject to the Persian dominion and tribute. He did not
invasion ofremain long in Ionia, but passed with his fleet to the Hellespont,
Greece. and joined his land forces. He transported his army to Europe, and
began his march through Thrace. Thence marched into Macedonia,
and subdued a part of its inhabitants. He then sent his fleet around
Mount Athos, with a view of joining it with his army at the Gulf of Therma.
But a storm overtook his fleet near Athos, and destroyed three hundred
ships, and drowned twenty thousand men. This disaster compelled a retreat,
and he recrossed the Hellespont with the shame of failure. He was
employed no more by the Persian king.

Darius, incited by the traitor Hippias, made new preparation for the
invasion of Greece. He sent his heralds in every direction,
His demanding the customary token of submission—earth and water.
immense Many of the continental cities sent in their submission, including
preparatio the Thebans, Thessalians, and the island of Ægina, which was on
ns. bad terms with Athens. The heralds of Darius were put to death at
Athens and Sparta, which can only be explained from the fiercest
resentment and rage. These two powers made common cause, and
armed all the other States over which they had influence, to resist the
Persian domination. Hellas, headed by Sparta, now resolved to put forth all
its energies, and [pg 210] embarked, in desperate hostility. A war which
Sparta had been waging for several years against Argos crippled that
ancient State, and she was no longer the leading power. The only rival
which Sparta feared was weakened, and full scope was given, for the
prosecution of the Persian war. Ægina, which had submitted to Darius, was
visited by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and hostages were sent to Athens for
the neutrality of that island. Athens and Sparta suspended their political
jealousies, and acted in concert to resist the common danger.

By the spring of 490 B.C. the preparations of Darius were
completed, and a vast army collected on a plain upon the Cilician
His vastshore. A fleet of six hundred ships convoyed it to the rendezvous at
army. Samos. The exiled tyrant Hippias was present to guide the forces to
the attack of Attica. The Mede Datis, and Artaphernes, son of the
satrap of Sardis, nephew to Darius, were the Persian generals. They
had orders from Darius to bring the inhabitants of Athens as slaves to his
presence.

The Persian fleet, fearing a similar disaster as happened near
Mount Athos, struck directly across the Ægean, from Samos to
The Eubœa, attacking on the way the intermediate islands. Naxos thus
Persian was invaded and easily subdued. From Naxos, Datis sent his fleet
fleet. round the other Cyclades Islands, demanding reinforcements and
hostages from all he visited, and reached the southern extremity of
Eubœa in safety. Etruria was first subdued, unable to resist. After
halting a few days at this city, he crossed to Attica, and landed in the bay of

Marathon, on the eastern coast. The despot Hippias, son of Pisistratus,
twenty years after his expulsion from Athens, pointed out the way.

But a great change had taken place at Athens since his expulsion.
The city was now under democratic rule, in its best estate. The ten
Political tribes had become identified with the government and institutions
change atof the city. The senate of the areopagus, renovated by the annual
Athens. archons, was in sympathy with the people. Great men had [pg 211]
Miltiades, arisen under the amazing stimulus of liberty, among whom
and otherMiltiades, Themistocles, and Aristides were the most distinguished.
generals. Miltiades, after an absence of six years in the Chersonesus of
Thrace, returned to the city full of patriotic ardor. He was brought
to trial before the popular assembly on the charge of having
misgoverned the Chersonese; but he was honorably acquitted, and was
chosen one of the ten generals of the republic annually elected. He was not,
however, a politician of the democratic stamp, like Themistocles and
Aristides, being a descendant of an illustrious race, which traced their
lineage to the gods; but he was patriotic, brave, and decided. His advice to
burn the bridge over the Danube illustrates his character—bold and far-
seeing. Moreover, he was peculiarly hostile to Darius, whom he had so
grievously offended.

Themistocles was a man of great native genius and sagacity. He
comprehended all the embarrassments and dangers of the political
Themistoc crisis in which his city was placed, and saw at a glance the true
les. course to be pursued. He was also bold and daring. He was not
favored by the accidents of birth, and owed very little to education.
He had an unbounded passion for glory and for display. He had
great tact in the management of party, and was intent on the aggrandizement
of his country. His morality was reckless, but his intelligence was great—a
sort of Mirabeau: with his passion, his eloquence, and his talents. His
unfortunate end—a traitor and an exile—shows how little intellectual pre-
eminence will avail, in the long run, without virtue, although such talents as
he exhibited will be found useful in a crisis.

Aristides was inferior to both Alcibiades and Themistocles in
genius, in resource, in boldness, and in energy; but superior in
Aristides.

virtue, in public fidelity, and moral elevation. He pursued a consistent
course, was no demagogue, unflinching in the discharge of trusts, just,
upright, unspotted. Such a man, of course, in a corrupt society, would be
exposed to many enmities and jealousies. [pg 212] But he was, on the
whole, appreciated, and died, in a period of war and revolution, a poor man,
with unbounded means of becoming rich—one of the few examples which
our world affords of a man who believed in virtue, in God, and a judgment
to come, and who preferred the future and spiritual to the present and
material—a fool in the eyes of the sordid and bad—a wise man according to
the eternal standards.

Aristides, Miltiades, and perhaps Themistocles, were elected
among the ten generals, by the ten tribes, in the year that Datis led
Athens his expedition to Marathon. Each of the ten generals had the
allies supreme command of the army for a day. Great alarm was felt at
herself Athens as tidings reached the city of the advancing and conquering
with Persians. Couriers were sent in hot haste to the other cities,
Sparta. especially Sparta, and one was found to make the journey to Sparta
on foot—one hundred and fifty miles—in forty-eight hours. The
Spartans agreed to march, without delay, after the last quarter of the
moon, which custom and superstition dictated. This delay was fraught with
danger, but was insisted upon by the Spartans.

Meanwhile the dangers multiplied and thickened, that not a
moment should be lost in bringing the Persians into action. Five of
Prominenc the generals counseled delay. The polemarch, Calimachus, who
e of thethen had the casting vote, decided for immediate action.
dangers. Themistocles and Aristides had seconded the advice of Miltiades,
to whom the other generals surrendered their days of command—a
rare example of patriotic disinterestedness. The Athenians marched
at once to Marathon to meet their foes, and were joined by the Platæans,
one thousand warriors, from a little city—the whole armed population,
which had a great moral effect.

The Athenians had only ten thousand hoplites, including the one
thousand from Platæa. The Persian army is variously estimated at
Marshalin from one hundred and ten thousand to six hundred thousand. The
g of the

Grecian Greeks [pg 213] were encamped upon the higher ground
forces atoverlooking the plain which their enemies occupied. The fleet was
Marathon. ranged along the beach. The Greeks advanced to the combat in
The battlerapid movement, urged on by the war-cry, which ever animated
of their charges. The wings of the Persian army were put to flight by
Marathon. the audacity of the charge, but the centre, where the best troops
were posted, resisted the attack until Miltiades returned from the
pursuit of the retreating soldiers on the wings. The defeat of the
Persians was the result. They fled to their ships, and became involved in the
marshes. Six thousand four hundred men fell on the Persian side, and only
one hundred and ninety-two on the Athenian. The Persians, though
defeated, still retained their ships, and sailed toward Cape Sunium, with a
view of another descent upon Attica. Miltiades, the victor in the most
glorious battle ever till then fought in Greece, penetrated the designs of the
Persians, and rapidly retreated to Athens on the very day of battle. Datis
arrived at the port of Phalerum to discover that his plans were baffled, and
that the Athenians were still ready to oppose him. The energy and
promptness of Miltiades had saved the city. Datis, discouraged, set sail,
without landing, to the Cyclades.

The battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, must be regarded as one of the
great decisive battles of the world, and the first which raised the
Results ofpolitical importance of the Greeks in the eyes of foreign powers. It
the battle. was fought by Athens twenty years after the expulsion of the
tyrants, and as a democratic State. On the Athenians rest the glory
forever. It was not important for the number of men who fell on
either side, but for giving the first great check to the Persian domination,
and preventing their conquest of Europe. And its moral effect was greater
than its political. It freed the Greeks from that fear of the Persians which
was so fatal and universal, for the tide of Persian conquest had been hitherto
uninterrupted. It animated the Greeks with fresh courage, for the bravery of
the Athenians [pg 214] had been unexampled, as had been the generalship
of Miltiades. Athens was delivered by the almost supernatural bravery of its
warriors, and was then prepared to make those sacrifices which were
necessary in the more desperate struggles which were to come. And it
inspired the people with patriotic ardor, and upheld the new civil
constitution. It gave force and dignity to the democracy, and prepared it for

future and exalted triumphs. It also gave force to the religious sentiments of
the people, for such a victory was regarded as owing to the special favor of
the gods.

The Spartans did not arrive until after the battle had been fought, and Datis
had returned with his Etrurian prisoners to Asia.

The victory of Marathon raised the military fame of Miltiades to
the most exalted height, and there were no bounds to the
Fame ofenthusiasm of the Athenians. But the victory turned his head, and
Miltiades. he lost both prudence and patriotism. He persuaded his
His countrymen, in the full tide of his popularity, to intrust him with
subsequent seventy ships, with an adequate force, with powers to direct an
reverses. expedition according to his pleasure. The armament was cheerfully
His death.granted. But he disgracefully failed in an attack on the island of
Jealousies Paros, to gratify a private vindictive animosity. He lost all his éclat
between and was impeached. He appealed, wounded and disabled from a
Aristides fall he had received, to his previous services. He was found guilty,
and but escaped the penalty of death, but not of a fine of fifty talents.
Themistoc He did not live to pay it, or redeem his fame, but died of the injury
les. he had received. Thus this great man fell from a pinnacle of glory
to the deepest disgrace and ruin—a fate deserved, for he was not
true to himself or country. The Athenians were not to blame, but
judged him rightly. It was not fickleness, but a change in their opinions,
founded on sufficient grounds, from the deep disappointment in finding that
their hero was unworthy of their regards. No man who had rendered a favor
has a claim to pursue a course of selfishness and unlawful ambition. [pg
215] No services can offset crimes. The Athenians, in their unbounded
admiration, had given unbounded trust, and that trust was abused. And as
the greatest despots who had mounted to power had earned their success by
early services, so had they abused their power by imposing fetters, and the
Athenians, just escaped from the tyranny of these despots, felt a natural
jealousy and a deep repugnance, in spite of their previous admiration. The
Athenians, in their treatment of Miltiades, were neither ungrateful nor
fickle, but acted from a high sense of public morality, and in a stern regard
to justice, without which the new constitution would soon have been
subverted. On the death of Miltiades Themistocles and Aristides became the

two leading men of Athens, and their rivalries composed the domestic
history of the city, until the renewed and vast preparations of the Persians
caused all dissensions to be suspended for the public good.

But the jealousies and rivalries of these great men were not
altogether personal. They were both patriotic, but each had
Not different views respecting the course which Athens should adopt in
altogether the greatness of the dangers which impended. The policy of
on Aristides was to strengthen the army—that of Themistocles, the
personal navy. Both foresaw the national dangers, but Themistocles felt that
grounds. the hopes of Greece rested on ships rather than armies to resist the
Persians. And his policy was adopted. As the world can not have
two suns, so Athens could not be prospered by the presence of two
such great men, each advocating different views. One or the other must
succumb to the general good, and Aristides was banished by the power of
ostracism.

The wrath of Darius—a man of great force of character, but
haughty and self-sufficient, was tremendous when he learned the
Renewed defeat of Datis, and his retreat into Asia. He resolved to bring the
preparatio whole force of the Persian empire together to subdue the Athenians,
ns offrom whom he had suffered so great a disgrace. Three years were
Darius. [pg 216] spent in active preparations for a new expedition which
His death. should be overwhelming. All the allies of Persia were called upon
for men and supplies. Nor was he deterred by a revolt of Egypt,
which broke out about this time, and he was on the point of
carrying two gigantic enterprises—one for the reconquest of Egypt, and the
other for the conquest of Greece—when he died, after a reign of thirty-six
years, B.C. 485.

He was succeeded by his son Xerxes, who was animated by the
animosities, but not the genius of his father. Though beautiful and
Xerxes. tall, he was faint-hearted, vain, blinded by a sense of power, and
His enslaved by women. Yet he continued the preparations which
enormous Darius projected. Egypt was first subdued by his generals, and he
preparatio then turned his undivided attention to Greece. He convoked the
ns. Hisdignitaries of his empire—the princes and governors of provinces,
bridges

over theand announced his resolution to bridge over the Hellespont and
Hellespont march to the conquest of Europe. Artabanus, his uncle, dissuaded
. him from the enterprise, setting forth especially the probability that
the Greeks, if victorious at sea, would destroy the bridge, and thus
prevent his safe return. Mardonius advised differently, urging
ambition and revenge, motives not lost on the Persian monarch. For four
years the preparations went forward from all parts of the empire, including
even the islands in the Ægean. In the autumn of 481 B.C., the largest army
this world has ever seen assembled at Sardis. Besides this, a powerful fleet
of one thousand two hundred and seven ships of war, besides transports,
was collected at the Hellespont. Large magazines of provisions were
formed along the coast of Asia Minor. A double bridge of boats, extending
from Abydos to Sestos—a mile in length across the Hellespont, was
constructed by Phœnicians and Egyptians; but this was destroyed by a
storm. Xerxes, in a transport of fury, caused the heads of the engineers to be
cut off, and the sea itself scourged with three hundred lashes. This insane
wrath being expended, the monarch caused the work to be at once
reconstructed, [pg 217] this time by the aid of Greek engineers. Two bridges
were built side by side upon more than six hundred large ships, moored
with strong anchors, with their heads toward the Ægean. Over each bridge
were sketched six vast cables, which held the ships together, and over these
were laid planks of wood, upon which a causeway was formed of wood and
earth, with a high palisade on each side. To facilitate his march, Xerxes also
constructed a canal across the isthmus which connects Mount Athos with
the main land, on which were employed Phœnician engineers. The men
employed in digging the canal worked under the whip. Bridges were also
thrown across the river Strymon.

These works were completed while Xerxes wintered at Sardis.
From that city he dispatched heralds to all the cities of Greece,
His except Sparta and Athens, to demand the usual tokens of
advance. submission—earth and water. He also sent orders to the maritime
He crossescities of Thrace and Macedonia to prepare dinner for himself and
the hosts, as they passed through. Greece was struck with consternation
Hellespont as the news reached the various cities of the vast forces which were
. Hison the march to subdue them. The army proceeded from Sardis, in
the spring, in two grand columns, between which was the king and

review ofguards and select troops—all native Persians, ten thousand foot and
his army.ten thousand horse. From Sardis the hosts of Xerxes proceeded to
Abydos, through Ilium, where his two bridges across the
Hellespont awaited him. From a marble throne the proud and
vainglorious monarch saw his vast army defile over the bridges, perfumed
with frankincense and strewed with myrtle boughs. One bridge was devoted
to the troops, the other to the beasts and baggage. The first to cross were the
ten thousand household troops, called Immortals, wearing garlands on their
heads; then followed Xerxes himself in his gilded chariot, and then the rest
of the army. It occupied seven days for the vast hosts to cross the bridge.
Xerxes then directed his march to Doriscus, in Thrace, near the mouth of
the Hebrus, where he joined his fleet. There he [pg 218] took a general
review, and never, probably, was so great an army marshaled before or
since, and composed of so many various nations. There were assembled
nations from the Indus, from the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, the Levant, the
Ægean and the Euxine—Egyptian, Ethiopian, and Lybian. Forty-six nations
were represented—all that were tributary to Persia. From the estimates
made by Herodotus, there were one million seven hundred thousand foot,
eighty thousand horse, besides a large number of chariots. With the men
who manned the fleet and those he pressed into his service on the march,
the aggregate of his forces was two million six hundred and forty thousand.
Scarcely an inferior number attended the soldiers as slaves, sutlers, and
other persons, swelling the amount of the males to five million two hundred
and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty—the whole available
force of the Eastern world—Asia against Europe: as in mediæval times it
was Europe against Asia. It is, however, impossible for us to believe in so
large a force, since it could not have been supplied with provisions. But
with every deduction, it was still the largest army the world ever saw.

After the grand enumeration of forces, Xerxes passed in his chariot
to survey separately each body of contingents, to which he put
The questions. He then embarked in a gilded galley, and sailed past the
magnitude prows of the twelve hundred ships moored four hundred feet from
of histhe shore. That such a vast force could be resisted was not even
forces. supposed to be conceivable by the blinded monarch. But
Demaratus, the exiled king of Sparta, told him he would be resisted
unto death, a statement which was received with derision.

After the review, the grand army pursued its course westward in
three divisions and roads along Thrace, levying enormous
Progress contributions on all the Grecian towns, which submitted as the
of thePersian monarch marched along, for how could they resist? The
Persians. mere provisioning this great host for a single day impoverished the
country. [pg 219] But there was no help, for to mortal eyes the
success of Xerxes was certain. At Acanthus, Xerxes separated from
his fleet, which was directed to sail round Mount Athos, while he pursued
his march through Pæonia and Crestonia, and rejoin him at Therma, on the
Thermaic Gulf, in Macedonia, within sight of Mount Olympus.

Meanwhile, the Athenians, fully alive to their danger, strained
every nerve to make preparations to resist the enemy; fortunately,
Preparatio there was in the treasury a large sum derived from the Lamian
ns of themines, and this they applied, on the urgent representations of
Athenians. Themistocles, to building ships and refitting their navy. A
Sparta Panhellenic congress, under the presidency of Athens and Sparta,
commands assembled at the Isthmus of Corinth.—the first great league since
the landthe Trojan war. The representatives of the various States buried
forces andtheir dissensions, the most prominent of which were between
Athens theAthens and Ægina. In reconciling these feuds, Themistocles took a
naval. pre-eminent part. Indeed, there was need, for the political existence
of Hellas was threatened, and despair was seen in most every city.
Even the Delphic oracle gave out replies discouraging and terrible;
intimating, however, that the safety of Athens lay in the wooden wall,
which, with extraordinary tact, was interpreted by Themistocles to mean
that the true defense lay in the navy. Salamis was the place designated by
the oracle for the retreat, which was now imperative, and thither the
Athenians fled, with their wives and children, guarded by their fleet. It was
decided by the congress that Sparta should command the land forces, and
Athens the united navy of the Greeks; but many States, in deadly fear of the
Persians, persisted in neutrality, among which were Argos, Cretes, Corcyra.
The chief glory of the defense lay with Sparta and Athens. The united army
was sent into Thessaly to defend the defile of Tempe, but discovering that
they were unable to do this, since another pass over Mount Olympus was
open in the summer, they retreated to the isthmus of Corinth, and left all
Greece north of [pg 220] Mount Citheron and the Megarid territory without

defense. Had the Greeks been able to maintain the passes of Olympus and
Ossa, all the northern States would probably have joined in the
confederation against Persia; but, as they were left defenseless, we can not
wonder that they submitted, including even the Achæans, Borotians, and
Dorians.

The Pass of Thermopylæ was now fixed upon as the most
convenient place of resistance, next to the vale of Tempe. Here the
The passmain land was separated from the island of Eubœa by a narrow
of strait two miles wide. On the northern part of the island, near the
Thermopyl town of Histiæa, the coast was called Artemisium, and here the
æ. fleet was mustered, to co-operate with the land forces, and oppose,
in a narrow strait, the progress of the Persian fleet. The defile of
Thermopylæ itself, at the south of Thessaly, was between Mount
Œta and an impassable morass on the Maliac Gulf. Nature had thus
provided a double position of defense—a narrow defile on the land, and a
narrow strait on the water, through which the army and the fleet must need
pass if they would co-operate.

While the congress resolved to avail themselves of the double
position, by sea and land, the Olympic games, and the great Dorian,
Interruptio of the Carneia, were at hand. These could not be dispensed with,
n ofeven in the most extraordinary crisis to which the nation could be
military exposed. While, therefore, the Greeks assembled to keep the
preparatio national festivals, probably from religious and superstitious
ns by themotives, auguring no good if they were disregarded, Leonidas, king
Olympic of Sparta, with three hundred Spartans, two thousand one hundred
games. and twenty Arcadians, four hundred Corinthians, two hundred men
from Philius, and eighty from Mycenæ—in all three thousand one
hundred hoplites, besides Helots and light troops, was sent to
defend the pass against the Persian hosts. On the march through Bœotia one
thousand men from Thebes and Thespiæ joined them, though on the point
of submission to Xerxes. The Athenians sent their whole force on board
their ships, joined by the Platæans.

[pg 221]

It was in the summer of 480 B.C. when Xerxes reached Therma,
about which time the Greeks arrived at their allotted posts.
Leonidas Leonidas took his position in the middle of the Pass—a mile in
defends length, with two narrow openings. He then repaired the old wall
the pass ofbuilt across the Pass by the Phocians, and awaited the coming of
Thermopyl the enemy, for it was supposed his force was sufficient to hold it till
æ. the games were over. It was also thought that this narrow pass was
the only means of access possible to the invading army; but it was
soon discovered that there was also a narrow mountain path from
the Phocian territory to Thermopylæ. The Phocians agreed to guard this
path, and leave the defense of the main pass to the Peloponnesian troops.
But Leonidas painfully felt that his men were insufficient in number, and
found it necessary to send envoys to the different States for immediate re-
enforcements.

The Greek fleet, assembled at Artemisium, was composed of two
hundred and seventy-one triremes and nine penteconters,
The Greekcommanded by Themistocles, but furnished by the different States.
fleet. A disaster happened to the Greeks very early; three triremes were
Disaster tocaptured by the Persians, which caused great discouragement, and
the Persianin a panic the Greeks abandoned their strong naval position, and
fleet. sailed up the Eubœan Strait to Chalcis. This was a great misfortune,
since the rear of the army of Leonidas was no longer protected by
the fleet. But a destructive storm dispersed the fleet of the Persians
at this imminent crisis, so that it was impossible to lend aid to their army
now arrived at Thermopylæ. Four hundred ships of war, together with a vast
number of transports, were thus destroyed. The storm lasted three days.
After this disaster to the Persians, the Greek fleet returned to Artemisium.
Xerxes encamped within sight of Thermopylæ four days, without making
an attack, on account of the dangers to which his fleet were exposed. On the
fifth day he became wroth at the impudence and boldness of the petty force
which quietly remained to dispute his passage, for the Spartans [pg 222]
amused themselves with athletic sports and combing their hair. Nor was it
altogether presumption on the part of the Greeks, for there were four or five
thousand heavily-armed men, the bravest in the land, to defend a passage
scarcely wider than a carriage-road—with a wall and other defenses in
front.

The first attack on the Greeks was made by the Medea—the bravest
of the Persian army, but their arrows and short spears were of little
Attack onavail against the phalanx which opposed, armed with long spears,
the Greeksand protected by shields. For two days the attack continued, and
by thewas constantly repulsed, for only a small detachment of Greeks
Persians. fought at a time. Even the “Immortals”—the chosen band of
Xerxes—were repulsed with a great loss, to the agony and shame
of Xerxes.

On the third day, a Malian revealed to the Persian king the fact that
a narrow path, leading over the mountains, was defended only by
Leonidas Phocians, and that this path led to the rear of the Spartans. A strong
defends detachment of Persians was sent in the night to secure this path,
the pass,and the Phocian guardians fled. The Persians descended the path,
but isand attacked the Greeks in their rear. Leonidas soon became
slain. apprised of his danger, but in time to send away his army. It was
Heroic now clear that Thermopylæ could no longer be defended, but the
death ofheroic and self-sacrificing general resolved to remain, and sell his
the threelife as dearly as possible, and retard, if he could not resist, the
hundred march of the enemy. Three hundred Spartans, with seven hundred
Spartans. Thespians and four hundred Thebans joined him, while the rest
retired to fight another day. It required all the efforts of the Persian
generals, assisted by the whip, to force the men to attack this
devoted band. The Greeks fought with the most desperate bravery, till their
spears were broken, and no weapons remained but their swords and
daggers. At last, exhausted, they died, surrounded by vast forces, after
having made the most heroic defence in the history of the war. Only one
man, Aristodemus, [pg 223] returned to his home of all the three hundred
Spartans, but only to receive scorn and infamy. The Theban band alone
yielded to the Persians, but only at the last hour.

Nothing could exceed the blended anger and admiration of Xerxes
as he beheld this memorable resistance. He now saw, for the first
The time, the difficulty of subduing such a people as the Greeks,
dismay resolved to resist unto death. His mind was perplexed, and he did
and not know what course to adopt. Had he accepted the advice of
indignatio Demaratus, to make war on the southern coast of Laconia, and thus

n ofdistract the Spartans and prevent their co-operation with Athens, he
Xerxes. would have probably succeeded.

But he followed other councils. Meanwhile, the Persian
fleet rallied after the storm, and was still formidable, in
Naval spite of losses. The Greeks were disposed to retire and
battle ofleave the strait open to the enemy. The Eubœans, seeing
Artemisiu the evil which would happen to them if their island was
m. unprotected, sent to Themistocles a present of thirty
talents, if he would keep his position. This money he spent
in bribing the different commanders who wished to retire,
and it was resolved to remain. The Persians, confident of an easy victory,
sent round the island of Eubœa a detachment of two hundred ships, to cut
off all hopes of escape to the ships which they expected to capture. A
deserter revealed the intelligence to Themistocles, and it was resolved to
fight the Persians, thus weakened, at once, but at the close of the day, so
that the battle would not be decisive. The battle of Artemisium was a sort of
skirmish, to accustom the Greeks to the Phœnician mode of fighting. It was,
however, successful, and thirty ships of the Persians were taken or disabled.

But the Greeks derived a greater succor than ships and men.
Another storm overtook the Persians, damaged their fleet, and
Themistoc destroyed the squadron sent round the island of Eubœa. Another
les sailssea-fight was the result, since the Greeks were not only aided by
for the storm, but new re-enforcements; but this second fight was
Salamis. indecisive. [pg 224] Themistocles now felt he could not hold the
strait against superior numbers, and the disaster of Thermopylæ
being also now known, he resolved to retreat farther into Greece,
and sailed for Salamis.

At this period the Greeks generally were filled with consternation
and disappointment. Neither the Pass of Thermopylæ, nor the strait
Despair ofwhich connected the Malicas Gulf with the Ægean, had been
the successfully defended. The army of Xerxes was advancing through
Greeks. Phocis and Bœotia to the Isthmus of Corinth, while the navy sailed
Themistoc unobstructed through the Eubœan Sea. On the part of the Greeks
les revivesthere had been no preparations commensurate with the greatness of
courage by

his the crisis, while, had they rallied to Thermopylæ, instead of wasting
“wooden time at the festivals, they would have saved the pass, and the army
wall.” of Xerxes, strained for provisions, would have been compelled to
retreat. The, Lacedæmonians, aroused by the death of their king, at
last made vigorous efforts to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth, too
late, however, to defend Bœotia and Attica. The situation of Athens was
now hopeless, and it was seen what a fatal mistake had been made not to
defend, with the whole force of Greece, the Pass of Thermopylæ. There was
no help from the Spartans, for they had all flocked to the Isthmus of
Corinth, as the last chance of protecting the Peloponnesus. In despair, the
Athenians resolved to abandon Athens, with their families, and take shelter
at Salamis. Themistocles alone was undismayed, and sought to encourage
his countrymen that the “wooden wall” would still be their salvation. The
Athenians, if dismayed, did not lose their energies. The recall of the exiles
was decreed by Themistocles' suggestion. With incredible efforts the whole
population of Attica was removed to Salamis, and the hopes of all were
centered in the ships. Xerxes took possession of the deserted city, but found
but five hundred captives. He ravaged the country, and a detachment of
Persians even penetrated to Delphi, to rob the shrine, but were defeated.
Athens was, however, sacked.

[pg 225]

The combined fleet of the Greeks now numbered three hundred and
sixty-six ships, more than half of which were Athenian. Many
The hostilewished to retreat to the Isthmus of Corinth, and co-operate with the
fleets atSpartans. Dissensions came near wrecking the last hopes of Greece,
Salamis. and Themistocles only prevailed by threatening to withdraw the
Athenian ships unless a battle were at once fought. He resorted to
stratagem to compel the fleet to remain together, with no outlet of
escape if conquered. Aristides came in the night from Ægina, and informed
the Greeks that their whole fleet was surrounded by the Persians—just what
Themistocles desired. There was nothing then left but to fight with
desperation, for on the issue of the battle depended the fortunes of Greece.
Both fleets were stationed in the strait between the bay of Eleusis and the
Saronic Gulf, on the west of the island of Salamis.

Xerxes, seated upon a throne upon one of the declivities of Mount
Ægaleos, surveyed the armaments and the coming battle. Both
Self- parties fought with bravery; but the space was too narrow for the
confidence Persians to engage their whole fleet, and they had not the discipline
of Xerxes.of the Greeks, schooled by severe experience. The Persian fleet
Battle ofbecame unmanageable, and the victory was gained by the Greeks.
Salamis Two hundred ships fell into the hands of the victors. But a
and retreatsufficient number remained to the Persians to renew the battle with
of Xerxes. better hopes. Xerxes, however, was intimidated, and in a transport
of rage, disappointment, and fear, gave the order to retreat. He
distrusted the fidelity of the allies, and feared for his own personal
safety; he feared that the victors would sail to the Hellespont, and destroy
the bridges. Themistocles, on the retreat of the Persians, employed his fleet
in levying fines and contributions upon the islands which had supported the
Persians, while Xerxes made his way back to the Hellespont, and crossed to
Asia, leaving Mardonius in Thessaly, with a large army, to pursue the
conquest on land.

Thus Greece was saved by the battle of Salamis, and the [pg 226]
distinguished services of Themistocles, which can not be too highly
The estimated. The terrific cloud was dispersed, the Greeks abandoned
important themselves to joy. Unparalleled honors were bestowed upon the
results. victor, especially in Sparta, and his influence, like that of
Alcibiades, after the battle of Marathon, was unbounded. No man
ever merited greater reward.

Though the Persians now abandoned all hopes of any farther
maritime attack, yet still great success was anticipated from the
Mardonius immense army which Mardonius commanded. The Greeks in the
left innorthern parts still adhered to him, and Thessaly was prostrate at
command his feet. He sent Alexander, of Macedon, to Athens to offer
of thehonorable terms of peace, which were nobly rejected, and he was
Persians. sent back with this message: “Tell Mardonius that as long as the
He sun shall continue in his present path we will never contract
ravishes alliance with a foe who has shown no reverence to our gods and
Attica andheroes, and who has burned their statues and houses.” The league
Bœotia. was renewed with Sparta for mutual defense and offense, in spite of

seductive offers from Mardonius; but the Spartans displayed both
indifference and selfishness to any interests outside the Peloponnesus. They
fortified the Isthmus of Corinth, but left Attica undefended. Mardonius
accordingly marched to Athens, and again the city was the spoil of the
Persians. The Athenians again retreated to Salamis, with bitter feelings
against Sparta for her selfishness and ingratitude. Again Mardonius sought
to conciliate the Athenians, and again his overtures were rejected with
wrath and defiance. The Athenians, distressed, sent envoys to Sparta to
remonstrate against her slackness and selfishness, not without effect, for, at
last, a large Spartan force was collected under Pausanias. Meanwhile
Mardonius ravaged Attica and Bœotia, and then fortified his camp near
Platæa, ten furlongs square. Platæa was a plain favorable to the action of the
cavalry, not far from Thebes; but his army was discouraged after so many
disasters—in modern military language, demoralized—while Artabazus,
[pg 227] the second in command, was filled with jealousy. Nor could much
be hoped from the Grecian allies, who secretly were hostile to the invaders.
The Thebans and Bœotians appeared to be zealous, but were governed by
fear merely of a superior power, and hence were unreliable. It can not be
supposed that the Thebans, who sided with the Persians, by compulsion,
preferred their cause to that of their countrymen, great as may have been
national jealousy and rivalries.

The total number of Lacedæmonians, Corinthians, Athenians, and
other Greeks, assembled to meet the Persian army, B.C. 479, was
The thirty-eight thousand seven hundred men, heavily armed, and
Greeks seventy-one thousand three hundred light armed, without defensive
assemble armor; but most of these were simply in attendance on the hoplites.
against theThe Persians, about three hundred thousand in number, occupied
Persians atthe line of the river Asopus, on a plain; the Greeks stationed
Platæa. themselves on the mountain declivity near Erythæ. The Persian
Preparatio cavalry charged, to dislodge the Greeks, unwilling to contend on
ns forthe plain; but the ground was unfavorable for cavalry operations,
battle. and after a brief success, was driven back, while the general,
Masistias, who commanded it, was slain. His death, and the repulse
of the cavalry, so much encouraged Pausanias, the Spartan general,
that he quitted his ground on the mountain declivity, and took position on
the plain beneath. The Lacedæmonians composed the right wing; the

Athenians, the left; and various other allies, the centre. Mardonius then
slightly changed his position, crossing the Asopus, nearer his own camp,
and took post on the left wing, opposite the right wing of the Greeks,
commanded by Pausanias. Both armies then offered sacrifices to the gods,
but Mardonius was able to give constant annoyance to the Greeks by his
cavalry, and the Thebans gave great assistance. Ten days were thus spent by
the two armies, without coming into general action, until Mardonius, on
becoming impatient, against the advice of Artabazus, second in command,
resolved to commence the attack. The Greeks were forewarned of his
intention, [pg 228] by Alexander of Macedon, who came secretly to the
Greek camp at night—a proof that he, as well as others, were impatient of
the Persian yoke. The Lacedæmonians, posted in the right wing, against the
Persians, changed places with the Athenians, who were more accustomed to
Persian warfare; but this manœuvre being detected, Mardonius made a
corresponding change in his own army—upon which Pausanias led back
again his troops to the right wing, and a second movement of Mardonius
placed the armies in the original position.

A vigorous attack of the Persian cavalry now followed, which so
annoyed the Greeks, that Pausanias in the night resolved to change
Battle ofonce again his position, and retreated to the hilly ground, north of
Platæa. Platæa, about twenty furlongs distant, not without confusion and
mistrust on the part of the Athenians. Mardonias, astonished at this
movement, pursued, and a general engagement followed. Both
armies fought with desperate courage, but discipline was on the side of the
Greeks, and Mardonius was slain, fighting gallantly with his guard.
Artabazus, with the forty thousand Persians under his immediate command,
had not taken part, and now gave orders to retreat, and retired from Greece.
The main body, however, of the defeated Persians retired to their fortified
camp. This was attacked by the Lacedæmonians, and carried with immense
slaughter, so that only three thousand men survived out of the army of
Mardonius, save the forty thousand which Artabazus—a more able captain
—had led away. The defeat of the Persians was complete, and the spoils
which fell to the victors was immense—gold and silver, arms, carpets,
clothing, horses, camels, and even the rich tent of Xerxes himself, left with
Mardonius. The booty was distributed among the different contingents of
the army. The real victors were the Lacedæmonians, Athenians, and

Tegeans; the Corinthians did not reach the field till the battle was ended,
and thus missed their share of the spoil.

There was one ally of the Persians which Pausanias resolved to
punish—the city of Thebes when a merited chastisement [pg 229]
Chastisem was inflicted, and the customary solemnities were observed, and
ent ofhonors decreed for the greatest and most decisive victory which the
Thebes. Greeks had ever gained. A confederacy was held at Platæa, in
which a permanent league was made between the leading Grecian
States, not to separate until the common foe was driven back to
Asia.

While these great events were transpiring in Bœotia, the fleet of the
Greeks, after the battle of Salamis, undertook to rescue Samos from
Battle ofthe Persians, and secure the independence of the Ionian cities in
Mycale. Asia. The Persian fleet, now disheartened, abandoned Samos and
retired to Mycale, in Ionia. The Greek fleet followed, but the
Persians abandoned or dismissed their fleet, and joined their forces
with those of Tigranes, who, with an army of sixty thousand men, guarded
Ionia. The Greeks disembarked, and prepared to attack the enemy just as the
news reached them of the battle of Platæa. This attack was successful,
partly in consequence of the revolt of the Ionians in the Persian camp,
although the Persians fought with great bravery. The battle of Mycale was
as complete as that of Platæa and Marathon, and the remnants of the Persian
army retired to Sardis. The Ionian cities were thus, for the time, delivered of
the Persians, as well as Greece itself chiefly by means of the Athenians and
Corinthians. The Spartans, with inconceivable narrowness, were reluctant to
receive the continental Ionians as allies, and proposed to transport them
across the Ægean into Western Greece, which proposal was most honorably
rejected by the Athenians. In every thing, except the defense of Greece
Proper, and especially the Peloponnesus, the Spartans showed themselves
inferior to the Athenians in magnanimity and enlarged views. After the
capture of Sestos, B.C. 478, which relieved the Thracian Chersonese from
the Persians, the fleet of Athens returned home. The capture of this city
concludes the narration of Herodotus, which ended virtually the Persian
war, although hostilities were continued in Asia. The battle [pg 230] of
Marathon had given the first effective resistance to Persian conquests, and

created confidence among the Greeks. The battle of Salamis had destroyed
the power of Persia on the sea, and prevented any co-operation of land and
naval forces. The battle of Platæa freed Greece altogether of the invaders.
The battle of Mycale rescued the Ionian cities.

Athens had, on the whole, most distinguished herself in this great
and glorious contest, and now stood forth as the guardian of
Rivalry Hellenic interests on the sea and the leader of the Ionian race.
between Sparta continued to take the lead of the military States, to which
Athens Athens had generously submitted. But a serious rivalry now was
and seen between these leading States, chiefly through the jealousy of
Sparta. Sparta, which ultimately proved fatal to that supremacy which the
Greeks might have maintained overall the powers of the world.
Sparta wished that Athens might remain unfortified, in common
with all the cities of Northern Greece, while the isthmus should be the
centre of all the works of defense. But Athens, under the sagacious and
crafty management of Themistocles, amused the Spartans by delays, while
the whole population were employed upon restoring its fortifications.

Although the war against the Persians was virtually concluded by
the capture of Sestos, an expedition was fitted out by Sparta, under
Disgrace Pausanias, the hero of Platæa, to prosecute hostilities on the shores
and deathof Asia. After liberating most of the cities of Cyprus, and wresting
of Byzantium from the Persians, which thus left the Euxine free to
Pausanias. Athenian ships, from which the Greeks derived their chief supplies
of foreign corn, Pausanias, giddy with his victories, unaccountably
began a treasonably correspondence with Xerxes, whose daughter
he wished to marry, promising to bring all Greece again under his sway. He
was recalled to Sparta, before this correspondence was known, having
given offense by adopting the Persian dress, and surrounding himself with
Persian and Median guards. When his treason was at last detected, he
attempted to raise a rebellion [pg 231] among the Helots, but failed, and
died miserably by hunger in the temple in which he had taken sanctuary.

A fall scarcely less melancholy came to the illustrious
Themistocles. In spite of his great services, his popularity began to
Fall ofdecline. He was hated by the Spartans for the part he took in the
Themistoc

les. Cimonfortification of the city, who brought all their influence against him.
Death ofHe gave umbrage to the citizens by his personal vanity, continually
Themistoc boasting of his services. He erected a private chapel in honor of
les.. Artemis. He prostituted his great influence for arbitrary and corrupt
purposes. He accepted bribes without scruple, to the detriment of
the State, and in violation of justice and right. And as the Persians
could offer the highest bribes, he was suspected of secretly favoring their
interests. The old rivalries between him and Aristides were renewed; and as
Aristides was no longer opposed to the policy which Athens adopted, of
giving its supreme attention to naval defenses, and, moreover, constantly
had gained the respect of the city by his integrity and patriotism, especially
by his admirable management at Delos, where he cemented the confederacy
of the maritime States, his influence was perhaps greater than that of
Themistocles, stained with the imputation of Medism. Cimon, the son of
Miltiades, also became a strong opponent. Though acquitted of accepting
bribes from Persia, Themistocles was banished by a vote of ostracism, as
Aristides had been before—a kind of exile which was not dishonorable, but
resorted to from regard to public interests, and to which men who became
unpopular were often subjected, whatever may have been their services or
merits. He retired to Argos, and while there the treason of Pausanias was
discovered. Themistocles was involved in it, since the designs of Pausanias
were known by him. Joint envoys from Sparta and Athens were sent to
arrest him, which, when known, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Admetus,
king of the Molossians. The Epirotic prince shielded him in spite of his
former hostility, and furnished him with guides to Pydna, across the
mountains, from [pg 232] which he succeeded in reaching Ephesus, and
then repaired to the Persian court. At Athens he was proclaimed a traitor,
and his property, amounting to one hundred talents, accumulated by the
war, was confiscated. In Persia, he represented himself as a deserter, and
subsequently acquired influence with Artaxerxes, and devoted his talents to
laying out schemes for the subjugation of Greece. He received the large
sum of fifty talents yearly, and died at sixty-five years of age, with a
blighted reputation, such as no previous services could redeem from
infamy.

Aristides died four years after the ostracism of Themistocles, universally
respected, and he died so poor as not to have enough for his funeral

expenses. Nor did any of his descendants ever become rich.
Death of Xerxes himself, the Ahasuerus of the Scriptures, who
Aristides. commanded the largest expedition ever recorded in human
Death ofannals, reached Sardis, eight months after he had left it,
Xerxes. disgusted with active enterprise, and buried himself amid
the intrigues of his court and seraglio, in Susa, as recorded
in the book of Esther. He was not deficient in generous
impulses, but deficient in all those qualities which make men victorious in
war. He died fifteen years after, the victim of a conspiracy, in his palace,
B.C. 465—six years after Themistocles had sought his protection.

[pg 233]

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE AGE OF PERICLES.

With the defeat of the Persian armies, Athens and Sparta became,
respectively, the leaders of two great parties in Greece. Athens
Rivalry advocated maritime interests and democratic institutions; Sparta,
between was the champion of the continental and oligarchal powers. The
the one was Ionian, and organized the league of Delos, under the
Grecian management of Aristides; the other was Dorian, and chief of the
States. Peloponnesian confederacy. The rivalries between these leading
States involved a strife between those ideas and interests of which
each was the recognized representative. Those States which
previously had been severed from each other by geographical position and
diversity of interests, now rallied under the guidance either of Athens or
Sparta. The intrigues of Themistocles and Pausanias had prevented that
Panhellenic union, so necessary for the full development of political power,
and which was for a time promoted by the Persian war. Athens, in
particular, gradually came to regard herself as a pre-eminent power, to
which the other States were to be tributary. Her empire, based on maritime
supremacy, became a tyranny to which it was hard for the old allies to
submit.

But the rivalry between Sparta and Athens was still more marked.
Sparta had thus far taken the lead among the Grecian States, and
Pre- Athens had submitted to it in the Persian invasion. But the
eminently consciousness of new powers, which naval warfare developed, the
between éclat of the battles of Marathon and Salamis, and the confederacy
Athens of Delos, changed the relative position of the two States. Moreover,
and to Athens the highest glory of resisting [pg 234] the Persians was
Sparta. due, while her patriotic and enlarged spirit favorably contrasted
with the narrow and selfish policy of Sparta.

And this policy was seen in nothing more signally than in the oppositions
he made to the new fortifications of Athens, so that Themistocles was

obliged to go to Sparta, and cover up by deceit and falsehood the
fact that the Athenians were really repairing their walls, which they
Opposition had an undoubted right to do, but which Ægina beheld with fear
by Spartaand Sparta with jealousy. And this unreasonable meanness and
to theinjustice on the part of Sparta, again reacted on the Athenians, and
fortificatio created great bitterness and acrimony.
ns of
Athens. But in spite of the opposition of Sparta, the new
fortifications arose, to which all citizens, rich and poor,
The citylent their aid, and on a scale which was not unworthy of
neverthele the grandeur of a future capital. The circuit of the walls
ss was fifty stadia or seven miles, and they were of sufficient
fortified. strength and height to protect the city against external
The enemies. And when they were completed Themistocles—a
Peireus. man of great foresight and genius, persuaded the citizens to
Increase offortify also their harbor, as a means of securing the
the navy.ascendency of the city in future maritime conflicts. He
Confedera foresaw that the political ascendency of Athens was based
cy ofon those “wooden walls” which the Delphic oracle had
Delos. declared to be her hope in the Persian invasion. The victory
at Salamis had confirmed the wisdom of the prediction,
and given to Athens an imperishable glory. Themistocles
persuaded his countrymen that the open roadstead of Phalerum was
insecure, and induced them to inclose the more spacious harbors of Peireus
and Munychia, by a wall as long as that which encircled Athens itself,—so
thick and high that all assault should be hopeless, while within its
fortifications the combined fleets of Greece could safely he anchored, and
to which the citizens of Athens could also retire in extreme danger. Peireus
accordingly was inclosed at vast expense and labor by a wall fourteen feet
in thickness, which [pg 235] served not merely for a harbor, but a dock-yard
and arsenal. Thither resorted metics or resident foreigners, and much of the
trade of Athens was in their hands, since they were less frequently
employed in foreign service. They became a thrifty population of traders
and handy craftsmen identified with the prosperity of Athens. These various
works, absorbed much of the Athenian force and capital, yet enough
remained to build annually twenty new triremes—equivalent to our modern
ships of the line. Athens now became the acknowledged head and leader of

the allied States, instead of Sparta, whose authority as a presiding State was
now openly renunciated by the Athenians. The Panhellenic union under
Sparta was now broken forever, and two rival States disputed the
supremacy,—the maritime States adhering to Athens, and the land States,
which furnished the larger part of the army at Platæa, adhering to Sparta. It
was then that the confederacy of Delos was formed, under the presidency of
Athens, which Aristides directed. His assessment was so just and equitable
that no jealousies were excited, and the four hundred and sixty talents
which were collected from the maritime States were kept at Delos for the
common benefit of the league, managed by a board of Athenian officers. It
was a common fear which led to this great contribution, for the Phœnician
fleet might at any time reappear, and, co-operating with a Persian land
force, destroy the liberties of Greece. Although Athens reaped the chief
benefit of this league, it was essentially national. It was afterward indeed
turned to aggrandize Athens, but, when it was originally made, was a means
of common defense against a power as yet unconquered though repulsed.

During all the time that the fortifications of Athens and the Peireus
were being made, Themistocles was the ruling spirit at Athens,
Confedera while Aristides commanded the fleet and organized the confederacy
cy ofof Delos. It was thus several years before he became false to his
Delos. Countrymen, and the change was only gradually wrought in his [pg
236] character, owing chiefly to his extravagant habits and the
arrogance which so often attends success.

During this period, a change was also made in the civil constitution
of Athens. All citizens were rendered admissible to office. The
Change inState became still more democratic. The archons were withdrawn
the from military duties, and confined to civil functions. The stategi or
Athenian generals gained greater power with the extending political
constitutio relations, and upon them was placed the duty of superintending
n. foreign affairs. Athens became more democratical and more
military at the same time.

From this time, 479 B.C., we date the commencement of the
Athenian empire. It gradually was cemented by circumstances
The rather than a long-sighted and calculating ambition. At the head of
political

growth ofthe confederacy of Delos, opportunities were constantly presented
Athens. of centralizing power, while its rapid increase of population and
wealth favored the schemes which political leaders advanced for its
aggrandizement. The first ten years of the Athenian hegemony or
headship were years of active warfare against the Persians. The capture of
Eion, on the Strymon, with its Persian garrison, by Cimonon, led to the
settlement of Amphipolis by the Athenians; and the fall of the cities which
the Persians had occupied in Thrace and in the various islands of the Ægean
increased the power of Athens.

The confederate States at last grew weary of personal military
service, and prevailed upon the Athenians to provide ships and men
The in their place, for which they imposed upon themselves a suitable
Confederat money-payment. They thus gradually sunk to the condition of
e States. tributary allies, unwarlike and averse to privation, while the
Athenians, stimulated by new and expanding ambition, became
more and more enterprising and powerful.

But with the growth of Athens was also the increase of jealousies.
Athens became unpopular, not only because she made the different
Unpopular maritime States her tributaries, but because she embarked in war
ity ofagainst [pg 237] them to secure a still greater aggrandizement.
Athens. Naxos revolted, but was conquered, B.C. 467. The confederate
State was stripped of its navy, and its fortifications were razed to
the ground. Next year the island of Thasos likewise seceded from
the alliance, and was subdued with difficulty, and came near involving
Athens in a war with Sparta. The Thasians invoked the aid of Sparta, which
was promised though not fulfilled, which imbittered the relations between
the two leading Grecian States.

During this period, from the formation of the league at Delos, and
the fall of Thasos, about thirteen years, Athens was occupied in
Expedition maintaining expeditions against Persia, being left free from
s againstembarrassments in Attica. The towns of Platæa and Thespiæ were
Persia. restored and repeopled under Athenian influence.

The jealousy of Sparta, in view of the growing power of Athens, at
last gave vent in giving aid to Thebes, against the old policy of the State, to

enable that city to maintain supremacy over the lesser Bœotian
towns. The Spartans even aided in enlarging her circuit and
Sparta. improving her fortifications, which aid made Thebes a vehement
Rebellion partisan of Sparta. Soon after, a terrible earthquake happened in
of theSparta, 464 B.C., which calamity was seized upon by the Helots as
Helots. a fitting occasion for revolt. Defeated, but not subdued, the
Cimon insurgents retreated to Ithome, the ancient citadel of their
opposed toMessenian ancestors, and there intrenched themselves. The
Pericles. Spartans spent two years in an unsuccessful siege, and were forced
Alliance ofto appeal to their allies for assistance. But even the increased force
different made no impression on the fortified hill, so ignorant were the
states withGreeks, at this period, of the art of attacking walls. And when the
Athens. Athenians, under Cimon, still numbered among the allies of Sparta,
were not more successful, their impatience degenerated to mistrust
and suspicion, and summarily dismissed the Athenian contingent.
This ungracious and jealous treatment exasperated the Athenians, whose
feelings were worked upon by Pericles who had opposed the policy of [pg
238] sending troops at all to Laconia. Cimon here was antagonistic to
Pericles, and wished to cement the more complete union of Greece against
Persia, and maintain the union with Sparta. Cimon, moreover, disliked the
democratic policy of Pericles. But the Athenians rallied under Pericles, and
Cimon lost his influence, which had been paramount since the disgrace of
Themistocles. A formal resolution was passed at Athens to renounce the
alliance with Sparta against the Persians, and to seek alliance with Argos,
which had been neutral during the Persian invasion, but which had regained
something of its ancient prestige and power by the conquest of Mycenæ and
other small towns. The Thessalians became members of this new alliance
which was intended to be antagonistic to Sparta. Megara, shortly after,
renounced the protection of the Peloponnesian capital, and was enrolled
among the allies of Athens,—a great acquisition to Athenian power, since
this city secured the passes of Mount Gerania, so that Attica was protected
from invasion by the Isthmus of Corinth. But the alliance of Megara and
Athens gave deep umbrage to Corinth as well as Sparta, and a war with
Corinth was the result, in which Ægina was involved as the ally of Sparta
and Corinth.

The Athenians were at first defeated on the land; but this defeat was
more than overbalanced by a naval victory over the Dorian seamen,
Defeat ofoff the island of Ægina, by which the naval force of Ægina hitherto
Athens ongreat, was forever prostrated. The Athenians captured seventy ships
the landand commenced the siege of the city itself. Sparta would have
and come to the rescue, but was preoccupied in suppressing the
victory oninsurrection of the Helots. Corinth sent three hundred hoplites to
the sea. Ægina and attacked Megara. But the Athenians prevailed both at
Ægina and Megara, which was a great blow to Corinth.

Fearing, however, a renewed attack from Corinth and the
Peloponnesian States, now full of rivalry and enmity, the
Pericles Athenians, under the leadership of [pg 239] Pericles, resolved to
begins hisconnect their city with the harbor of Peireus by a long wall—a
career. stupendous undertaking at that time. It excited the greatest alarm
Cimon among the enemies of Athens, and was a subject of contention
banished. among different parties in the city. The party which Cimon, now
ostracised, had headed, wished to cement the various Grecian
States in a grand alliance against the Persians, and dreaded to see
this long wall arise as a standing menace against the united power of the
Peloponnesus. Moreover, the aristocrats of Athens disliked a closer
amalgamation with the maritime people of the Peireus, as well as the
burdens and taxes which this undertaking involved. These fortifications
doubtless increased the power of Athens, but weakened the unity of
Hellenic patriotism; and increased those jealousies which ultimately proved
the political ruin of Greece.

Under the influence of these rivalries and jealousies the
Lacedæmonians, although the Helots wore not subdued, undertook
Hostilities a hostile expedition out of the Peloponnesus, with eleven thousand
between five hundred men, ostensibly to protect Doris against the Phœcians,
Sparta andbut really to prevent the further aggrandizement of Athens, and this
Athens. was supposed to be most easily effected by strengthening Thebes
and securing the obedience of the Bœotian cities. But there was yet
another design, to prevent the building of the long walls, to which
the aristocratical party of Athens was opposed, but which Pericles, with
long-sighted views, defended.

This extraordinary man, with whom the glory and greatness of
Athens are so intimately associated, now had the ascendency over
Ascendenc all his rivals. He is considered the ablest of all the statesmen which
y ofGreece produced. He was of illustrious descent, and spent the early
Pericles. part of his life in retirement and study, and when he emerged from
His obscurity his rise was rapid, until he gained the control of his
character countrymen, which he retained until his death. He took the side of
and the democracy, and, in one sense, was a demagogue, as well as a
accomplis statesman, since he appealed to [pg 240] popular passions and
hments. interests. He was very eloquent, and was the idol of the party which
was dominant in the State. His rank and fortune enabled him to
avail himself of every mode of culture and self-improvement
known in his day. He loved music, philosophy, poetry, and art. The great
Anaxagoras gave a noble direction to his studies, so that he became imbued
with the sublimest ideas of Grecian wisdom. And his eloquence is said to
have been of the most lofty kind. His manners partook of the same exalted
and dignified bearing as his philosophy. He never lost his temper, and
maintained the severest self-control. His voice was sweet, and his figure
was graceful and commanding. He early distinguished himself as a soldier,
and so gained upon his countrymen that, when Themistocles and Aristides
were dead, and Cimon engaged in military expeditions, he supplanted all
who had gone before him in popular favor. All his sympathies were with the
democratic party, while his manners and habits and tastes and associations
were those of the aristocracy. His political career lasted forty years from the
year 469 B.C. He was unremitting in his public duties, and was never seen
in the streets unless on his way to the assembly or senate. He was not fond
of convivial pleasures, and was, though affable, reserved and dignified. He
won the favor of the people by a series of measures which provided the
poor with amusement and means of subsistence. He caused those who
served in the courts to be paid for their attendance and services. He
weakened the power of the court of the Areopagus, which was opposed to
popular measures. Assured of his own popularity, he even contrived to
secure the pardon of Cimon, his great rival, when publicly impeached.

Pericles was thus the leading citizen of his country, when he advocated the
junction of the Peireus with Athens by the long walls which have been
alluded to, and when the Spartan army in Bœotia threatened to sustain the

oligarchal party in the city. The Athenians, in view of this danger,
took decisive measures. They took [pg 241] the field at once
The unionagainst their old allies, the Lacedæmonians. The unfortunate battle
of theof Tanagra was decided in favor of the Spartans, chiefly through
Peireus the desertion of the Thessalian horse.
with
Athens. Cimon, though ostracised, appeared in the field of battle,
and requested permission to fight in the ranks. Though the
Magnanim request was refused, he used all his influence with his
ity offriends to fight with bravery and fidelity to his country's
Cimon. cause, which noble conduct allayed the existing jealousies,
and through the influence of Pericles, his banishment of
ten years was revoked. He returned to Athens, reconciled
with the party which had defeated him, and so great was the admiration of
his magnanimity that all parties generously united in the common cause.
Another battle with the enemy was fought in Bœotia, this time attended
with success, the result of which was the complete ascendency of the
Athenians over all Bœotia. They became masters of Thebes and all the
neighboring towns, and reversed all the acts of the Spartans, and established
democratic governments, and forced the aristocratical leaders into exile.
Phocis and Locris were added to the list of dependent allies, and the victory
cemented their power from the Corinthian Gulf to the strait of Thermopylæ.

Then followed the completion of the long walls, B.C. 455, and the
conquest of Ægina. Athens was now mistress of the sea, and her
Completio admiral displayed his strength by sailing round the Peloponnesus,
n of theand taking possession of many cities in the Gulf of Corinth. But the
long walls. Athenians were unsuccessful in an expedition into Thessaly, and
sustained many losses in Egypt in the great warfare with Persia.

After the success of the Lacedæmonians at Tanagra they made no
expeditions out of the Peloponnesus for several years, and allowed
Death ofBœotia and Phocis to be absorbed in the Athenian empire. They
Cimon. even extended the truce with Athens for five years longer, and this
was promoted by Cimon, who wished to resume offensive
operations against [pg 242] the Persians. Cimon was allowed to
equip a fleet of two hundred triremes and set sail to Cyprus, where he died.

The expedition failed under his successor, and this closed all further
aggressive war with the Persians.

The death of Cimon, whose interest it was to fight the Persians, and
thus by the spoils and honors of war keep up his influence at home,
Pericles left Pericles without rivals, and with opportunities to develop his
without policy of internal improvements, and the development of national
rivals. resources, to enable Athens to maintain her ascendency over the
States of Greece. So he gladly concluded peace with the Persians,
by the terms of which they were excluded from the coasts of Asia
Minor and the islands of the Ægean; while Athens stipulated to make no
further aggression on Cyprus, Phœnicia, Cilicia, and Egypt.

Athens, at peace with all her enemies, with a large empire of
tributary allies, a great fleet, and large accumulations of treasure,
Aggrandiz sought now to make herself supreme in Greece. The fund of the
ement ofconfederacy of Delos was transferred to the Acropolis. New allies
Athens. sought her alliance. It is said the tributary cities amounted to one
thousand. She was not only mistress of the sea, but she was the
equal of Sparta on the land. Beside this political power, a vast
treasure was accumulated in the Acropolis. Such rapid aggrandizement was
bitterly felt by Corinth, Sicyon, and Sparta, and the feeling of enmity
expanded until it exploded in the Peloponnesian war.

It was while Athena was at this height of power and renown that
further changes were made in the constitution by Pericles. Great
Change inauthority was still in the hands of the court of the Areopagus, which
the was composed exclusively of ex-archons, sitting for life, and hence
constitutio of very aristocratic sentiments. It was indeed a judicial body, but its
n byfunctions were mixed; it decided all disputes, inquired into crimes,
Pericles. and inflicted punishments. And it was enabled to enforce its own
Increase ofmandates, which were without appeal, and led to great injustice and
democratic oppression. [pg 243] The magistrates, serving without pay, were
power. generally wealthy, and though their offices were eligible to all the
The citizens, still, practically, only the rich became magistrates, as is the
dikasts. case with the British House of Commons. Hence, magistrates
Ascendenc possessing large powers, and the senate sitting for life, all
y of the