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Title: Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome

Author: E. M. Berens

Release date: August 23, 2007 [eBook #22381]
Most recently updated: November 5, 2012

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS AND
LEGENDS OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME ***

A HAND-BOOK OF MYTHOLOGY.

THE

Myths and Legends
OF

ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.
BY

E. M. BERENS.
ILLUSTRATED FROM ANTIQUE SCULPTURES.

NEW YORK:

Maynard, Merrill, & Co.,
43, 45 and 47 East Tenth Street.

PREFACE.

The want of an interesting work on Greek and Roman mythology, suitable
for the requirements of both boys and girls, has long been recognized by the
principals of our advanced schools. The study of the classics themselves,
even where the attainments of the pupil have rendered this feasible, has not
been found altogether successful in giving to the student a clear and
succinct idea of the religious beliefs of the ancients, and it has been
suggested that a work which would so deal with the subject as to render it at
once interesting and instructive would be hailed as a valuable introduction
to the study of classic authors, and would be found to assist materially the
labours of both master and pupil.
In endeavouring to supply this want I have sought to place before the reader
a lifelike picture of the deities of classical times as they were conceived and
worshipped by the ancients themselves, and thereby to awaken in the minds
of young students a desire to become more intimately acquainted with the
noble productions of classical antiquity.
It has been my aim to render the Legends, which form the second portion of
the work, a picture, as it were, of old Greek life; its customs, its
superstitions, and its princely hospitalities, for which reason they are given
at somewhat greater length than is usual in works of the kind.
In a chapter devoted to the purpose some interesting particulars have been
collected respecting the public worship of the ancient Greeks and Romans
(more especially of the former), to which is subjoined an account of their
principal festivals.

I may add that no pains have been spared in order that, without passing over
details the omission of which would have marred the completeness of the
work, not a single passage should be found which could possibly offend the
most scrupulous delicacy; and also that I have purposely treated the subject
with that reverence which I consider due to every religious system, however
erroneous.
It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the importance of the study of
Mythology: our poems, our novels, and even our daily journals teem with
classical allusions; nor can a visit to our art galleries and museums be fully
enjoyed without something more than a mere superficial knowledge of a
subject which has in all ages inspired painters, sculptors, and poets. It
therefore only remains for me to express a hope that my little work may
prove useful, not only to teachers and scholars, but also to a large class of
general readers, who, in whiling away a leisure hour, may derive some
pleasure and profit from its perusal.
E. M. BERENS.

CONTENTS.

PART I.—MYTHS.
Introduction, 7

FIRST DYNASTY.
Origin of the World—
Uranus and Gæa (Cœlus and Terra), 11

SECOND DYNASTY.
Cronus (Saturn), 14
Rhea (Ops), 18
Division of the World, 19
Theories as to the Origin of Man, 21

THIRD DYNASTY.
OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES—
Zeus (Jupiter), 26
Hera (Juno), 38
Pallas-Athene (Minerva), 43

Themis, 48
Hestia (Vesta), 48
Demeter (Ceres), 50
Aphrodite (Venus), 58
Helios (Sol), 61
Eos (Aurora), 67
Phœbus-Apollo, 68
Hecate, 85
Selene (Luna), 86
Artemis (Diana), 87
Hephæstus (Vulcan), 97
Poseidon (Neptune), 101

SEA DIVINITIES—
Oceanus, 107
Nereus, 108
Proteus, 108
Triton and the Tritons, 109
Glaucus, 109
Thetis, 110
Thaumas, Phorcys, and Ceto, 111
Leucothea, 111
The Sirens, 112
Ares (Mars), 112
Nike (Victoria), 117
Hermes (Mercury), 117
Dionysus (Bacchus or Liber), 124
Aïdes (Pluto), 130
Plutus, 137

MINOR DIVINITIES—
The Harpies, 137
Erinyes, Eumenides (Furiæ, Diræ), 138
Moiræ or Fates (Parcæ), 139
Nemesis, 141

Night and Her Children—

Nyx (Nox), 142
Thanatos (Mors), Hypnus (Somnus), 142
Morpheus, 143
The Gorgons, 144
Grææ, 145
Sphinx, 146
Tyche (Fortuna) and Ananke (Necessitas), 147
Ker, 149
Ate, 149
Momus, 149
Eros (Cupid, Amor) and Psyche, 150
Hymen, 154
Iris, 155
Hebe (Juventas), 156
Ganymedes, 157
The Muses, 157
Pegasus, 162
The Hesperides, 162
Charites or Graces, 163
Horæ (Seasons), 164
The Nymphs, 165
The Winds, 170
Pan (Faunus), 171
The Satyrs, 174
Priapus, 175
Asclepias (Æsculapius), 176

ROMAN DIVINITIES—
Janus, 178
Flora, 180
Robigus, 180
Pomona, 180
Vertumnus, 181
Pales, 181
Picus, 182
Picumnus and Pilumnus, 182
Silvanus, 182

Terminus, 182
Consus, 183
Libitina, 183
Laverna, 184
Comus, 184
Camenæ, 184
Genii, 185
Manes, 185
Penates, 187

PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND
ROMANS—
Temples, 188
Statues, 190
Altars, 191
Priests, 191
Sacrifices, 192
Oracles, 194
Soothsayers, 195
Augurs, 196
Festivals, 196

GREEK FESTIVALS—
Eleusinian Mysteries, 196
Thesmophoria, 197
Dionysia, 197
Panathenæa, 199
Daphnephoria, 200

ROMAN FESTIVALS—
Saturnalia, 200
Cerealia, 201
Vestalia, 201

PART II.—LEGENDS.
Cadmus, 203
Perseus, 205
Ion, 210

Dædalus and Icarus, 211
The Argonauts, 213
Pelops, 232
Heracles, 234
Bellerophon, 256
Theseus, 259
Œdipus, 269
The Seven against Thebes, 272
The Epigoni, 276
Alcmæon and the Necklace, 277
The Heraclidæ, 280
The Siege of Troy, 283
Return of the Greeks from Troy, 304

MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF ANCIENT
GREECE AND ROME.

PART I.—MYTHS.

INTRODUCTION.

Before entering upon the many strange beliefs of the ancient Greeks, and
the extraordinary number of gods they worshipped, we must first consider
what kind of beings these divinities were.
In appearance, the gods were supposed to resemble mortals, whom,
however, they far surpassed in beauty, grandeur, and strength; they were
also more commanding in stature, height being considered by the Greeks an
attribute of beauty in man or woman. They resembled human beings in their
feelings and habits, intermarrying and having children, and requiring daily
nourishment to recruit their strength, and refreshing sleep to restore their
energies. Their blood, a bright ethereal fluid called Ichor, never engendered
disease, and, when shed, had the power of producing new life.
The Greeks believed that the mental qualifications of their gods were of a
much higher order than those of men, but nevertheless, as we shall see, they
were not considered to be exempt from human passions, and we frequently
behold them actuated by revenge, deceit, and jealousy. They, however,
always punish the evil-doer, and visit with dire calamities any impious
mortal who dares to neglect their worship or despise their rites. We often
hear of them visiting mankind and partaking of their hospitality, and not
unfrequently both gods and goddesses become attached to mortals, with
whom they unite themselves, the offspring of these unions being called
heroes or demi-gods, who were usually renowned for their great strength
and courage. But although there were so many points of resemblance
between gods and men, there remained the one great characteristic
distinction, viz., that the gods enjoyed immortality. Still, they were not
invulnerable, and we often hear of them being wounded, and suffering in
consequence such exquisite torture that they have earnestly prayed to be
deprived of their privilege of immortality.

The gods knew no limitation of time or space, being able to transport
themselves to incredible distances with the speed of thought. They
possessed the power of rendering themselves invisible at will, and could
assume the forms of men or animals as it suited their convenience. They
could also transform human beings into trees, stones, animals, &c., either as
a punishment for their misdeeds, or as a means of protecting the individual,
thus transformed, from impending danger. Their robes were like those worn
by mortals, but were perfect in form and much finer in texture. Their
weapons also resembled those used by mankind; we hear of spears, shields,
helmets, bows and arrows, &c., being employed by the gods. Each deity
possessed a beautiful chariot, which, drawn by horses or other animals of
celestial breed, conveyed them rapidly over land and sea according to their
pleasure. Most of these divinities lived on the summit of Mount Olympus,
each possessing his or her individual habitation, and all meeting together on
festive occasions in the council-chamber of the gods, where their banquets
were enlivened by the sweet strains of Apollo's lyre, whilst the beautiful
voices of the Muses poured forth their rich melodies to his harmonious
accompaniment. Magnificent temples were erected to their honour, where
they were worshipped with the greatest solemnity; rich gifts were presented
to them, and animals, and indeed sometimes human beings, were sacrificed
on their altars.
In the study of Grecian mythology we meet with some curious, and what
may at first sight appear unaccountable notions. Thus we hear of terrible
giants hurling rocks, upheaving mountains, and raising earthquakes which
engulf whole armies; these ideas, however, may be accounted for by the
awful convulsions of nature, which were in operation in pre-historic times.
Again, the daily recurring phenomena, which to us, who know them to be
the result of certain well-ascertained laws of nature, are so familiar as to
excite no remark, were, to the early Greeks, matter of grave speculation,
and not unfrequently of alarm. For instance, when they heard the awful roar
of thunder, and saw vivid flashes of lightning, accompanied by black clouds
and torrents of rain, they believed that the great god of heaven was angry,
and they trembled at his wrath. If the calm and tranquil sea became
suddenly agitated, and the crested billows rose mountains high, dashing
furiously against the rocks, and threatening destruction to all within their
reach, the sea-god was supposed to be in a furious rage. When they beheld

the sky glowing with the hues of coming day they thought that the goddess
of the dawn, with rosy fingers, was drawing aside the dark veil of night, to
allow her brother, the sun-god, to enter upon his brilliant career. Thus
personifying all the powers of nature, this very imaginative and highly
poetical nation beheld a divinity in every tree that grew, in every stream that
flowed, in the bright beams of the glorious sun, and the clear, cold rays of
the silvery moon; for them the whole universe lived and breathed, peopled
by a thousand forms of grace and beauty.
The most important of these divinities may have been something more than
the mere creations of an active and poetical imagination. They were
possibly human beings who had so distinguished themselves in life by their
preeminence over their fellow-mortals that after death they were deified by
the people among whom they lived, and the poets touched with their magic
wand the details of lives, which, in more prosaic times, would simply have
been recorded as illustrious.
It is highly probable that the reputed actions of these deified beings were
commemorated by bards, who, travelling from one state to another,
celebrated their praise in song; it therefore becomes exceedingly difficult,
nay almost impossible, to separate bare facts from the exaggerations which
never fail to accompany oral traditions.
In order to exemplify this, let us suppose that Orpheus, the son of Apollo, so
renowned for his extraordinary musical powers, had existed at the present
day. We should no doubt have ranked him among the greatest of our
musicians, and honoured him as such; but the Greeks, with their vivid
imagination and poetic license, exaggerated his remarkable gifts, and
attributed to his music supernatural influence over animate and inanimate
nature. Thus we hear of wild beasts tamed, of mighty rivers arrested in their
course, and of mountains being moved by the sweet tones of his voice. The
theory here advanced may possibly prove useful in the future, in suggesting
to the reader the probable basis of many of the extraordinary accounts we
meet with in the study of classical mythology.
And now a few words will be necessary concerning the religious beliefs of
the Romans. When the Greeks first settled in Italy they found in the country
they colonized a mythology belonging to the Celtic inhabitants, which,

according to the Greek custom of paying reverence to all gods, known or
unknown, they readily adopted, selecting and appropriating those divinities
which had the greatest affinity to their own, and thus they formed a
religious belief which naturally bore the impress of its ancient Greek
source. As the primitive Celts, however, were a less civilized people than
the Greeks, their mythology was of a more barbarous character, and this
circumstance, combined with the fact that the Romans were not gifted with
the vivid imagination of their Greek neighbours, leaves its mark on the
Roman mythology, which is far less fertile in fanciful conceits, and
deficient in all those fairy-like stories and wonderfully poetic ideas which
so strongly characterize that of the Greeks.

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.—FIRST DYNASTY.

URANUS AND GÆA. (Cœlus and Terra.)

The ancient Greeks had several different theories with regard to the origin
of the world, but the generally accepted notion was that before this world
came into existence, there was in its place a confused mass of shapeless
elements called Chaos. These elements becoming at length consolidated (by
what means does not appear), resolved themselves into two widely different
substances, the lighter portion of which, soaring on high, formed the sky or
firmament, and constituted itself into a vast, overarching vault, which
protected the firm and solid mass beneath.
Thus came into being the two first great primeval deities of the Greeks,
Uranus and Ge or Gæa.
Uranus, the more refined deity, represented the light and air of heaven,
possessing the distinguishing qualities of light, heat, purity, and
omnipresence, whilst Gæa, the firm, flat,[1] life-sustaining earth, was
worshipped as the great all-nourishing mother. Her many titles refer to her
more or less in this character, and she appears to have been universally
revered among the Greeks, there being scarcely a city in Greece which did
not contain a temple erected in her honour; indeed Gæa was held in such
veneration that her name was always invoked whenever the gods took a
solemn oath, made an emphatic declaration, or implored assistance.

Uranus, the heaven, was believed to have united himself in marriage with
Gæa, the earth; and a moment's reflection will show what a truly poetical,
and also what a logical idea this was; for, taken in a figurative sense, this
union actually does exist. The smiles of heaven produce the flowers of
earth, whereas his long-continued frowns exercise so depressing an
influence upon his loving partner, that she no longer decks herself in bright
and festive robes, but responds with ready sympathy to his melancholy
mood.

The first-born child of Uranus and Gæa was Oceanus,[2] the ocean stream,
that vast expanse of ever-flowing water which encircled the earth. Here we
meet with another logical though fanciful conclusion, which a very slight
knowledge of the workings of nature proves to have been just and true. The
ocean is formed from the rains which descend from heaven and the streams
which flow from earth. By making Oceanus therefore the offspring of
Uranus and Gæa, the ancients, if we take this notion in its literal sense,
merely assert that the ocean is produced by the combined influence of
heaven and earth, whilst at the same time their fervid and poetical
imagination led them to see in this, as in all manifestations of the powers of
nature, an actual, tangible divinity.
But Uranus, the heaven, the embodiment of light, heat, and the breath of
life, produced offspring who were of a much less material nature than his
son Oceanus. These other children of his were supposed to occupy the
intermediate space which divided him from Gæa. Nearest to Uranus, and
just beneath him, came Aether (Ether), a bright creation representing that
highly rarified atmosphere which immortals alone could breathe. Then
followed Aër (Air), which was in close proximity to Gæa, and represented,
as its name implies, the grosser atmosphere surrounding the earth which
mortals could freely breathe, and without which they would perish. Aether
and Aër were separated from each other by divinities called Nephelae.
These were their restless and wandering sisters, who existed in the form of
clouds, ever floating between Aether and Aër. Gæa also produced the
mountains, and Pontus (the sea). She united herself with the latter, and their
offspring were the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and
Eurybia.

Co-existent with Uranus and Gæa were two mighty powers who were also
the offspring of Chaos. These were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night),
who formed a striking contrast to the cheerful light of heaven and the bright
smiles of earth. Erebus reigned in that mysterious world below where no
ray of sunshine, no gleam of daylight, nor vestige of health-giving
terrestrial life ever appeared. Nyx, the sister of Erebus, represented Night,
and was worshipped by the ancients with the greatest solemnity.
Uranus was also supposed to have been united to Nyx, but only in his
capacity as god of light, he being considered the source and fountain of all
light, and their children were Eos (Aurora), the Dawn, and Hemera, the
Daylight. Nyx again, on her side was also doubly united, having been
married at some indefinite period to Erebus.
In addition to those children of heaven and earth already enumerated,
Uranus and Gæa produced two distinctly different races of beings called
Giants and Titans. The Giants personified brute strength alone, but the
Titans united to their great physical power intellectual qualifications
variously developed. There were three Giants, Briareus, Cottus, and Gyges,
who each possessed a hundred hands and fifty heads, and were known
collectively by the name of the Hecatoncheires, which signified hundred-
handed. These mighty Giants could shake the universe and produce
earthquakes; it is therefore evident that they represented those active
subterranean forces to which allusion has been made in the opening chapter.
The Titans were twelve in number; their names were: Oceanus, Ceos, Crios,
Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phœbe, and
Tethys.
Now Uranus, the chaste light of heaven, the essence of all that is bright and
pleasing, held in abhorrence his crude, rough, and turbulent offspring, the
Giants, and moreover feared that their great power might eventually prove
hurtful to himself. He therefore hurled them into Tartarus, that portion of
the lower world which served as the subterranean dungeon of the gods. In
order to avenge the oppression of her children, the Giants, Gæa instigated a
conspiracy on the part of the Titans against Uranus, which was carried to a
successful issue by her son Cronus. He wounded his father, and from the
blood of the wound which fell upon the earth sprang a race of monstrous
beings also called Giants. Assisted by his brother-Titans, Cronus succeeded

in dethroning his father, who, enraged at his defeat, cursed his rebellious
son, and foretold to him a similar fate. Cronus now became invested with
supreme power, and assigned to his brothers offices of distinction,
subordinate only to himself. Subsequently, however, when, secure of his
position, he no longer needed their assistance, he basely repaid their former
services with treachery, made war upon his brothers and faithful allies, and,
assisted by the Giants, completely defeated them, sending such as resisted
his all-conquering arm down into the lowest depths of Tartarus.

SECOND DYNASTY.

CRONUS (Saturn).

Cronus was the god of time in its sense of eternal duration. He married
Rhea, daughter of Uranus and Gæa, a very important divinity, to whom a
special chapter will be devoted hereafter. Their children were, three sons:
Aïdes (Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), Zeus (Jupiter), and three daughters:
Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). Cronus, having an
uneasy conscience, was afraid that his children might one day rise up
against his authority, and thus verify the prediction of his father Uranus. In
order, therefore, to render the prophecy impossible of fulfilment, Cronus
swallowed each child as soon as it was born,[3] greatly to the sorrow and
indignation of his wife Rhea. When it came to Zeus, the sixth and last, Rhea
resolved to try and save this one child at least, to love and cherish, and
appealed to her parents, Uranus and Gæa, for counsel and assistance. By
their advice she wrapped a stone in baby-clothes, and Cronus, in eager
haste, swallowed it, without noticing the deception. The child thus saved,
eventually, as we shall see, dethroned his father Cronus, became supreme
god in his stead, and was universally venerated as the great national god of
the Greeks.
Anxious to preserve the secret of his existence from Cronus, Rhea sent the
infant Zeus secretly to Crete, where he was nourished, protected, and
educated. A sacred goat, called Amalthea, supplied the place of his mother,
by providing him with milk; nymphs, called Melissae, fed him with honey,
and eagles and doves brought him nectar and ambrosia.[4] He was kept

concealed in a cave in the heart of Mount Ida, and the
Curetes, or priests of Rhea, by beating their shields
together, kept up a constant noise at the entrance, which
drowned the cries of the child and frightened away all
intruders. Under the watchful care of the Nymphs the
infant Zeus throve rapidly, developing great physical
powers, combined with extraordinary wisdom and
intelligence. Grown to manhood, he determined to
compel his father to restore his brothers and sisters to the
light of day, and is said to have been assisted in this
difficult task by the goddess Metis, who artfully
persuaded Cronus to drink a potion, which caused him to give back the
children he had swallowed. The stone which had counterfeited Zeus was
placed at Delphi, where it was long exhibited as a sacred relic.
Cronus was so enraged at being circumvented that war between the father
and son became inevitable. The rival forces ranged themselves on two
separate high mountains in Thessaly; Zeus, with his brothers and sisters,
took his stand on Mount Olympus, where he was joined by Oceanus, and
others of the Titans, who had forsaken Cronus on account of his
oppressions. Cronus and his brother-Titans took possession of Mount
Othrys, and prepared for battle. The struggle was long and fierce, and at
length Zeus, finding that he was no nearer victory than before, bethought
himself of the existence of the imprisoned Giants, and knowing that they
would be able to render him most powerful assistance, he hastened to
liberate them. He also called to his aid the Cyclops (sons of Poseidon and
Amphitrite),[5] who had only one eye each in the middle of their foreheads,
and were called Brontes (Thunder), Steropes (Lightning), and Pyracmon
(Fire-anvil). They promptly responded to his summons for help, and
brought with them tremendous thunderbolts which the Hecatoncheires, with
their hundred hands, hurled down upon the enemy, at the same time raising
mighty earthquakes, which swallowed up and destroyed all who opposed
them. Aided by these new and powerful allies, Zeus now made a furious
onslaught on his enemies, and so tremendous was the encounter that all
nature is said to have throbbed in accord with this mighty effort of the
celestial deities. The sea rose mountains high, and its angry billows hissed
and foamed; the earth shook to its foundations, the heavens sent forth

rolling thunder, and flash after flash of death-bringing lightning, whilst a
blinding mist enveloped Cronus and his allies.
And now the fortunes of war began to turn, and victory smiled on Zeus.
Cronus and his army were completely overthrown, his brothers despatched
to the gloomy depths of the lower world, and Cronus himself was banished
from his kingdom and deprived for ever of the supreme power, which now
became vested in his son Zeus. This war was called the Titanomachia, and
is most graphically described by the old classic poets.
With the defeat of Cronus and his banishment from his
dominions, his career as a ruling Greek divinity entirely
ceases. But being, like all the gods, immortal, he was
supposed to be still in existence, though possessing no
longer either influence or authority, his place being filled
to a certain extent by his descendant and successor, Zeus.
Cronus is often represented as an old man leaning on a
scythe, with an hour-glass in his hand. The hour-glass
symbolizes the fast-fleeting moments as they succeed each other
unceasingly; the scythe is emblematical of time, which mows down all
before it.

SATURN.
The Romans, according to their custom of identifying their deities with
those of the Greek gods whose attributes were similar to their own, declared
Cronus to be identical with their old agricultural divinity Saturn. They
believed that after his defeat in the Titanomachia and his banishment from
his dominions by Zeus, he took refuge with Janus, king of Italy, who
received the exiled deity with great kindness, and even shared his throne
with him. Their united reign became so thoroughly peaceful and happy, and
was distinguished by such uninterrupted prosperity, that it was called the
Golden Age.
Saturn is usually represented bearing a sickle in the one hand and a wheat-
sheaf in the other.

A temple was erected to him at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in which
were deposited the public treasury and the laws of the state.

RHEA (Ops).

Rhea, the wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus and the other great gods of
Olympus, personified the earth, and was regarded as the Great Mother and
unceasing producer of all plant-life. She was also believed to exercise
unbounded sway over the animal creation, more especially over the lion, the
noble king of beasts. Rhea is generally represented wearing a crown of
turrets or towers and seated on a throne, with lions crouching at her feet.
She is sometimes depicted sitting in a chariot, drawn by lions.
The principal seat of her worship, which was always of a very riotous
character, was at Crete. At her festivals, which took place at night, the
wildest music of flutes, cymbals, and drums resounded, whilst joyful shouts
and cries, accompanied by dancing and loud stamping of feet, filled the air.
This divinity was introduced into Crete by its first colonists from Phrygia,
in Asia Minor, in which country she was worshipped under the name of
Cybele. The people of Crete adored her as the Great Mother, more
especially in her signification as the sustainer of the vegetable world.
Seeing, however, that year by year, as winter appears, all her glory
vanishes, her flowers fade, and her trees become leafless, they poetically
expressed this process of nature under the figure of a lost love. She was said
to have been tenderly attached to a youth of remarkable beauty, named
Atys, who, to her grief and indignation, proved faithless to her. He was
about to unite himself to a nymph called Sagaris, when, in the midst of the
wedding feast, the rage of the incensed goddess suddenly burst forth upon
all present. A panic seized the assembled guests, and Atys, becoming
afflicted with temporary madness, fled to the mountains and destroyed
himself. Cybele, moved with sorrow and regret, instituted a yearly
mourning for his loss, when her priests, the Corybantes, with their usual
noisy accompaniments, marched into the mountains to seek the lost youth.
Having discovered him[6] they gave full vent to their ecstatic delight by
indulging in the most violent gesticulations, dancing, shouting, and, at the
same time, wounding and gashing themselves in a frightful manner.

OPS.
In Rome the Greek Rhea was identified with Ops, the goddess of plenty, the
wife of Saturn, who had a variety of appellations. She was called Magna-
Mater, Mater-Deorum, Berecynthia-Idea, and also Dindymene. This latter
title she acquired from three high mountains in Phrygia, whence she was
brought to Rome as Cybele during the second Punic war, B.C. 205, in
obedience to an injunction contained in the Sybilline books. She was
represented as a matron crowned with towers, seated in a chariot drawn by
lions.

DIVISION OF THE WORLD.

We will now return to Zeus and his brothers, who, having gained a
complete victory over their enemies, began to consider how the world,
which they had conquered, should be divided between them. At last it was
settled by lot that Zeus should reign supreme in Heaven, whilst Aïdes
governed the Lower World, and Poseidon had full command over the Sea,
but the supremacy of Zeus was recognized in all three kingdoms, in heaven,
on earth (in which of course the sea was included), and under the earth.
Zeus held his court on the top of Mount Olympus, whose summit was
beyond the clouds; the dominions of Aïdes were the gloomy unknown
regions below the earth; and Poseidon reigned over the sea. It will be seen
that the realm of each of these gods was enveloped in mystery. Olympus
was shrouded in mists, Hades was wrapt in gloomy darkness, and the sea
was, and indeed still is, a source of wonder and deep interest. Hence we see
that what to other nations were merely strange phenomena, served this
poetical and imaginative people as a foundation upon which to build the
wonderful stories of their mythology.
The division of the world being now satisfactorily arranged, it would seem
that all things ought to have gone on smoothly, but such was not the case.
Trouble arose in an unlooked-for quarter. The Giants, those hideous
monsters (some with legs formed of serpents) who had sprung from the
earth and the blood of Uranus, declared war against the triumphant deities
of Olympus, and a struggle ensued, which, in consequence of Gæa having
made these children of hers invincible as long as they kept their feet on the

ground, was wearisome and protracted. Their mother's precaution, however,
was rendered unavailing by pieces of rock being hurled upon them, which
threw them down, and their feet being no longer placed firmly on their
mother-earth, they were overcome, and this tedious war (which was called
the Gigantomachia) at last came to an end. Among the most daring of these
earth-born giants were Enceladus, Rhœtus, and the valiant Mimas, who,
with youthful fire and energy, hurled against heaven great masses of rock
and burning oak-trees, and defied the lightnings of Zeus. One of the most
powerful monsters who opposed Zeus in this war was called Typhon or
Typhœus. He was the youngest son of Tartarus and Gæa, and had a hundred
heads, with eyes which struck terror to the beholders, and awe-inspiring
voices frightful to hear. This dreadful monster resolved to conquer both
gods and men, but his plans were at length defeated by Zeus, who, after a
violent encounter, succeeded in destroying him with a thunderbolt, but not
before he had so terrified the gods that they had fled for refuge to Egypt,
where they metamorphosed themselves into different animals and thus
escaped.

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

Just as there were several theories concerning the origin of the world, so
there were various accounts of the creation of man.
The first natural belief of the Greek people was that man had sprung from
the earth. They saw the tender plants and flowers force their way through
the ground in the early spring of the year after the frost of winter had
disappeared, and so they naturally concluded that man must also have
issued from the earth in a similar manner. Like the wild plants and flowers,
he was supposed to have had no cultivation, and resembled in his habits the
untamed beasts of the field, having no habitation except that which nature
had provided in the holes of the rocks, and in the dense forests whose
overarching boughs protected him from the inclemency of the weather.
In the course of time these primitive human beings became tamed and
civilized by the gods and heroes, who taught them to work in metals, to
build houses, and other useful arts of civilization. But the human race
became in the course of time so degenerate that the gods resolved to destroy

all mankind by means of a flood; Deucalion (son of Prometheus) and his
wife Pyrrha, being, on account of their piety, the only mortals saved.
By the command of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which he and his
wife took refuge during the deluge, which lasted for nine days. When the
waters abated the ship rested on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, or according to
some on Mount Parnassus. Deucalion and his wife now consulted the oracle
of Themis as to how the human race might be restored. The answer was,
that they were to cover their heads, and throw the bones of their mother
behind them. For some time they were perplexed as to the meaning of the
oracular command, but at length both agreed that by the bones of their
mother were meant the stones of the earth. They accordingly took up stones
from the mountain side and cast them over their shoulders. From those
thrown by Deucalion there sprang up men, and from those thrown by
Pyrrha, women.
After the lapse of time the theory of Autochthony (from autos, self, and
chthon, earth) was laid aside. When this belief existed there were no
religious teachers whatever; but in course of time temples were raised in
honour of the different gods, and priests appointed to offer sacrifices to
them and conduct their worship. These priests were looked upon as
authorities in all religious matters, and the doctrine they taught was, that
man had been created by the gods, and that there had been several
successive ages of men, which were called the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and
Iron Ages.
Life in the Golden Age was one unceasing round of ever-recurring
pleasures unmarred by sorrow or care. The favoured mortals living at this
happy time led pure and joyous lives, thinking no evil, and doing no wrong.
The earth brought forth fruits and flowers without toil or labour in plentiful
luxuriance, and war was unknown. This delightful and god-like existence
lasted for hundreds of years, and when at length life on earth was ended,
death laid his hand so gently upon them that they passed painlessly away in
a happy dream, and continued their existence as ministering spirits in
Hades, watching over and protecting those they had loved and left behind
on earth. The men of the Silver Age[7] were a long time growing up, and
during their childhood, which lasted a hundred years, they suffered from ill-
health and extreme debility. When they at last became men they lived but a

short time, for they would not abstain from mutual injury, nor pay the
service due to the gods, and were therefore banished to Hades. There,
unlike the beings of the Golden Age, they exercised no beneficent
supervision over the dear ones left behind, but wandered about as restless
spirits, always sighing for the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life.
The men of the Brazen Age were quite a different race of beings, being as
strong and powerful as those of the Silver Age were weak and enervated.
Everything which surrounded them was of brass; their arms, their tools,
their dwellings, and all that they made. Their characters seem to have
resembled the metal in which they delighted; their minds and hearts were
hard, obdurate, and cruel. They led a life of strife and contention,
introduced into the world, which had hitherto known nothing but peace and
tranquillity, the scourge of war, and were in fact only happy when fighting
and quarrelling with each other. Hitherto Themis, the goddess of Justice,
had been living among mankind, but becoming disheartened at their evil
doings, she abandoned the earth, and winged her flight back to heaven. At
last the gods became so tired of their evil deeds and continual dissensions,
that they removed them from the face of the earth, and sent them down to
Hades to share the fate of their predecessors.
We now come to the men of the Iron Age. The earth, no longer teeming
with fruitfulness, only yielded her increase after much toil and labour. The
goddess of Justice having abandoned mankind, no influence remained
sufficiently powerful to preserve them from every kind of wickedness and
sin. This condition grew worse as time went on, until at last Zeus in his
anger let loose the water-courses from above, and drowned every individual
of this evil race, except Deucalion and Pyrrha.

The theory of Hesiod,[8] the oldest of all the Greek poets, was that the Titan
Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, had formed man out of clay, and that
Athene had breathed a soul into him. Full of love for the beings he had
called into existence, Prometheus determined to elevate their minds and
improve their condition in every way; he therefore taught them astronomy,
mathematics, the alphabet, how to cure diseases, and the art of divination.
He created this race in such great numbers that the gods began to see the
necessity of instituting certain fixed laws with regard to the sacrifices due to
them, and the worship to which they considered themselves entitled from

mankind in return for the protection which they accorded them. An
assembly was therefore convened at Mecone in order to settle these points.
It was decided that Prometheus, as the advocate of man, should slay an ox,
which should be divided into two equal parts, and that the gods should
select one portion which should henceforth, in all future sacrifices, be set
apart for them. Prometheus so divided the ox that one part consisted of the
bones (which formed of course the least valuable portion of the animal),
artfully concealed by the white fat; whilst the other contained all the edible
parts, which he covered with the skin, and on the top of all he laid the
stomach.
Zeus, pretending to be deceived, chose the heap of bones, but he saw
through the stratagem, and was so angry at the deception practised on him
by Prometheus that he avenged himself by refusing to mortals the gift of
fire. Prometheus, however, resolved to brave the anger of the great ruler of
Olympus, and to obtain from heaven the vital spark so necessary for the
further progress and comfort of the human race. He accordingly contrived
to steal some sparks from the chariot of the sun, which he conveyed to earth
hidden in a hollow tube. Furious at being again outwitted, Zeus determined
to be revenged first on mankind, and then on Prometheus. To punish the
former he commanded Hephæstus (Vulcan) to mould a beautiful woman out
of clay, and determined that through her instrumentality trouble and misery
should be brought into the world.
The gods were so charmed with the graceful and artistic creation of
Hephæstus, that they all determined to endow her with some special gift.
Hermes (Mercury) bestowed on her a smooth persuasive tongue, Aphrodite
gave her beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces made her fascinating,
and Athene (Minerva) gifted her with the possession of feminine
accomplishments. She was called Pandora, which means all-gifted, having
received every attribute necessary to make her charming and irresistible.
Thus beautifully formed and endowed, this exquisite creature, attired by the
Graces, and crowned with flowers by the Seasons, was conducted to the
house of Epimetheus[9] by Hermes the messenger of the gods. Now
Epimetheus had been warned by his brother not to accept any gift whatever
from the gods; but he was so fascinated by the beautiful being who
suddenly appeared before him, that he welcomed her to his home, and made

her his wife. It was not long, however, before he had cause to regret his
weakness.
He had in his possession a jar of rare workmanship, containing all the
blessings reserved by the gods for mankind, which he had been expressly
forbidden to open. But woman's proverbial curiosity could not withstand so
great a temptation, and Pandora determined to solve the mystery at any
cost. Watching her opportunity she raised the lid, and immediately all the
blessings which the gods had thus reserved for mankind took wing and flew
away. But all was not lost. Just as Hope (which lay at the bottom) was about
to escape, Pandora hastily closed the lid of the jar, and thus preserved to
man that never-failing solace which helps him to bear with courage the
many ills which assail him.[10]
Having punished mankind, Zeus determined to execute vengeance on
Prometheus. He accordingly chained him to a rock in Mount Caucasus, and
sent an eagle every day to gnaw away his liver, which grew again every
night ready for fresh torments. For thirty years Prometheus endured this
fearful punishment; but at length Zeus relented, and permitted his son
Heracles (Hercules) to kill the eagle, and the sufferer was released.

THIRD DYNASTY—OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES.

ZEUS[11] (Jupiter).

Zeus, the great presiding deity of the universe, the ruler of heaven and
earth, was regarded by the Greeks, first, as the god of all aërial phenomena;
secondly, as the personification of the laws of nature; thirdly, as lord of
state-life; and fourthly, as the father of gods and men.

As the god of aërial phenomena he could, by shaking his ægis,[12] produce
storms, tempests, and intense darkness. At his command the mighty thunder
rolls, the lightning flashes, and the clouds open and pour forth their
refreshing streams to fructify the earth.
As the personification of the operations of nature, he represents those grand
laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which not only the physical

but also the moral world is governed. Hence he is the god of regulated time
as marked by the changing seasons, and by the regular succession of day
and night, in contradistinction to his father Cronus, who represents time
absolutely, i.e. eternity.
As the lord of state-life, he is the founder of kingly power, the upholder of
all institutions connected with the state, and the special friend and patron of
princes, whom he guards and assists with his advice and counsel. He
protects the assembly of the people, and, in fact, watches over the welfare
of the whole community.
As the father of the gods, Zeus sees that each deity performs his or her
individual duty, punishes their misdeeds, settles their disputes, and acts
towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and mighty
friend.
As the father of men, he takes a paternal interest in the actions and well-
being of mortals. He watches over them with tender solicitude, rewarding
truth, charity, and uprightness, but severely punishing perjury, cruelty, and
want of hospitality. Even the poorest and most forlorn wanderer finds in
him a powerful advocate, for he, by a wise and merciful dispensation,
ordains that the mighty ones of the earth should succour their distressed and
needy brethren.
The Greeks believed that the home of this their mighty and all-powerful
deity was on the top of Mount Olympus, that high and lofty mountain
between Thessaly and Macedon, whose summit, wrapt in clouds and mist,
was hidden from mortal view. It was supposed that this mysterious region,
which even a bird could not reach, extended beyond the clouds right into
Aether, the realm of the immortal gods. The poets describe this ethereal
atmosphere as bright, glistening, and refreshing, exercising a peculiar,
gladdening influence over the minds and hearts of those privileged beings
permitted to share its delights. Here youth never ages, and the passing years
leave no traces on its favoured inhabitants. On the cloud-capped summit of
Olympus was the palace of Zeus and Hera, of burnished gold, chased silver,
and gleaming ivory. Lower down were the homes of the other gods, which,
though less commanding in position and size, were yet similar to that of
Zeus in design and workmanship, all being the work of the divine artist

Hephæstus. Below these were other palaces of silver, ebony, ivory, or
burnished brass, where the Heroes, or Demi-gods, resided.
As the worship of Zeus formed so important a feature in the religion of the
Greeks, his statues were necessarily both numerous and magnificent. He is
usually represented as a man of noble and imposing mien, his countenance
expressing all the lofty majesty of the omnipotent ruler of the universe,
combined with the gracious, yet serious, benignity of the father and friend
of mankind. He may be recognized by his rich flowing beard, and the thick
masses of hair, which rise straight from the high and intellectual forehead
and fall to his shoulders in clustering locks. The nose is large and finely
formed, and the slightly-opened lips impart an air of sympathetic kindliness
which invites confidence. He is always accompanied by an eagle, which
either surmounts his sceptre, or sits at his feet; he generally bears in his
uplifted hand a sheaf of thunder-bolts, just ready to be hurled, whilst in the
other he holds the lightning. The head is frequently encircled with a wreath
of oak-leaves.
The most celebrated statue of the Olympian Zeus was
that by the famous Athenian sculptor Phidias, which was
forty feet high, and stood in the temple of Zeus at
Olympia. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was such
a masterpiece of art, that it was reckoned among the
seven wonders of the world. It represented the god,
seated on a throne, holding in his right hand a life-sized
image of Nike (the goddess of Victory), and in his left a
royal sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. It is said that the
great sculptor had concentrated all the marvellous
powers of his genius on this sublime conception, and earnestly entreated
Zeus to give him a decided proof that his labours were approved. An answer
to his prayer came through the open roof of the temple in the shape of a
flash of lightning, which Phidias interpreted as a sign that the god of heaven
was pleased with his work.
Zeus was first worshipped at Dodona in Epirus, where, at the foot of Mount
Tomarus, on the woody shore of Lake Joanina, was his famous oracle, the
most ancient in Greece. Here the voice of the eternal and invisible god was
supposed to be heard in the rustling leaves of a giant oak, announcing to

mankind the will of heaven and the destiny of mortals; these revelations
being interpreted to the people by the priests of Zeus, who were called Selli.
Recent excavations which have been made at this spot have brought to light
the ruins of the ancient temple of Zeus, and also, among other interesting
relics, some plates of lead, on which are engraved inquiries which were
evidently made by certain individuals who consulted the oracle. These little
leaden plates speak to us, as it were, in a curiously homely manner of a by-
gone time in the buried past. One person inquires what god he should apply
to for health and fortune; another asks for advice concerning his child; and a
third, evidently a shepherd, promises a gift to the oracle should a
speculation in sheep turn out successfully. Had these little memorials been
of gold instead of lead, they would doubtless have shared the fate of the
numerous treasures which adorned this and other temples, in the universal
pillage which took place when Greece fell into the hands of barbarians.
Though Dodona was the most ancient of his shrines, the great national seat
of the worship of Zeus was at Olympia in Elis, where there was a
magnificent temple dedicated to him, containing the famous colossal statue
by Phidias above described. Crowds of devout worshippers flocked to this
world-renowned fane from all parts of Greece, not only to pay homage to
their supreme deity, but also to join in the celebrated games which were
held there at intervals of four years. The Olympic games were such a
thoroughly national institution, that even Greeks who had left their native
country made a point of returning on these occasions, if possible, in order to
contend with their fellow-countrymen in the various athletic sports which
took place at these festivals.
It will be seen on reflection that in a country like Greece, which contained
so many petty states, often at variance with each other, these national
gatherings must have been most valuable as a means of uniting the Greeks
in one great bond of brotherhood. On these festive occasions the whole
nation met together, forgetting for the moment all past differences, and
uniting in the enjoyment of the same festivities.
It will doubtless have been remarked that in the representations of Zeus he
is always accompanied by an eagle. This royal bird was sacred to him,
probably from the fact of its being the only creature capable of gazing at the

sun without being dazzled, which may have suggested the idea that it was
able to contemplate the splendour of divine majesty unshrinkingly.
The oak-tree, and also the summits of mountains, were sacred to Zeus. His
sacrifices consisted of white bulls, cows, and goats.
Zeus had seven immortal wives, whose names were Metis, Themis,
Eurynome, Demeter, Mnemosyne, Leto, and Hera.
METIS, his first wife, was one of the Oceanides or sea-nymphs. She was
the personification of prudence and wisdom, a convincing proof of which
she displayed in her successful administration of the potion which caused
Cronus to yield up his children. She was endowed with the gift of prophecy,
and foretold to Zeus that one of their children would gain ascendency over
him. In order, therefore, to avert the possibility of the prediction being
fulfilled he swallowed her before any children were born to them. Feeling
afterwards violent pains in his head, he sent for Hephæstus, and ordered
him to open it with an axe. His command was obeyed, and out sprang, with
a loud and martial shout, a beautiful being, clad in armour from head to
foot. This was Athene (Minerva), goddess of Armed Resistance and
Wisdom.
THEMIS was the goddess of Justice, Law, and Order.
EURYNOME was one of the Oceanides, and the mother of the Charites or
Graces.

DEMETER,[13] the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess of
Agriculture.
MNEMOSYNE, the daughter of Uranus and Gæa, was the goddess of
Memory and the mother of the nine Muses.
LETO (Latona) was the daughter of Cœus and Phœbe. She was gifted with
wonderful beauty, and was tenderly loved by Zeus, but her lot was far from
being a happy one, for Hera, being extremely jealous of her, persecuted her
with inveterate cruelty, and sent the dreadful serpent Python[14] to terrify
and torment her wherever she went. But Zeus, who had observed with the
deepest compassion her weary wanderings and agonized fears, resolved to
create for her some place of refuge, however humble, where she might feel

herself safe from the venomous attacks of the serpent. He therefore brought
her to Delos, a floating island in the Ægean Sea, which he made stationary
by attaching it with chains of adamant to the bottom of the sea. Here she
gave birth to her twin-children, Apollo and Artemis (Diana), two of the
most beautiful of the immortals.
According to some versions of the story of Leto, Zeus transformed her into
a quail, in order that she might thus elude the vigilance of Hera, and she is
said to have resumed her true form when she arrived at the island of Delos.
HERA, being the principal wife of Zeus and queen of heaven, a detailed
account will be given of her in a special chapter.
In the union of Zeus with most of his immortal wives we shall find that an
allegorical meaning is conveyed. His marriage with Metis, who is said to
have surpassed both gods and men in knowledge, represents supreme power
allied to wisdom and prudence. His union with Themis typifies the bond
which exists between divine majesty and justice, law, and order. Eurynome,
as the mother of the Charites or Graces, supplied the refining and
harmonizing influences of grace and beauty, whilst the marriage of Zeus
with Mnemosyne typifies the union of genius with memory.

In addition to the seven immortal wives of Zeus, he was also allied to a
number of mortal maidens whom he visited under various disguises, as it
was supposed that if he revealed himself in his true form as king of heaven
the splendour of his glory would cause instant destruction to mortals. The
mortal consorts of Zeus have been such a favourite theme with poets,
painters, and sculptors, that it is necessary to give some account of their
individual history. Those best known are Antiope, Leda, Europa, Callisto,
Alcmene, Semele, Io, and Danae.
ANTIOPE, to whom Zeus appeared under the form of a satyr, was the
daughter of Nicteus, king of Thebes. To escape the anger of her father she
fled to Sicyon, where king Epopeus, enraptured with her wonderful beauty,
made her his wife without asking her father's consent. This so enraged
Nicteus that he declared war against Epopeus, in order to compel him to
restore Antiope. At his death, which took place before he could succeed in
his purpose, Nicteus left his kingdom to his brother Lycus, commanding

him, at the same time, to carry on the war, and execute his vengeance.
Lycus invaded Sicyon, defeated and killed Epopeus, and brought back
Antiope as a prisoner. On the way to Thebes she gave birth to her twin-sons,
Amphion and Zethus, who, by the orders of Lycus, were at once exposed on
Mount Cithaeron, and would have perished but for the kindness of a
shepherd, who took pity on them and preserved their lives. Antiope was, for
many years, held captive by her uncle Lycus, and compelled to suffer the
utmost cruelty at the hands of his wife Dirce. But one day her bonds were
miraculously loosened, and she flew for shelter and protection to the
humble dwelling of her sons on Mount Cithaeron. During the long period of
their mother's captivity the babes had grown into sturdy youths, and, as they
listened angrily to the story of her wrongs, they became all impatience to
avenge them. Setting off at once to Thebes they succeeded in possessing
themselves of the town, and after slaying the cruel Lycus they bound Dirce
by the hair to the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her hither and thither
until she expired. Her mangled body was cast into the fount near Thebes,
which still bears her name. Amphion became king of Thebes in his uncle's
stead. He was a friend of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. His
brother, Zethus, was famous for his skill in archery, and was passionately
fond of the chase. It is said that when Amphion wished to inclose the town
of Thebes with walls and towers, he had but to play a sweet melody on the
lyre, given to him by Hermes, and the huge stones began to move, and
obediently fitted themselves together.
The punishment of Dirce at the hands of Amphion and Zethus forms the
subject of the world-renowned marble group in the museum at Naples,
known by the name of the Farnese Bull.
In sculpture Amphion is always represented with a lyre; Zethus with a club.
LEDA, whose affections Zeus won under the form of a swan, was the
daughter of Thestius, king of Ætolia. Her twin-sons, Castor and
(Polydeuces or) Pollux,[15] were renowned for their tender attachment to
each other. They were also famous for their physical accomplishments,
Castor being the most expert charioteer of his day, and Pollux the first of
pugilists. Their names appear both among the hunters of the Calydonian
boar-hunt and the heroes of the Argonautic expedition. The brothers became
attached to the daughters of Leucippus, prince of the Messenians, who had

been betrothed by their father to Idas and Lynceus, sons of Aphareus.
Having persuaded Leucippus to break his promise, the twins carried off the
maidens as their brides. Idas and Lynceus, naturally furious at this
proceeding, challenged the Dioscuri to mortal combat, in which Castor
perished by the hand of Idas, and Lynceus by that of Pollux. Zeus wished to
confer the gift of immortality upon Pollux, but he refused to accept it unless
allowed to share it with Castor. Zeus gave the desired permission, and the
faithful brothers were both allowed to live, but only on alternate days. The
Dioscuri received divine honours throughout Greece, and were worshipped
with special reverence at Sparta.
EUROPA was the beautiful daughter of Agenor, king of Phœnicia. She was
one day gathering flowers with her companions in a meadow near the sea-
shore, when Zeus, charmed with her great beauty, and wishing to win her
love, transformed himself into a beautiful white bull, and trotted quietly up
to the princess, so as not to alarm her. Surprised at the gentleness of the
animal, and admiring its beauty, as it lay placidly on the grass, she caressed
it, crowned it with flowers, and, at last, playfully seated herself on its back.
Hardly had she done so than the disguised god bounded away with his
lovely burden, and swam across the sea with her to the island of Crete.
Europa was the mother of Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus. Minos, who
became king of Crete, was celebrated for his justice and moderation, and
after death he was created one of the judges of the lower world, which
office he held in conjunction with his brothers.
CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was a huntress in the
train of Artemis, devoted to the pleasures of the chase, who had made a vow
never to marry; but Zeus, under the form of the huntress-goddess,
succeeded in obtaining her affections. Hera, being extremely jealous of her,
changed her into a bear, and caused Artemis (who failed to recognize her
attendant under this form) to hunt her in the chase, and put an end to her
existence. After her death she was placed by Zeus among the stars as a
constellation, under the name of Arctos, or the bear.
ALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, was betrothed to
her cousin Amphytrion; but, during his absence on a perilous undertaking,
Zeus assumed his form, and obtained her affections. Heracles (whose

world-renowned exploits will be related among the legends) was the son of
Alcmene and Zeus.
SEMELE, a beautiful princess, the daughter of Cadmus, king of Phœnicia,
was greatly beloved by Zeus. Like the unfortunate Callisto, she was hated
by Hera with jealous malignity, and the haughty queen of heaven
determined to effect her destruction. Disguising herself, therefore, as Berœ,
Semele's faithful old nurse, she artfully persuaded her to insist upon Zeus
visiting her, as he appeared to Hera, in all his power and glory, well
knowing that this would cause her instant death. Semele, suspecting no
treachery, followed the advice of her supposed nurse; and the next time
Zeus came to her, she earnestly entreated him to grant the favour she was
about to ask. Zeus swore by the Styx (which was to the gods an irrevocable
oath) to accede to her request whatsoever it might be. Semele, therefore,
secure of gaining her petition, begged of Zeus to appear to her in all the
glory of his divine power and majesty. As he had sworn to grant whatever
she asked of him, he was compelled to comply with her wish; he therefore
revealed himself as the mighty lord of the universe, accompanied by
thunder and lightning, and she was instantly consumed in the flames.
IO, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was a priestess of Hera. She was
very beautiful, and Zeus, who was much attached to her, transformed her
into a white cow, in order to defeat the jealous intrigues of Hera, who,
however, was not to be deceived. Aware of the stratagem, she contrived to
obtain the animal from Zeus, and placed her under the watchful care of a
man called Argus-Panoptes, who fastened her to an olive-tree in the grove
of Hera. He had a hundred eyes, of which, when asleep, he never closed
more than two at a time; being thus always on the watch, Hera found him
extremely useful in keeping guard over Io. Hermes, however, by the
command of Zeus, succeeded in putting all his eyes to sleep with the sound
of his magic lyre, and then, taking advantage of his helpless condition, slew
him. The story goes, that in commemoration of the services which Argus
had rendered her, Hera placed his eyes on the tail of a peacock, as a lasting
memorial of her gratitude. Ever fertile in resource, Hera now sent a gadfly
to worry and torment the unfortunate Io incessantly, and she wandered all
over the world in hopes of escaping from her tormentor. At length she
reached Egypt, where she found rest and freedom from the persecutions of
her enemy. On the banks of the Nile she resumed her original form and

gave birth to a son called Epaphus, who afterwards became king of Egypt,
and built the famous city of Memphis.
DANAE.—Zeus appeared to Danae under the form of a shower of gold.
(Further details concerning her will be found in the legend of Perseus.)

The Greeks supposed that the divine ruler of the Universe occasionally
assumed a human form, and descended from his celestial abode, in order to
visit mankind and observe their proceedings, his aim being generally either
to punish the guilty, or to reward the deserving.
On one occasion Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, made a journey through
Phrygia, seeking hospitality and shelter wherever they went. But nowhere
did they receive a kindly welcome till they came to the humble cottage of
an old man and his wife called Philemon and Baucis, who entertained them
with the greatest kindness, setting before them what frugal fare their
humble means permitted, and bidding them welcome with unaffected
cordiality. Observing in the course of their simple repast that the wine bowl
was miraculously replenished, the aged couple became convinced of the
divine nature of their guests. The gods now informed them that on account
of its wickedness their native place was doomed to destruction, and told
them to climb the neighbouring hill with them, which overlooked the
village where they dwelt. What was their dismay on beholding at their feet,
in place of the spot where they had passed so many happy years together,
nothing but a watery plain, the only house to be seen being their own little
cottage, which suddenly changed itself into a temple before their eyes. Zeus
now asked the worthy pair to name any wish they particularly desired and it
should be granted. They accordingly begged that they might serve the gods
in the temple below, and end life together.
Their wish was granted, for, after spending the remainder of their lives in
the worship of the gods, they both died at the same instant, and were
transformed by Zeus into trees, remaining for ever side by side.
Upon another occasion Zeus, wishing to ascertain for himself the truth of
the reports concerning the atrocious wickedness of mankind, made a
journey through Arcadia. Being recognized by the Arcadians as king of
heaven, he was received by them with becoming respect and veneration; but

Lycaon, their king, who had rendered himself infamous by the gross
impiety of himself and his sons, doubted the divinity of Zeus, ridiculed his
people for being so easily duped, and, according to his custom of killing all
strangers who ventured to trust his hospitality, resolved to murder him.
Before executing this wicked design, however, he decided to put Zeus to the
test, and having killed a boy for the purpose, placed before him a dish
containing human flesh. But Zeus was not to be deceived. He beheld the
revolting dish with horror and loathing, and angrily upsetting the table upon
which it was placed, turned Lycaon into a wolf, and destroyed all his fifty
sons by lightning, except Nyctimus, who was saved by the intervention of
Gæa.

JUPITER.
The Roman Jupiter, who is so frequently confounded with the Greek Zeus,
is identical with him only as being the head of the Olympic gods, and the
presiding deity over Life, Light, and Aërial Phenomena. Jupiter is lord of
life in its widest and most comprehensive signification, having absolute
power over life and death, in which respect he differed from the Greek
Zeus, who was to a certain extent controlled by the all-potent sway of the
Moiræ or Fates. Zeus, as we have seen, often condescends to visit mankind,
either as a mortal, or under various disguises, whereas Jupiter always
remains essentially the supreme god of heaven, and never appears upon
earth.
The most celebrated temple of Jupiter was that on the Capitoline Hill in the
city of Rome, where he was worshipped under the names of Jupiter-
Optimus-Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius.
The Romans represented him seated on a throne of ivory, holding in his
right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre, whilst an eagle
stands beside his throne.

HERA (Juno).

Hera, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was born at Samos, or,
according to some accounts, at Argos, and was reared by the sea-divinities
Oceanus and Tethys, who were models of conjugal fidelity.[16] She was the

principal wife of Zeus, and, as queen of heaven, participated in the honours
paid to him, but her dominion only extended over the air (the lower aërial
regions). Hera appears to be the sublime embodiment of strict matronly
virtue, and is on that account the protectress of purity and married women.
Faultless herself in her fidelity as a wife, she is essentially the type of the
sanctity of the marriage tie, and holds in abhorrence any violation of its
obligations. So strongly was she imbued with this hatred of any immorality,
that, finding herself so often called upon to punish the failings of both gods
and men in this respect, she became jealous, harsh, and vindictive. Her
exalted position as the wife of the supreme deity, combined with her
extreme beauty, caused her to become exceedingly vain, and she
consequently resented with great severity any infringement on her rights as
queen of heaven, or any apparent slight on her personal appearance.
The following story will signally illustrate how ready she was to resent any
slight offered to her.
At the marriage of the sea-nymph Thetis with a mortal called Peleus, all the
gods and goddesses were present, except Eris (the goddess of Discord).
Indignant at not being invited, she determined to cause dissension in the
assembly, and for this purpose threw into the midst of the guests a golden
apple with the inscription on it "For the Fairest." Now, as all the goddesses
were extremely beautiful, each claimed the apple; but at length, the rest
having relinquished their pretensions, the number of candidates was
reduced to three, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite, who agreed to appeal to
Paris for a settlement of this delicate question, he being noted for the
wisdom he had displayed in his judgment upon several occasions. Paris was
the son of Priam, king of Troy, who, ignorant of his noble birth, was at this
time feeding his flocks on Mount Ida, in Phrygia. Hermes, as messenger of
the gods, conducted the three rival beauties to the young shepherd, and with
breathless anxiety they awaited his decision. Each fair candidate
endeavoured to secure his favour by the most tempting offers. Hera
promised him extensive dominions; Athene, martial fame and glory; and
Aphrodite, the loveliest woman in the world. But whether he really
considered Aphrodite the fairest of the three, or preferred a beautiful wife to
fame and power, we cannot tell; all we know is that to her he awarded the
golden apple, and she became ever after universally acknowledged as the
goddess of beauty. Hera, having fully expected that Paris would give her the

preference, was so indignant that she never forgave him, and not only
persecuted him, but all the family of Priam, whose dreadful sufferings and
misfortunes during the Trojan war were attributed to her influence. In fact,
she carried her animosity to such an extent that it was often the cause of
domestic disagreements between herself and Zeus, who espoused the cause
of the Trojans.
Among the many stories of these frequent quarrels there is one connected
with Heracles, the favourite son of Zeus, which is as follows:—Hera having
raised a storm at sea in order to drive him out of his course, Zeus became so
angry that he hung her in the clouds by a golden chain, and attached heavy
anvils to her feet. Her son Hephæstus tried to release his mother from her
humiliating position, for which Zeus threw him out of heaven, and his leg
was broken by the fall.
Hera, being deeply offended with Zeus, determined to separate herself from
him for ever, and she accordingly left him and took up her abode in Eubœa.
Surprised and grieved at this unlooked-for desertion, Zeus resolved to leave
no means untried to win her back again. In this emergency he consulted
Cithaeron, king of Platea, who was famed for his great wisdom and
subtlety. Cithaeron advised him to dress up an image in bridal attire and
place it in a chariot, announcing that this was Platea, his future wife. The
artifice succeeded. Hera, incensed at the idea of a rival, flew to meet the
procession in great anger, and seizing the supposed bride, she furiously
attacked her and dragged off her nuptial attire. Her delight on discovering
the deception was so great that a reconciliation took place, and, committing
the image to the flames, with joyful laughter she seated herself in its place
and returned to Olympus.
Hera was the mother of Ares (Mars), Hephæstus, Hebe, and Eileithyia. Ares
was the god of War; Hephæstus, of Fire; Hebe, of Youth; and Eileithyia
presided over the birth of mortals.
Hera dearly loved Greece, and indeed always watched over and protected
Greek interests, her beloved and favourite cities being Argos, Samos,
Sparta, and Mycenæ.
Her principal temples were at Argos and Samos. From a remote period she
was greatly venerated at Olympia, and her temple there, which stood in the

Altis or sacred grove, was five hundred years older than
that of Zeus on the same spot. Some interesting
excavations which are now going on there have brought
to light the remains of the ancient edifice, which
contains among other treasures of antiquity several
beautiful statues, the work of the famous sculptors of
ancient Greece. At first this temple was built of wood,
then of stone, and the one lately discovered was formed
of conglomerate of shells.
In the Altis races were run by young maidens in honour
of Hera, and the fleetest of foot received in token of her victory an olive-
wreath and a piece of the flesh of the sacrifices. These races, like the
Olympic Games, were celebrated at intervals of four years, and were called
Heræ. A beautiful robe, woven by sixteen women chosen from the sixteen
cities of Elis, was always offered to Hera on these occasions, and choral
songs and sacred dances formed part of the ceremonies.
Hera is usually represented seated on a throne, holding a pomegranate in
one hand and a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo in the other. She appears as
a calm, dignified matron of majestic beauty, robed in a tunic and mantle,
her forehead is broad and intellectual, her eyes large and fully opened, and
her arms dazzlingly white and finely moulded.
The finest statue of this divinity was that by Polycletus at Argos.
Her attributes are the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.
The first day of every month a ewe-lamb and sow were sacrificed to Hera.
The hawk, goose, and more particularly the peacock[17] were sacred to her.
Flocks of these beautiful birds generally surround her throne and draw her
chariot, Iris, the Rainbow, being seated behind her.
Her favourite flowers were the dittany, poppy, and lily.

JUNO.
Juno, the Roman divinity supposed to be identical with the Greek Hera,
differed from her in the most salient points, for whereas Hera invariably
appears as the haughty, unbending queen of heaven, Juno, on the other

hand, is revered and beloved as the type of a matron and housewife. She
was worshipped in Rome under various titles, most of which point to her
vocation as the protectress of married women. Juno was believed to watch
over and guard the life of every woman from her birth to her death. The
principal temples dedicated to her were in Rome, one being erected on the
Aventine, and the other on the Capitoline Hill. She had also a temple on the
Arx, in which she was worshipped as Juno Moneta, or the warning goddess.
Adjacent to this shrine was the public mint.[18] On the 1st of March a grand
annual festival, called the Matronalia, was celebrated in her honour by all
the married women of Rome, and this religious institution was accompanied
with much solemnity.[19]

PALLAS-ATHENE (Minerva).

Pallas-Athene, goddess of Wisdom and Armed Resistance, was a purely
Greek divinity; that is to say, no other nation possessed a corresponding
conception. She was supposed, as already related, to have issued from the
head of Zeus himself, clad in armour from head to foot. The miraculous
advent of this maiden goddess is beautifully described by Homer in one of
his hymns: snow-capped Olympus shook to its foundation; the glad earth
re-echoed her martial shout; the billowy sea became agitated; and Helios,
the sun-god, arrested his fiery steeds in their headlong course to welcome
this wonderful emanation from the godhead. Athene was at once admitted
into the assembly of the gods, and henceforth took her place as the most
faithful and sagacious of all her father's counsellors. This brave, dauntless
maiden, so exactly the essence of all that is noble in the character of "the
father of gods and men," remained throughout chaste in word and deed, and
kind at heart, without exhibiting any of those failings which somewhat mar
the nobler features in the character of Zeus. This direct emanation from his
own self, justly his favourite child, his better and purer counterpart,
received from him several important prerogatives. She was permitted to
hurl the thunderbolts, to prolong the life of man, and to bestow the gift of
prophecy; in fact Athene was the only divinity whose authority was equal to
that of Zeus himself, and when he had ceased to visit the earth in person she
was empowered by him to act as his deputy. It was her especial duty to
protect the state and all peaceful associations of mankind, which she
possessed the power of defending when occasion required. She encouraged

the maintenance of law and order, and defended the right on all occasions,
for which reason, in the Trojan war she espouses the cause of the Greeks
and exerts all her influence on their behalf. The Areopagus, a court of
justice where religious causes and murders were tried, was believed to have
been instituted by her, and when both sides happened to have an equal
number of votes she gave the casting-vote in favour of the accused. She was
the patroness of learning, science, and art, more particularly where these
contributed directly towards the welfare of nations. She presided over all
inventions connected with agriculture, invented the plough, and taught
mankind how to use oxen for farming purposes. She also instructed
mankind in the use of numbers, trumpets, chariots, &c., and presided over
the building of the Argo,[20] thereby encouraging the useful art of
navigation. She also taught the Greeks how to build the wooden horse by
means of which the destruction of Troy was effected.
The safety of cities depended on her care, for which reason her temples
were generally built on the citadels, and she was supposed to watch over the
defence of the walls, fortifications, harbours, &c. A divinity who so
faithfully guarded the best interests of the state, by not only protecting it
from the attacks of enemies, but also by developing its chief resources of
wealth and prosperity, was worthily chosen as the presiding deity of the
state, and in this character as an essentially political goddess she was called
Athene-Polias.
The fact of Athene having been born clad in armour, which merely signified
that her virtue and purity were unassailable, has given rise to the erroneous
supposition that she was the presiding goddess of war; but a deeper study of
her character in all its bearings proves that, in contradistinction to her
brother Ares, the god of war, who loved strife for its own sake, she only
takes up arms to protect the innocent and deserving against tyrannical
oppression. It is true that in the Iliad we frequently see her on the battlefield
fighting valiantly, and protecting her favourite heroes; but this is always at
the command of Zeus, who even supplies her with arms for the purpose, as
it is supposed that she possessed none of her own. A marked feature in the
representations of this deity is the ægis, that wonderful shield given to her
by her father as a further means of defence, which, when in danger, she
swung so swiftly round and round that it kept at a distance all antagonistic
influences; hence her name Pallas, from pallo, I swing. In the centre of this

shield, which was covered with dragon's scales, bordered with serpents, and
which she sometimes wore as a breastplate, was the awe-inspiring head of
the Medusa, which had the effect of turning to stone all beholders.
In addition to the many functions which she exercised in connection with
the state, Athene presided over the two chief departments of feminine
industry, spinning and weaving. In the latter art she herself displayed
unrivalled ability and exquisite taste. She wove her own robe and that of
Hera, which last she is said to have embroidered very richly; she also gave
Jason a cloak wrought by herself, when he set forth in quest of the Golden
Fleece. Being on one occasion challenged to a contest in this
accomplishment by a mortal maiden named Arachne, whom she had
instructed in the art of weaving, she accepted the challenge and was
completely vanquished by her pupil. Angry at her defeat, she struck the
unfortunate maiden on the forehead with the shuttle which she held in her
hand; and Arachne, being of a sensitive nature, was so hurt by this indignity
that she hung herself in despair, and was changed by Athene into a spider.
This goddess is said to have invented the flute,[21] upon which she played
with considerable talent, until one day, being laughed at by the assembled
gods and goddesses for the contortions which her countenance assumed
during these musical efforts, she hastily ran to a fountain in order to
convince herself whether she deserved their ridicule. Finding to her intense
disgust that such was indeed the fact, she threw the flute away, and never
raised it to her lips again.
Athene is usually represented fully draped; she has a
serious and thoughtful aspect, as though replete with
earnestness and wisdom; the beautiful oval contour of
her countenance is adorned by the luxuriance of her
wealth of hair, which is drawn back from the temples
and hangs down in careless grace; she looks the
embodiment of strength, grandeur, and majesty; whilst
her broad shoulders and small hips give her a slightly
masculine appearance.
When represented as the war-goddess she appears clad in armour, with a
helmet on her head, from which waves a large plume; she carries the ægis

on her arm, and in her hand a golden staff, which possessed the property of
endowing her chosen favourites with youth and dignity.
Athene was universally worshipped throughout Greece, but was regarded
with special veneration by the Athenians, she being the guardian deity of
Athens. Her most celebrated temple was the Parthenon, which stood on the
Acropolis at Athens, and contained her world-renowned statue by Phidias,
which ranks second only to that of Zeus by the same great artist. This
colossal statue was 39 feet high, and was composed of ivory and gold; its
majestic beauty formed the chief attraction of the temple. It represented her
standing erect, bearing her spear and shield; in her hand she held an image
of Nike, and at her feet there lay a serpent.
The tree sacred to her was the olive, which she herself produced in a contest
with Poseidon. The olive-tree thus called into existence was preserved in
the temple of Erectheus, on the Acropolis, and is said to have possessed
such marvellous vitality, that when the Persians burned it after sacking the
town it immediately burst forth into new shoots.
The principal festival held in honour of this divinity was the Panathenæa.
The owl, cock, and serpent were the animals sacred to her, and her
sacrifices were rams, bulls, and cows.

MINERVA.
The Minerva of the Romans was identified with the
Pallas-Athene of the Greeks. Like her she presides over
learning and all useful arts, and is the patroness of the
feminine accomplishments of sewing, spinning,
weaving, &c. Schools were under her especial care, and
schoolboys, therefore, had holidays during her festivals
(the Greater Quinquatria), when they always brought a
gift to their master, called the Minerval.
It is worthy of notice that the only three divinities worshipped in the Capitol
were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and in their joint honour the Ludi Maximi
or great games were held.

THEMIS.

Themis, who has already been alluded to as the wife of Zeus, was the
daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and personified those divine laws of justice
and order by means of which the well-being and morality of communities
are regulated. She presided over the assemblies of the people and the laws
of hospitality. To her was intrusted the office of convoking the assembly of
the gods, and she was also mistress of ritual and ceremony. On account of
her great wisdom Zeus himself frequently sought her counsel and acted
upon her advice. Themis was a prophetic divinity, and had an oracle near
the river Cephissus in Bœotia.
She is usually represented as being in the full maturity of womanhood, of
fair aspect, and wearing a flowing garment, which drapes her noble,
majestic form; in her right hand she holds the sword of justice, and in her
left the scales, which indicate the impartiality with which every cause is
carefully weighed by her, her eyes being bandaged so that the personality of
the individual should carry no weight with respect to the verdict.
This divinity is sometimes identified with Tyche, sometimes with Ananke.
Themis, like so many other Greek divinities, takes the place of a more
ancient deity of the same name who was a daughter of Uranus and Gæa.
This elder Themis inherited from her mother the gift of prophecy, and when
she became merged into her younger representative she transmitted to her
this prophetic power.

HESTIA (Vesta).

Hestia was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was the goddess of Fire in
its first application to the wants of mankind, hence she was essentially the
presiding deity of the domestic hearth and the guardian spirit of man, and it
was her pure and benign influence which was supposed to protect the
sanctity of domestic life.
Now in these early ages the hearth was regarded as the most important and
most sacred portion of the dwelling, probably because the protection of the
fire was an important consideration, for if once permitted to become extinct,

re-ignition was attended with extreme difficulty. In fact, the hearth was held
so sacred that it constituted the sanctum of the family, for which reason it
was always erected in the centre of every house. It was a few feet in height
and was built of stone; the fire was placed on the top of it, and served the
double purpose of preparing the daily meals, and consuming the family
sacrifices. Round this domestic hearth or altar were gathered the various
members of the family, the head of the house occupying the place of honour
nearest the hearth. Here prayers were said and sacrifices offered, and here
also every kind and loving feeling was fostered, which even extended to the
hunted and guilty stranger, who, if he once succeeded in touching this
sacred altar, was safe from pursuit and punishment, and was henceforth
placed under the protection of the family. Any crime committed within the
sacred precincts of the domestic hearth was invariably visited by death.
In Grecian cities there was a common hall, called the
Prytaneum, in which the members of the government
had their meals at the expense of the state, and here too
was the Hestia, or public hearth, with its fire, by means
of which those meals were prepared. It was customary
for emigrants to take with them a portion of this sacred
fire, which they jealously guarded and brought with
them to their new home, where it served as a connecting
link between the young Greek colony and the mother
country. Hestia is generally represented standing, and in
accordance with the dignity and sanctity of her character,
always appears fully draped. Her countenance is distinguished by a serene
gravity of expression.

VESTA.
Vesta occupies a distinguished place among the earlier divinities of the
Romans. Her temple in Rome, containing as it were the hearthstone of the
nation, stood close beside the palace of Numa Pompilius.
On her altar burned the never-ceasing fire, which was tended by her
priestesses, the Vestal Virgins.[22]

The temple of Vesta was circular in form, and contained that sacred and
highly prized treasure the Palladium of Troy.[23]
The great festival in honour of Vesta, called the Vestalia, was celebrated on
the 9th of June.

DEMETER (Ceres).

Demeter (from Ge-meter, earth-mother) was the daughter of Cronus and
Rhea.[24] She represented that portion of Gæa (the whole solid earth) which
we call the earth's crust, and which produces all vegetation. As goddess of
agriculture, field-fruits, plenty, and productiveness, she was the sustainer of
material life, and was therefore a divinity of great importance. When
ancient Gæa lost, with Uranus, her position as a ruling divinity, she
abdicated her sway in favour of her daughter Rhea, who henceforth
inherited the powers which her mother had previously possessed, receiving
in her place the honour and worship of mankind. In a very old poem Gæa is
accordingly described as retiring to a cavern in the bowels of the earth,
where she sits in the lap of her daughter, slumbering, moaning, and nodding
for ever and ever.
It is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinctive difference between the
three great earth-goddesses Gæa, Rhea, and Demeter. Gæa represents the
earth as a whole, with its mighty subterranean forces; Rhea is that
productive power which causes vegetation to spring forth, thus sustaining
men and animals; Demeter, by presiding over agriculture, directs and
utilizes Rhea's productive powers. But in later times, when Rhea, like other
ancient divinities, loses her importance as a ruling deity, Demeter assumes
all her functions and attributes, and then becomes the goddess of the life-
producing and life-maintaining earth-crust. We must bear in mind the fact
that man in his primitive state knew neither how to sow nor how to till the
ground; when, therefore, he had exhausted the pastures which surrounded
him he was compelled to seek others which were as yet unreaped; thus,
roaming constantly from one place to another, settled habitations, and
consequently civilizing influences, were impossible. Demeter, however, by
introducing a knowledge of agriculture, put an end, at once and for ever, to
that nomadic life which was now no longer necessary.

The favour of Demeter was believed to bring mankind
rich harvests and fruitful crops, whereas her displeasure
caused blight, drought, and famine. The island of Sicily
was supposed to be under her especial protection, and
there she was regarded with particular veneration, the
Sicilians naturally attributing the wonderful fertility of
their country to the partiality of the goddess.
Demeter is usually represented as a woman of noble
bearing and majestic appearance, tall, matronly, and
dignified, with beautiful golden hair, which falls in
rippling curls over her stately shoulders, the yellow locks being
emblematical of the ripened ears of corn. Sometimes she appears seated in a
chariot drawn by winged dragons, at others she stands erect, her figure
drawn up to its full height, and always fully draped; she bears a sheaf of
wheat-ears in one hand and a lighted torch in the other. The wheat-ears are
not unfrequently replaced by a bunch of poppies, with which her brows are
also garlanded, though sometimes she merely wears a simple riband in her
hair.
Demeter, as the wife of Zeus, became the mother of Persephone
(Proserpine), to whom she was so tenderly attached that her whole life was
bound up in her, and she knew no happiness except in her society. One day,
however, whilst Persephone was gathering flowers in a meadow, attended
by the ocean-nymphs, she saw to her surprise a beautiful narcissus, from the
stem of which sprang forth a hundred blossoms. Drawing near to examine
this lovely flower, whose exquisite scent perfumed the air, she stooped
down to gather it, suspecting no evil, when a yawning abyss opened at her
feet, and Aïdes, the grim ruler of the lower world, appeared from its depths,
seated in his dazzling chariot drawn by four black horses. Regardless of her
tears and the shrieks of her female attendants, Aïdes seized the terrified
maiden, and bore her away to the gloomy realms over which he reigned in
melancholy grandeur. Helios, the all-seeing sun-god, and Hecate, a
mysterious and very ancient divinity, alone heard her cries for aid, but were
powerless to help her. When Demeter became conscious of her loss her
grief was intense, and she refused to be comforted. She knew not where to
seek for her child, but feeling that repose and inaction were impossible, she
set out on her weary search, taking with her two torches which she lighted

in the flames of Mount Etna to guide her on her way. For nine long days
and nights she wandered on, inquiring of every one she met for tidings of
her child. But all was in vain! Neither gods nor men could give her the
comfort which her soul so hungered for. At last, on the tenth day, the
disconsolate mother met Hecate, who informed her that she had heard her
daughter's cries, but knew not who it was that had borne her away. By
Hecate's advice Demeter consulted Helios, whose all-seeing eye nothing
escapes, and from him she learnt that it was Zeus himself who had
permitted Aïdes to seize Persephone, and transport her to the lower world in
order that she might become his wife. Indignant with Zeus for having given
his sanction to the abduction of his daughter, and filled with the bitterest
sorrow, she abandoned her home in Olympus, and refused all heavenly
food. Disguising herself as an old woman, she descended upon earth, and
commenced a weary pilgrimage among mankind. One evening she arrived
at a place called Eleusis, in Attica, and sat down to rest herself near a well
beneath the shade of an olive-tree. The youthful daughters of Celeus, the
king of the country, came with their pails of brass to draw water from this
well, and seeing that the tired wayfarer appeared faint and dispirited, they
spoke kindly to her, asking who she was, and whence she came. Demeter
replied that she had made her escape from pirates, who had captured her,
and added that she would feel grateful for a home with any worthy family,
whom she would be willing to serve in a menial capacity. The princesses,
on hearing this, begged Demeter to have a moment's patience while they
returned home and consulted their mother, Metaneira. They soon brought
the joyful intelligence that she was desirous of securing her services as
nurse to her infant son Demophoon, or Triptolemus. When Demeter arrived
at the house a radiant light suddenly illumined her, which circumstance so
overawed Metaneira that she treated the unknown stranger with the greatest
respect, and hospitably offered her food and drink. But Demeter, still grief-
worn and dejected, refused her friendly offers, and held herself apart from
the social board. At length, however, the maid-servant Iambe succeeded, by
means of playful jests and merriment, in somewhat dispelling the grief of
the sorrowing mother, causing her at times to smile in spite of herself, and
even inducing her to partake of a mixture of barley-meal, mint, and water,
which was prepared according to the directions of the goddess herself. Time
passed on, and the young child throve amazingly under the care of his kind
and judicious nurse, who, however, gave him no food, but anointed him

daily with ambrosia, and every night laid him secretly in the fire in order to
render him immortal and exempt from old age. But, unfortunately, this
benevolent design on the part of Demeter was frustrated by Metaneira
herself, whose curiosity, one night, impelled her to watch the proceedings
of the mysterious being who nursed her child. When to her horror she
beheld her son placed in the flames, she shrieked aloud. Demeter, incensed
at this untimely interruption, instantly withdrew the child, and throwing him
on the ground, revealed herself in her true character. The bent and aged
form had vanished, and in its place there stood a bright and beauteous
being, whose golden locks streamed over her shoulders in richest
luxuriance, her whole aspect bespeaking dignity and majesty. She told the
awe-struck Metaneira that she was the goddess Demeter, and had intended
to make her son immortal, but that her fatal curiosity had rendered this
impossible, adding, however, that the child, having slept in her arms, and
been nursed on her lap, should ever command the respect and esteem of
mankind. She then desired that a temple and altar should be erected to her
on a neighbouring hill by the people of Eleusis, promising that she herself
would direct them how to perform the sacred rites and ceremonies, which
should be observed in her honour. With these words she took her departure
never to return.
Obedient to her commands, Celeus called together a meeting of his people,
and built the temple on the spot which the goddess had indicated. It was
soon completed, and Demeter took up her abode in it, but her heart was still
sad for the loss of her daughter, and the whole world felt the influence of
her grief and dejection. This was indeed a terrible year for mankind.
Demeter no longer smiled on the earth she was wont to bless, and though
the husbandman sowed the grain, and the groaning oxen ploughed the
fields, no harvest rewarded their labour. All was barren, dreary desolation.
The world was threatened with famine, and the gods with the loss of their
accustomed honours and sacrifices; it became evident, therefore, to Zeus
himself that some measures must be adopted to appease the anger of the
goddess. He accordingly despatched Iris and many of the other gods and
goddesses to implore Demeter to return to Olympus; but all their prayers
were fruitless. The incensed goddess swore that until her daughter was
restored to her she would not allow the grain to spring forth from the earth.
At length Zeus sent Hermes, his faithful messenger, to the lower world with

a petition to Aïdes, urgently entreating him to restore Persephone to the
arms of her disconsolate mother. When he arrived in the gloomy realms of
Aïdes, Hermes found him seated on a throne with the beautiful Persephone
beside him, sorrowfully bewailing her unhappy fate. On learning his errand,
Aïdes consented to resign Persephone, who joyfully prepared to follow the
messenger of the gods to the abode of life and light. Before taking leave of
her husband, he presented to her a few seeds of pomegranate, which in her
excitement she thoughtlessly swallowed, and this simple act, as the sequel
will show, materially affected her whole future life. The meeting between
mother and child was one of unmixed rapture, and for the moment all the
past was forgotten. The loving mother's happiness would now have been
complete had not Aïdes asserted his rights. These were, that if any immortal
had tasted food in his realms they were bound to remain there for ever. Of
course the ruler of the lower world had to prove this assertion. This,
however, he found no difficulty in doing, as Ascalaphus, the son of Acheron
and Orphne, was his witness to the fact.[25] Zeus, pitying the
disappointment of Demeter at finding her hopes thus blighted, succeeded in
effecting a compromise by inducing his brother Aïdes to allow Persephone
to spend six months of the year with the gods above, whilst during the other
six she was to be the joyless companion of her grim lord below.
Accompanied by her daughter, the beautiful Persephone, Demeter now
resumed her long-abandoned dwelling in Olympus; the sympathetic earth
responded gaily to her bright smiles, the corn at once sprang forth from the
ground in fullest plenty, the trees, which late were sered and bare, now
donned their brightest emerald robes, and the flowers, so long imprisoned in
the hard, dry soil, filled the whole air with their fragrant perfume. Thus ends
this charming story, which was a favourite theme with all the classic
authors.
It is very possible that the poets who first created this graceful myth merely
intended it as an allegory to illustrate the change of seasons; in the course of
time, however, a literal meaning became attached to this and similar
poetical fancies, and thus the people of Greece came to regard as an article
of religious belief what, in the first instance, was nothing more than a poetic
simile.
In the temple erected to Demeter at Eleusis, the famous Eleusinian
Mysteries were instituted by the goddess herself. It is exceedingly difficult,

as in the case of all secret societies, to discover anything with certainty
concerning these sacred rites. The most plausible supposition is that the
doctrines taught by the priests to the favoured few whom they initiated,
were religious truths which were deemed unfit for the uninstructed mind of
the multitude. For instance, it is supposed that the myth of Demeter and
Persephone was explained by the teachers of the Mysteries to signify the
temporary loss which mother earth sustains every year when the icy breath
of winter robs her of her flowers and fruits and grain.
It is believed that in later times a still deeper meaning was conveyed by this
beautiful myth, viz., the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The grain,
which, as it were, remains dead for a time in the dark earth, only to rise one
day dressed in a newer and lovelier garb, was supposed to symbolize the
soul, which, after death, frees itself from corruption, to live again under a
better and purer form.
When Demeter instituted the Eleusinian Mysteries, Celeus and his family
were the first to be initiated, Celeus himself being appointed high-priest.
His son Triptolemus and his daughters, who acted as priestesses, assisted
him in the duties of his sacred office. The Mysteries were celebrated by the
Athenians every five years, and were, for a long time, their exclusive
privilege. They took place by torchlight, and were conducted with the
greatest solemnity.
In order to spread abroad the blessings which agriculture confers, Demeter
presented Triptolemus with her chariot drawn by winged dragons, and,
giving him some grains of corn, desired him to journey through the world,
teaching mankind the arts of agriculture and husbandry.
Demeter exercised great severity towards those who incurred her
displeasure. We find examples of this in the stories of Stellio and
Eresicthon. Stellio was a youth who ridiculed the goddess for the eagerness
with which she was eating a bowl of porridge, when weary and faint in the
vain search for her daughter. Resolved that he should never again have an
opportunity of thus offending, she angrily threw into his face the remainder
of the food, and changed him into a spotted lizard.
Eresicthon, son of Triopas, had drawn upon himself the anger of Demeter
by cutting down her sacred groves, for which she punished him with a

constant and insatiable hunger. He sold all his
possessions in order to satisfy his cravings, and was
forced at last to devour his own limbs. His daughter
Metra, who was devotedly attached to him, possessed
the power of transforming herself into a variety of
different animals. By this means she contrived to support
her father, who sold her again and again each time she
assumed a different form, and thus he dragged on a
pitiful existence.

CERES.
The Roman Ceres is actually the Greek Demeter under
another name, her attributes, worship, festivals, &c., being precisely
identical.
The Romans were indebted to Sicily for this divinity, her worship having
been introduced by the Greek colonists who settled there.
The Cerealia, or festivals in honour of Ceres, commenced on the 12th of
April, and lasted several days.

APHRODITE (Venus).

Aphrodite (from aphros, sea-foam, and dite, issued), the daughter of Zeus
and a sea-nymph called Dione, was the goddess of Love and Beauty.
Dione, being a sea-nymph, gave birth to her daughter beneath the waves;
but the child of the heaven-inhabiting Zeus was forced to ascend from the
ocean-depths and mount to the snow-capped summits of Olympus, in order
to breathe that ethereal and most refined atmosphere which pertains to the
celestial gods.
Aphrodite was the mother of Eros (Cupid), the god of Love, also of Æneas,
the great Trojan hero and the head of that Greek colony which settled in
Italy, and from which arose the city of Rome. As a mother Aphrodite claims
our sympathy for the tenderness she exhibits towards her children. Homer
tells us in his Iliad, how, when Æneas was wounded in battle, she came to

his assistance, regardless of personal danger, and was herself severely
wounded in attempting to save his life.
Aphrodite was tenderly attached to a lovely youth, called Adonis, whose
exquisite beauty has become proverbial. He was a motherless babe, and
Aphrodite, taking pity on him, placed him in a chest and intrusted him to
the care of Persephone, who became so fond of the beautiful youth that she
refused to part with him. Zeus, being appealed to by the rival foster-
mothers, decided that Adonis should spend four months of every year with
Persephone, four with Aphrodite, whilst during the remaining four months
he should be left to his own devices. He became, however, so attached to
Aphrodite that he voluntarily devoted to her the time at his own disposal.
Adonis was killed, during the chase, by a wild boar, to the great grief of
Aphrodite, who bemoaned his loss so persistently that Aïdes, moved with
pity, permitted him to pass six months of every year with her, whilst the
remaining half of the year was spent by him in the lower world.
Aphrodite possessed a magic girdle (the famous cestus) which she
frequently lent to unhappy maidens suffering from the pangs of unrequited
love, as it was endowed with the power of inspiring affection for the wearer,
whom it invested with every attribute of grace, beauty, and fascination.
Her usual attendants are the Charites or Graces (Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and
Thalia), who are represented undraped and intertwined in a loving embrace.
In Hesiod's Theogony she is supposed to belong to the more ancient
divinities, and, whilst those of later date are represented as having
descended one from another, and all more or less from Zeus, Aphrodite has
a variously-accounted-for, yet independent origin.
The most poetical version of her birth is that when Uranus was wounded by
his son Cronus, his blood mingled with the foam of the sea, whereupon the
bubbling waters at once assumed a rosy tint, and from their depths arose, in
all the surpassing glory of her loveliness, Aphrodite, goddess of love and
beauty! Shaking her long, fair tresses, the water-drops rolled down into the
beautiful sea-shell in which she stood, and became transformed into pure
glistening pearls. Wafted by the soft and balmy breezes, she floated on to
Cythera, and was thence transported to the island of Cyprus. Lightly she
stepped on shore, and under the gentle pressure of her delicate foot the dry

and rigid sand became transformed into a verdant meadow, where every
varied shade of colour and every sweet odour charmed the senses. The
whole island of Cyprus became clothed with verdure, and greeted this
fairest of all created beings with a glad smile of friendly welcome. Here she
was received by the Seasons, who decked her with garments of immortal
fabric, encircling her fair brow with a wreath of purest gold, whilst from her
ears depended costly rings, and a glittering chain embraced her swan-like
throat. And now, arrayed in all the panoply of her irresistible charms, the
nymphs escort her to the dazzling halls of Olympus, where she is received
with ecstatic enthusiasm by the admiring gods and goddesses. The gods all
vied with each other in aspiring to the honour of her hand, but Hephæstus
became the envied possessor of this lovely being, who, however, proved as
faithless as she was beautiful, and caused her husband much unhappiness,
owing to the preference she showed at various times for some of the other
gods and also for mortal men.

The celebrated Venus of Milo, now in the Louvre, is an
exquisite statue of this divinity. The head is beautifully
formed; the rich waves of hair descend on her rather low
but broad forehead and are caught up gracefully in a
small knot at the back of the head; the expression of the
face is most bewitching, and bespeaks the perfect
joyousness of a happy nature combined with the dignity
of a goddess; the drapery falls in careless folds from the
waist downwards, and her whole attitude is the
embodiment of all that is graceful and lovely in
womanhood. She is of medium height, and the form is
perfect in its symmetry and faultless proportions.
Aphrodite is also frequently represented in the act of confining her dripping
locks in a knot, whilst her attendant nymphs envelop her in a gauzy veil.
The animals sacred to her were the dove, swan, swallow, and sparrow. Her
favourite plants were the myrtle, apple-tree, rose, and poppy.
The worship of Aphrodite is supposed to have been introduced into Greece
from Central Asia. There is no doubt that she was originally identical with
the famous Astarté, the Ashtoreth of the Bible, against whose idolatrous
worship and infamous rites the prophets of old hurled forth their sublime
and powerful anathemas.

VENUS.
The Venus of the Romans was identified with the Aphrodite of the Greeks.
The worship of this divinity was only established in Rome in comparatively
later times. Annual festivals, called Veneralia, were held in her honour, and
the month of April, when flowers and plants spring forth afresh, was sacred
to her. She was worshipped as Venus Cloacina (or the Purifier), and as
Venus Myrtea (or the myrtle goddess), an epithet derived from the myrtle,
the emblem of Love.

HELIOS (Sol).

The worship of Helios was introduced into Greece from Asia. According to
the earliest conceptions of the Greeks he was not only the sun-god, but also
the personification of life and all life-giving power, for light is well known
to be an indispensable condition of all healthy terrestrial life. The worship
of the sun was originally very widely spread, not only among the early
Greeks themselves, but also among other primitive nations. To us the sun is
simply the orb of light, which, high above our heads, performs each day the
functions assigned to it by a mighty and invisible Power; we can, therefore,
form but a faint idea of the impression which it produced upon the spirit of
a people whose intellect was still in its infancy, and who believed, with
child-like simplicity, that every power of nature was a divinity, which,
according as its character was baleful or beneficent, worked for the
destruction or benefit of the human race.
Helios, who was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, is described as
rising every morning in the east, preceded by his sister Eos (the Dawn),
who, with her rosy fingers, paints the tips of the mountains, and draws aside
that misty veil through which her brother is about to appear. When he has
burst forth in all the glorious light of day, Eos disappears, and Helios now
drives his flame-darting chariot along the accustomed track. This chariot,
which is of burnished gold, is drawn by four fire-breathing steeds, behind
which the young god stands erect with flashing eyes, his head surrounded
with rays, holding in one hand the reins of those fiery coursers which in all
hands save his are unmanageable. When towards evening he descends the
curve[26] in order to cool his burning forehead in the waters of the deep sea,
he is followed closely by his sister Selene (the Moon), who is now prepared
to take charge of the world, and illumine with her silver crescent the dusky
night. Helios meanwhile rests from his labours, and, reclining softly on the
cool fragrant couch prepared for him by the sea-nymphs, recruits himself
for another life-giving, joy-inspiring, and beauteous day.
It may appear strange that, although the Greeks considered the earth to be a
flat circle, no explanation is given of the fact that Helios sinks down in the
far west regularly every evening, and yet reappears as regularly every
morning in the east. Whether he was supposed to pass through Tartarus, and
thus regain the opposite extremity through the bowels of the earth, or
whether they thought he possessed any other means of making this transit,
there is not a line in either Homer or Hesiod to prove. In later times,

however, the poets invented the graceful fiction, that when Helios had
finished his course, and reached the western side of the curve, a winged-
boat, or cup, which had been made for him by Hephæstus, awaited him
there, and conveyed him rapidly, with his glorious equipage, to the east,
where he recommenced his bright and glowing career.
This divinity was invoked as a witness when a solemn oath was taken, as it
was believed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, and it was this fact
which enabled him to inform Demeter of the fate of her daughter, as already
related. He was supposed to possess flocks and herds in various localities,
which may possibly be intended to represent the days and nights of the year,
or the stars of heaven.
Helios is said to have loved Clytie, a daughter of Oceanus, who ardently
returned his affection; but in the course of time the fickle sun-god
transferred his devotion to Leucothea, the daughter of Orchamus, king of
the eastern countries, which so angered the forsaken Clytie that she
informed Orchamus of his daughter's attachment, and he punished her by
inhumanly burying her alive. Helios, overcome with grief, endeavoured, by
every means in his power, to recall her to life. At last, finding all his efforts
unavailing, he sprinkled her grave with heavenly nectar, and immediately
there sprang forth from the spot a shoot of frankincense, which spread
around its aromatic perfume.
The jealous Clytie gained nothing by her cruel conduct, for the sun-god
came to her no more. Inconsolable at his loss, she threw herself upon the
ground, and refused all sustenance. For nine long days she turned her face
towards the glorious god of day, as he moved along the heavens, till at
length her limbs became rooted in the ground, and she was transformed into
a flower, which ever turns towards the sun.
Helios married Perse, daughter of Oceanus, and their children were, Aëtes,
king of Colchis (celebrated in the legend of the Argonauts as the possessor
of the Golden Fleece), and Circe, the renowned sorceress.
Helios had another son named Phaethon, whose mother was Clymene, one
of the Oceanides. The youth was very beautiful, and a great favourite with
Aphrodite, who intrusted him with the care of one of her temples, which
flattering proof of her regard caused him to become vain and presumptuous.

His friend Epaphus, son of Zeus and Io, endeavoured to check his youthful
vanity by pretending to disbelieve his assertion that the sun-god was his
father. Phaethon, full of resentment, and eager to be able to refute the
calumny, hastened to his mother Clymene, and besought her to tell him
whether Helios was really his father. Moved by his entreaties, and at the
same time angry at the reproach of Epaphus, Clymene pointed to the
glorious sun, then shining down upon them, and assured her son that in that
bright orb he beheld the author of his being, adding that if he had still any
doubt, he might visit the radiant dwelling of the great god of light and
inquire for himself. Overjoyed at his mother's reassuring words, and
following the directions she gave him, Phaethon quickly wended his way to
his father's palace.
As he entered the palace of the sun-god the dazzling rays almost blinded
him, and prevented him from approaching the throne on which his father
was seated, surrounded by the Hours, Days, Months, Years, and Seasons.
Helios, who with his all-seeing eye had watched him from afar, removed his
crown of glittering rays, and bade him not to be afraid, but to draw near to
his father. Encouraged by this kind reception, Phaethon entreated him to
bestow upon him such a proof of his love, that all the world might be
convinced that he was indeed his son; whereupon Helios desired him to ask
any favour he pleased, and swore by the Styx that it should be granted. The
impetuous youth immediately requested permission to drive the chariot of
the sun for one whole day. His father listened horror-struck to this
presumptuous demand, and by representing the many dangers which would
beset his path, endeavoured to dissuade him from so perilous an
undertaking; but his son, deaf to all advice, pressed his point with such
pertinacity, that Helios was reluctantly compelled to lead him to the chariot.
Phaethon paused for a moment to admire the beauty of the glittering
equipage, the gift of the god of fire, who had formed it of gold, and
ornamented it with precious stones, which reflected the rays of the sun. And
now Helios, seeing his sister, the Dawn, opening her doors in the rosy east,
ordered the Hours to yoke the horses. The goddesses speedily obeyed the
command, and the father then anointed the face of his son with a sacred
balm, to enable him to endure the burning flames which issued from the
nostrils of the steeds, and sorrowfully placing his crown of rays upon his
head, desired him to ascend the chariot.

The eager youth joyfully took his place and grasped the coveted reins, but
no sooner did the fiery coursers of the sun feel the inexperienced hand
which attempted to guide them, than they became restive and
unmanageable. Wildly they rushed out of their accustomed track, now
soaring so high as to threaten the heavens with destruction, now descending
so low as nearly to set the earth on fire. At last the unfortunate charioteer,
blinded with the glare, and terrified at the awful devastation he had caused,
dropped the reins from his trembling hands. Mountains and forests were in
flames, rivers and streams were dried up, and a general conflagration was
imminent. The scorched earth now called on Zeus for help, who hurled his
thunderbolt at Phaethon, and with a flash of lightning brought the fiery
steeds to a standstill. The lifeless body of the youth fell headlong into the
river Eridanus,[27] where it was received and buried by the nymphs of the
stream. His sisters mourned so long for him that they were transformed by
Zeus into poplars, and the tears they shed, falling into the waters, became
drops of clear, transparent amber. Cycnus, the faithful friend of the unhappy
Phaethon, felt such overwhelming grief at his terrible fate, that he pined and
wasted away. The gods, moved with compassion, transformed him into a
swan, which for ever brooded over the fatal spot where the waters had
closed over the head of his unfortunate friend.
The chief seat of the worship of Helios was the island of
Rhodes, which according to the following myth was his
especial territory. At the time of the Titanomachia, when
the gods were dividing the world by lot, Helios
happened to be absent, and consequently received no
share. He, therefore, complained to Zeus, who proposed
to have a new allotment, but this Helios would not allow,
saying, that as he pursued his daily journey, his
penetrating eye had beheld a lovely, fertile island lying
beneath the waves of the ocean, and that if the immortals would swear to
give him the undisturbed possession of this spot, he would be content to
accept it as his share of the universe. The gods took the oath, whereupon the
island of Rhodes immediately raised itself above the surface of the waters.
The famous Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of
the world, was erected in honour of Helios. This wonderful statue was 105
feet high, and was formed entirely of brass; it formed the entrance to the

harbour at Rhodes, and the largest vessel could easily sail between the legs,
which stood on moles, each side of the harbour. Though so gigantic, it was
perfectly proportioned in every part. Some idea of its size may be gained
from the fact that very few people were able to span the thumb of this statue
with their arms. In the interior of the Colossus was a winding staircase
leading to the top, from the summit of which, by means of a telescope, the
coast of Syria, and also the shores of Egypt, are said to have been visible.
[28]

EOS (Aurora).

Eos, the Dawn, like her brother Helios, whose advent she always
announced, was also deified by the early Greeks. She too had her own
chariot, which she drove across the vast horizon both morning and night,
before and after the sun-god. Hence she is not merely the personification of
the rosy morn, but also of twilight, for which reason her palace is placed in
the west, on the island Ææa. The abode of Eos is a magnificent structure,
surrounded by flowery meads and velvety lawns, where nymphs and other
immortal beings, wind in and out in the mazy figures of the dance, whilst
the music of a sweetly-tuned melody accompanies their graceful, gliding
movements.
Eos is described by the poets as a beautiful maiden with rosy arms and
fingers, and large wings, whose plumage is of an ever-changing hue; she
bears a star on her forehead, and a torch in her hand. Wrapping round her
the rich folds of her violet-tinged mantle, she leaves her couch before the
break of day, and herself yokes her two horses, Lampetus and Phaethon, to
her glorious chariot. She then hastens with active cheerfulness to open the
gates of heaven, in order to herald the approach of her brother, the god of
day, whilst the tender plants and flowers, revived by the morning dew, lift
their heads to welcome her as she passes.

Eos first married the Titan Astræus,[29] and their children were Heosphorus
(Hesperus), the evening star, and the winds. She afterwards became united
to Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, who had won her affection by
his unrivalled beauty; and Eos, unhappy at the thought of their being ever
separated by death, obtained for him from Zeus the gift of immortality,

forgetting, however, to add to it that of eternal youth. The consequence was
that when, in the course of time, Tithonus grew old and decrepid, and lost
all the beauty which had won her admiration, Eos became disgusted with
his infirmities, and at last shut him up in a chamber, where soon little else
was left of him but his voice, which had now sunk into a weak, feeble
quaver. According to some of the later poets, he became so weary of his
cheerless and miserable existence, that he entreated to be allowed to die.
This was, however, impossible; but Eos, pitying his unhappy condition,
exerted her divine power, and changed him into a grasshopper, which is, as
it were, all voice, and whose monotonous, ceaseless chirpings may not
inaptly be compared to the meaningless babble of extreme old age.

PHŒBUS-APOLLO.

Phœbus-Apollo, the god of Light, Prophecy, Music, Poetry, and the Arts and
Sciences, is by far the noblest conception within the whole range of Greek
mythology, and his worship, which not only extended to all the states of
Greece, but also to Asia Minor and to every Greek colony throughout the
world, stands out among the most ancient and strongly-marked features of
Grecian history, and exerted a more decided influence over the Greek
nation, than that of any other deity, not excepting Zeus himself.
Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, and was born beneath the shade of a
palm tree which grew at the foot of Mount Cynthus, on the barren and
rocky island of Delos. The poets tell us that the earth smiled when the
young god first beheld the light of day, and that Delos became so proud and
exultant at the honour thus conferred upon her, that she covered herself with
golden flowers; swans surrounded the island, and the Delian nymphs
celebrated his birth with songs of joy.
The unhappy Leto, driven to Delos by the relentless persecutions of Hera,
was not long permitted to enjoy her haven of refuge. Being still tormented
by her enemy, the young mother was once more obliged to fly; she
therefore resigned the charge of her new-born babe to the goddess Themis,
who carefully wrapped the helpless infant in swaddling-clothes, and fed
him with nectar and ambrosia; but he had no sooner partaken of the
heavenly food than, to the amazement of the goddess, he burst asunder the
bands which confined his infant limbs, and springing to his feet, appeared

before her as a full-grown youth of divine strength and
beauty. He now demanded a lyre and a bow, declaring
that henceforth he would announce to mankind the will
of his father Zeus. "The golden lyre," said he, "shall be
my friend, the bent bow my delight, and in oracles will I
foretell the dark future." With these words he ascended
to Olympus, where he was received with joyful
acclamations into the assembly of the celestial gods, who
acknowledged him as the most beautiful and glorious of
all the sons of Zeus.
Phœbus-Apollo was the god of light in a twofold signification: first, as
representing the great orb of day which illumines the world; and secondly,
as the heavenly light which animates the soul of man. He inherited his
function as sun-god from Helios, with whom, in later times, he was so
completely identified, that the personality of the one became gradually
merged in that of the other. We, accordingly, find Helios frequently
confounded with Apollo, myths belonging to the former attributed to the
latter; and with some tribes—the Ionic, for instance—so complete is this
identification, that Apollo is called by them Helios-Apollo.
As the divinity whose power is developed in the broad light of day, he
brings joy and delight to nature, and health and prosperity to man. By the
influence of his warm and gentle rays he disperses the noxious vapours of
the night, assists the grain to ripen and the flowers to bloom.
But although, as god of the sun, he is a life-giving and life-preserving
power, who, by his genial influence, dispels the cold of winter, he is, at the
same time, the god who, by means of his fiercely darting rays, could spread
disease and send sudden death to men and animals; and it is to this phase of
his character that we must look for the explanation of his being considered,
in conjunction with his twin-sister, Artemis (as moon-goddess), a divinity of
death. The brother and sister share this function between them, he taking
man and she woman as her aim, and those especially who died in the bloom
of youth, or at an advanced age, were believed to have been killed by their
gentle arrows. But Apollo did not always send an easy death. We see in the
Iliad how, when angry with the Greeks, the "god of the silver bow" strode
down from Olympus, with his quiver full of death-bringing darts, and sent a

raging pestilence into their camp. For nine days he let fly his fatal arrows,
first on animals and then on men, till the air became darkened with the
smoke from the funeral pyres.
In his character as god of light, Phœbus-Apollo is the protecting deity of
shepherds, because it is he who warms the fields and meadows, and gives
rich pastures to the flocks, thereby gladdening the heart of the herdsman.
As the temperate heat of the sun exercises so invigorating an effect on man
and animals, and promotes the growth of those medicinal herbs and
vegetable productions necessary for the cure of diseases, Phœbus-Apollo
was supposed to possess the power of restoring life and health; hence he
was regarded as the god of healing; but this feature in his character we shall
find more particularly developed in his son Asclepius (Æsculapius), the
veritable god of the healing art.
Pursuing our analysis of the various phases in the character of Phœbus-
Apollo, we find that with the first beams of his genial light, all nature
awakens to renewed life, and the woods re-echo with the jubilant sound of
the untaught lays, warbled by thousands of feathered choristers. Hence, by a
natural inference, he is the god of music, and as, according to the belief of
the ancients, the inspirations of genius were inseparably connected with the
glorious light of heaven, he is also the god of poetry, and acts as the special
patron of the arts and sciences. Apollo is himself the heavenly musician
among the Olympic gods, whose banquets are gladdened by the wondrous
strains which he produces from his favourite instrument, the seven-stringed
lyre. In the cultus of Apollo, music formed a distinguishing feature. All
sacred dances, and even the sacrifices in his honour, were performed to the
sound of musical instruments; and it is, in a great measure, owing to the
influence which the music in his worship exercised on the Greek nation,
that Apollo came to be regarded as the leader of the nine Muses, the
legitimate divinities of poetry and song. In this character he is called
Musagetes, and is always represented robed in a long flowing garment; his
lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be singing, is suspended by a band
across the chest; his head is encircled by a wreath of laurel, and his long
hair, streaming down over his shoulders, gives him a somewhat effeminate
appearance.

And now we must view the glorious god of light under another, and (as far
as regards his influence over the Greek nation) a much more important
aspect; for, in historical times, all the other functions and attributes of
Apollo sink into comparative insignificance before the great power which
he exercised as god of prophecy. It is true that all Greek gods were
endowed, to a certain extent, with the faculty of foretelling future events;
but Apollo, as sun-god, was the concentration of all prophetic power, as it
was supposed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, which penetrated the
most hidden recesses, and laid bare the secrets which lay concealed behind
the dark veil of the future.
We have seen that when Apollo assumed his god-like form, he took his
place among the immortals; but he had not long enjoyed the rapturous
delights of Olympus, before he felt within him an ardent desire to fulfil his
great mission of interpreting to mankind the will of his mighty father. He
accordingly descended to earth, and travelled through many countries,
seeking a fitting site upon which to establish an oracle. At length he reached
the southern side of the rocky heights of Parnassus, beneath which lay the
harbour of Crissa. Here, under the overhanging cliff, he found a secluded
spot, where, from the most ancient times, there had existed an oracle, in
which Gæa herself had revealed the future to man, and which, in
Deucalion's time, she had resigned to Themis. It was guarded by the huge
serpent Python, the scourge of the surrounding neighbourhood, and the
terror alike of men and cattle. The young god, full of confidence in his
unerring aim, attacked and slew the monster with his arrows, thus freeing
land and people from their mighty enemy.
The grateful inhabitants, anxious to do honour to their deliverer, flocked
round Apollo, who proceeded to mark out a plan for a temple, and, with the
assistance of numbers of eager volunteers, a suitable edifice was soon
erected. It now became necessary to choose ministers, who would offer up
sacrifices, interpret his prophecies to the people, and take charge of the
temple. Looking round, he saw in the far distance a vessel bound from
Crete to the Peloponnesus, and determined to avail himself of her crew for
his service. Assuming the shape of an enormous dolphin, he agitated the
waters to such a degree, that the ship was tossed violently to and fro, to the
great alarm of the mariners; at the same time he raised a mighty wind,
which drove the ship into the harbour of Crissa, where she ran aground. The

terrified sailors dared not set foot on shore; but Apollo, under the form of a
vigorous youth, stepped down to the vessel, revealed himself in his true
character, and informed them that it was he who had driven them to Crissa,
in order that they might become his priests, and serve him in his temple.
Arrived at the sacred fane, he instructed them how to perform the services
in his honour, and desired them to worship him under the name of Apollo-
Delphinios, because he had first appeared to them under the form of a
dolphin. Thus was established the far-famed oracle of Delphi, the only
institution of the kind which was not exclusively national, for it was
consulted by Lydians, Phrygians, Etruscans, Romans, &c., and, in fact, was
held in the highest repute all over the world. In obedience to its decrees, the
laws of Lycurgus were introduced, and the earliest Greek colonies founded.
No cities were built without first consulting the Delphic oracle, for it was
believed that Apollo took special delight in the founding of cities, the first
stone of which he laid in person; nor was any enterprise ever undertaken,
without inquiring at this sacred fane as to its probable success.
But that which brought Apollo more closely home to the hearts of the
people, and raised the whole moral tone of the Greek nation, was the belief,
gradually developed with the intelligence of the people, that he was the god
who accepted repentance as an atonement for sin, who pardoned the
contrite sinner, and who acted as the special protector of those, who, like
Orestes, had committed a crime, which required long years of expiation.
Apollo is represented by the poets as being eternally young; his
countenance, glowing with joyous life, is the embodiment of immortal
beauty; his eyes are of a deep blue; his forehead low, but broad and
intellectual; his hair, which falls over his shoulders in long waving locks, is
of a golden, or warm chestnut hue. He is crowned with laurel, and wears a
purple robe; in his hand he bears his silver bow, which is unbent when he
smiles, but ready for use when he menaces evil-doers.
But Apollo, the eternally beautiful youth, the perfection of all that is
graceful and refined, rarely seems to have been happy in his love; either his
advances met with a repulse, or his union with the object of his affection
was attended with fatal consequences.

His first love was Daphne (daughter of Peneus, the river-god), who was so
averse to marriage that she entreated her father to allow her to lead a life of
celibacy, and devote herself to the chase, which she loved to the exclusion
of all other pursuits. But one day, soon after his victory over the Python,
Apollo happened to see Eros bending his bow, and proud of his own
superior strength and skill, he laughed at the efforts of the little archer,
saying that such a weapon was more suited to the one who had just killed
the terrible serpent. Eros angrily replied that his arrow should pierce the
heart of the mocker himself, and flying off to the summit of Mount
Parnassus, he drew from his quiver two darts of different workmanship—
one of gold, which had the effect of inspiring love; the other of lead, which
created aversion. Taking aim at Apollo, he pierced his breast with the
golden shaft, whilst the leaden one he discharged into the bosom of the
beautiful Daphne. The son of Leto instantly felt the most ardent affection
for the nymph, who, on her part, evinced the greatest dislike towards her
divine lover, and, at his approach, fled from him like a hunted deer. He
called upon her in the most endearing accents to stay, but she still sped on,
until at length, becoming faint with fatigue, and fearing that she was about
to succumb, she called upon the gods to come to her aid. Hardly had she
uttered her prayer before a heavy torpor seized her limbs, and just as Apollo
threw out his arms to embrace her, she became transformed into a laurel-
bush. He sorrowfully crowned his head with its leaves, and declared, that in
memory of his love, it should henceforth remain evergreen, and be held
sacred to him.
He next sought the love of Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus; but though
her father approved his suit, the maiden preferred a youth named Idas, who
contrived to carry her off in a winged chariot which he had procured from
Poseidon. Apollo pursued the fugitives, whom he quickly overtook, and
forcibly seizing the bride, refused to resign her. Zeus then interfered, and
declared that Marpessa herself must decide which of her lovers should
claim her as his wife. After due reflection she accepted Idas as her husband,
judiciously concluding that although the attractions of the divine Apollo
were superior to those of her lover, it would be wiser to unite herself to a
mortal, who, growing old with herself, would be less likely to forsake her,
when advancing years should rob her of her charms.

Cassandra, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, was another object of the love
of Apollo. She feigned to return his affection, and promised to marry him,
provided he would confer upon her the gift of prophecy; but having
received the boon she desired, the treacherous maiden refused to comply
with the conditions upon which it had been granted. Incensed at her breach
of faith, Apollo, unable to recall the gift he had bestowed, rendered it
useless by causing her predictions to fail in obtaining credence. Cassandra
became famous in history for her prophetic powers, but her prophecies were
never believed. For instance, she warned her brother Paris that if he brought
back a wife from Greece he would cause the destruction of his father's
house and kingdom; she also warned the Trojans not to admit the wooden
horse within the walls of the city, and foretold to Agamemnon all the
disasters which afterwards befell him.
Apollo afterwards married Coronis, a nymph of Larissa, and thought
himself happy in the possession of her faithful love; but once more he was
doomed to disappointment, for one day his favourite bird, the crow, flew to
him with the intelligence that his wife had transferred her affections to a
youth of Haemonia. Apollo, burning with rage, instantly destroyed her with
one of his death-bringing darts. Too late he repented of his rashness, for she
had been tenderly beloved by him, and he would fain have recalled her to
life; but, although he exerted all his healing powers, his efforts were in vain.
He punished the crow for its garrulity by changing the colour of its plumage
from pure white to intense black, and forbade it to fly any longer among the
other birds.
Coronis left an infant son named Asclepius, who afterwards became god of
medicine. His powers were so extraordinary that he could not only cure the
sick, but could even restore the dead to life. At last Aïdes complained to
Zeus that the number of shades conducted to his dominions was daily
decreasing, and the great ruler of Olympus, fearing that mankind, thus
protected against sickness and death, would be able to defy the gods
themselves, killed Asclepius with one of his thunderbolts. The loss of his
highly gifted son so exasperated Apollo that, being unable to vent his anger
on Zeus, he destroyed the Cyclops, who had forged the fatal thunderbolts.
For this offence, Apollo would have been banished by Zeus to Tartarus, but
at the earnest intercession of Leto he partially relented, and contented
himself with depriving him of all power and dignity, and imposing on him a

temporary servitude in the house of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Apollo
faithfully served his royal master for nine years in the humble capacity of a
shepherd, and was treated by him with every kindness and consideration.
During the period of his service the king sought the hand of Alcestis, the
beautiful daughter of Pelias, son of Poseidon; but her father declared that he
would only resign her to the suitor who should succeed in yoking a lion and
a wild boar to his chariot. By the aid of his divine herdsman, Admetus
accomplished this difficult task, and gained his bride. Nor was this the only
favour which the king received from the exiled god, for Apollo obtained
from the Fates the gift of immortality for his benefactor, on condition that
when his last hour approached, some member of his own family should be
willing to die in his stead. When the fatal hour arrived, and Admetus felt
that he was at the point of death, he implored his aged parents to yield to
him their few remaining days. But "life is sweet" even to old age, and they
both refused to make the sacrifice demanded of them. Alcestis, however,
who had secretly devoted herself to death for her husband, was seized with
a mortal sickness, which kept pace with his rapid recovery. The devoted
wife breathed her last in the arms of Admetus, and he had just consigned
her to the tomb, when Heracles chanced to come to the palace. Admetus
held the rites of hospitality so sacred, that he at first kept silence with regard
to his great bereavement; but as soon as his friend heard what had occurred,
he bravely descended into the tomb, and when death came to claim his prey,
he exerted his marvellous strength, and held him in his arms, until he
promised to restore the beautiful and heroic queen to the bosom of her
family.
Whilst pursuing the peaceful life of a shepherd, Apollo formed a strong
friendship with two youths named Hyacinthus and Cyparissus, but the great
favour shown to them by the god did not suffice to shield them from
misfortune. The former was one day throwing the discus with Apollo, when,
running too eagerly to take up the one thrown by the god, he was struck on
the head with it and killed on the spot. Apollo was overcome with grief at
the sad end of his young favourite, but being unable to restore him to life,
he changed him into the flower called after him the Hyacinth. Cyparissus
had the misfortune to kill by accident one of Apollo's favourite stags, which
so preyed on his mind that he gradually pined away, and died of a broken

heart. He was transformed by the god into a cypress-tree, which owes its
name to this story.
After these sad occurrences Apollo quitted Thessaly and repaired to
Phrygia, in Asia Minor, where he met Poseidon, who, like himself, was in
exile, and condemned to a temporary servitude on earth. The two gods now
entered the service of Laomedon, king of Troy, Apollo undertaking to tend
his flocks, and Poseidon to build the walls of the city. But Apollo also
contributed his assistance in the erection of those wonderful walls, and, by
the aid of his marvellous musical powers, the labours of his fellow-worker,
Poseidon, were rendered so light and easy that his otherwise arduous task
advanced with astonishing celerity; for, as the master-hand of the god of
music grasped the chords of his lyre,[30] the huge blocks of stone moved of
their own accord, adjusting themselves with the utmost nicety into the
places designed for them.
But though Apollo was so renowned in the art of music, there were two
individuals who had the effrontery to consider themselves equal to him in
this respect, and, accordingly, each challenged him to compete with them in
a musical contest. These were Marsyas and Pan. Marsyas was a satyr, who,
having picked up the flute which Athene had thrown away in disgust,
discovered, to his great delight and astonishment, that, in consequence of its
having touched the lips of a goddess, it played of itself in the most
charming manner. Marsyas, who was a great lover of music, and much
beloved on this account by all the elf-like denizens of the woods and glens,
was so intoxicated with joy at this discovery, that he foolishly challenged
Apollo to compete with him in a musical contest. The challenge being
accepted, the Muses were chosen umpires, and it was decided that the
unsuccessful candidate should suffer the punishment of being flayed alive.
For a long time the merits of both claimants remained so equally balanced,
that it was impossible to award the palm of victory to either, seeing which,
Apollo, resolved to conquer, added the sweet tones of his melodious voice
to the strains of his lyre, and this at once turned the scale in his favour. The
unhappy Marsyas being defeated, had to undergo the terrible penalty, and
his untimely fate was universally lamented; indeed the Satyrs and Dryads,
his companions, wept so incessantly at his fate, that their tears, uniting
together, formed a river in Phrygia which is still known by the name of
Marsyas.

The result of the contest with Pan was by no means of so serious a
character. The god of shepherds having affirmed that he could play more
skilfully on his flute of seven reeds (the syrinx or Pan's pipe), than Apollo
on his world-renowned lyre, a contest ensued, in which Apollo was
pronounced the victor by all the judges appointed to decide between the
rival candidates. Midas, king of Phrygia, alone demurred at this decision,
having the bad taste to prefer the uncouth tones of the Pan's pipe to the
refined melodies of Apollo's lyre. Incensed at the obstinacy and stupidity of
the Phrygian king, Apollo punished him by giving him the ears of an ass.
Midas, horrified at being thus disfigured, determined to hide his disgrace
from his subjects by means of a cap; his barber, however, could not be kept
in ignorance of the fact, and was therefore bribed with rich gifts never to
reveal it. Finding, however, that he could not keep the secret any longer, he
dug a hole in the ground into which he whispered it; then closing up the
aperture he returned home, feeling greatly relieved at having thus eased his
mind of its burden. But after all, this very humiliating secret was revealed to
the world, for some reeds which sprung up from the spot murmured
incessantly, as they waved to and fro in the wind: "King Midas has the ears
of an ass."
In the sad and beautiful story of Niobe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of
Amphion, king of Thebes, we have another instance of the severe
punishments meted out by Apollo to those who in any way incurred his
displeasure. Niobe was the proud mother of seven sons and seven
daughters, and exulting in the number of her children, she, upon one
occasion, ridiculed the worship of Leto, because she had but one son and
daughter, and desired the Thebans, for the future, to give to her the honours
and sacrifices which they had hitherto offered to the mother of Apollo and
Artemis. The sacrilegious words had scarcely passed her lips before Apollo
called upon his sister Artemis to assist him in avenging the insult offered to
their mother, and soon their invisible arrows sped through the air. Apollo
slew all the sons, and Artemis had already slain all the daughters save one,
the youngest and best beloved, whom Niobe clasped in her arms, when the
agonized mother implored the enraged deities to leave her, at least, one out
of all her beautiful children; but, even as she prayed, the deadly arrow
reached the heart of this child also. Meanwhile the unhappy father, unable
to bear the loss of his children, had destroyed himself, and his dead body

lay beside the lifeless corpse of his favourite son. Widowed and childless,
the heart-broken mother sat among her dead, and the gods, in pity for her
unutterable woe, turned her into a stone, which they transferred to Siphylus,
her native Phrygian mountain, where it still continues to shed tears.
The punishment of Niobe forms the subject of a
magnificent marble group, which was found at Rome in
the year 1553, and is now in the gallery of Uffizi, at
Florence.
The renowned singer Orpheus was the son of Apollo and
Calliope, the muse of epic poetry, and, as might be
expected with parents so highly gifted, was endowed
with most distinguished intellectual qualifications. He
was a poet, a teacher of the religious doctrines known as
the Orphic mysteries, and a great musician, having inherited from his father
an extraordinary genius for music. When he sang to the sweet tones of his
lyre, he charmed all nature, and summoned round him the wild beasts of the
forests, who, under the influence of his music, became tame and gentle as
lambs. The madly rushing torrents stopped their rapid course, and the very
mountains and trees moved from their places at the sound of his entrancing
melodies.
Orpheus became united to a lovely nymph named Eurydice, the daughter of
the sea-god Nereus, whom he fondly loved. She was no less attached to
him, and their married life was full of joy and happiness. But it was only
short-lived; for Aristæus,[31] the half-brother of Orpheus, having fallen in
love with the beautiful Eurydice, forcibly endeavoured to take her from her
husband, and as she fled across some fields to elude his pursuit, she was
bitten in the foot by a venomous snake, which lay concealed in the long
grass. Eurydice died of the wound, and her sorrowing husband filled the
groves and valleys with his piteous and unceasing lamentations.
His longing to behold her once more became at last so unconquerable, that
he determined to brave the horrors of the lower world, in order to entreat
Aïdes to restore to him his beloved wife. Armed only with his golden lyre,
the gift of Apollo, he descended into the gloomy depths of Hades, where his
heavenly music arrested for a while the torments of the unhappy sufferers.

The stone of Sisyphus remained motionless; Tantalus forgot his perpetual
thirst; the wheel of Ixion ceased to revolve; and even the Furies shed tears,
and withheld for a time their persecutions. Undismayed at the scenes of
horror and suffering which met his view on every side, he pursued his way
until he arrived at the palace of Aïdes. Presenting himself before the throne
on which sat the stony-hearted king and his consort Persephone, Orpheus
recounted his woes to the sound of his lyre. Moved to pity by his sweet
strains, they listened to his melancholy story, and consented to release
Eurydice on condition that he should not look upon her until they reached
the upper world. Orpheus gladly promised to comply with this injunction,
and, followed by Eurydice, ascended the steep and gloomy path which led
to the realms of life and light. All went well until he was just about to pass
the extreme limits of Hades, when, forgetting for the moment the hard
condition, he turned to convince himself that his beloved wife was really
behind him. The glance was fatal, and destroyed all his hopes of happiness;
for, as he yearningly stretched out his arms to embrace her, she was caught
back, and vanished from his sight for ever. The grief of Orpheus at this
second loss was even more intense than before, and he now avoided all
human society. In vain did the nymphs, his once chosen companions,
endeavour to win him back to his accustomed haunts; their power to charm
was gone, and music was now his sole consolation. He wandered forth
alone, choosing the wildest and most secluded paths, and the hills and vales
resounded with his pathetic melodies. At last he happened to cross the path
of some Thracian women, who were performing the wild rites of Dionysus
(Bacchus), and in their mad fury at his refusing to join them, they furiously
attacked him, and tore him in pieces. In pity for his unhappy fate, the Muses
collected his remains, which they buried at the foot of Mount Olympus, and
the nightingale warbled a funeral dirge over his grave. His head was thrown
into the river Hebrus, and as it floated down the stream, the lips still
continued to murmur the beloved name of Eurydice.
The chief seat of the worship of Apollo was at Delphi, and here was the
most magnificent of all his temples, the foundation of which reaches far
beyond all historical knowledge, and which contained immense riches, the
offerings of kings and private persons, who had received favourable replies
from the oracle. The Greeks believed Delphi to be the central point of the

earth, because two eagles sent forth by Zeus, one from the east, the other
from the west, were said to have arrived there at the same moment.
The Pythian games, celebrated in honour of the victory of Apollo over the
Python, took place at Delphi every four years. At the first celebration of
these games, gods, goddesses, and heroes contended for the prizes, which
were at first of gold or silver, but consisted, in later times, of simple laurel
wreaths.
On account of its being the place of his birth, the whole island of Delos was
consecrated to Apollo, where he was worshipped with great solemnity; the
greatest care was taken to preserve the sanctity of the spot, for which reason
no one was suffered to be buried there. At the foot of Mount Cynthus was a
splendid temple of Apollo which possessed an oracle, and was enriched
with magnificent offerings from all parts of Greece. Even foreign nations
held this island sacred, for when the Persians passed it on their way to
attack Greece, they not only sailed by, leaving it uninjured, but sent rich
presents to the temple. Games, called Delia, instituted by Theseus, were
celebrated at Delos every four years.
A festival termed the Gymnopedæa was held at Sparta in honour of Apollo,
in which boys sang the praises of the gods, and of the three hundred
Lacedæmonians who fell at the battle of Thermopylæ.
Wolves and hawks were sacrificed to Apollo, and the birds sacred to him
were the hawk, raven, and swan.

ROMAN APOLLO.
The worship of Apollo never occupied the all-important position in Rome
which it held in Greece, nor was it introduced till a comparatively late
period. There was no sanctuary erected to this divinity until B.C. 430, when
the Romans, in order to avert a plague, built a temple in his honour; but we
do not find the worship of Apollo becoming in any way prominent until the
time of Augustus, who, having called upon this god for aid before the
famous battle of Actium, ascribed the victory which he gained, to his
influence, and accordingly erected a temple there, which he enriched with a
portion of the spoil.

Augustus afterwards built another temple in honour of Apollo, on the
Palatine Hill, in which at the foot of his statue, were deposited two gilt
chests, containing the Sibylline oracles. These oracles were collected to
replace the Sibylline books originally preserved in the temple of Jupiter,
which were destroyed when that edifice was burned.
The Sibyls were maidens who had received the gift of
prophecy, and the privilege of living to an incredible age.
One of these Sibyls (known as the Cumæan) appeared to
Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, offering for
sale nine books, which she informed him had been
written by herself. Not knowing who she was, Tarquin
refused to buy them, upon which she burned three, and
returned with six, demanding the same price as before.
Being again driven away as an impostor, she again
retired and burned three more, returning with the remaining three, for which
she still asked the same price as at first. Tarquin, amazed at her
inconsistency, now consulted the Augurs, who blamed him for not having
bought the nine books when they were first offered to him, and desired him
to secure the remaining three, at whatever price they were to be had. He,
accordingly, purchased the volumes, which were found to contain
predictions of great importance to the Romans. After the disposal of the
books, the Sibyl vanished, and was seen no more.
The most beautiful and renowned of all the statues of Apollo now in
existence, is that known as the Apollo Belvedere, which was found in 1503
among the ruins of ancient Antium. It was purchased by Pope Julius II.,
who removed it to the Belvedere of the Vatican, from whence it takes its
name, and where it has been, for more than three hundred years, the
admiration of the world. When Rome was taken, and plundered by the
French, this celebrated statue was transported to Paris, and placed in the
museum there, but in 1815 it was restored to its former place in the Vatican.
The attitude of the figure, which is more than seven feet high, is inimitable
in its freedom, grace, and majesty. The forehead is noble and intellectual,
and the whole countenance so exquisite in its beauty, that one pauses spell-
bound to gaze on so perfect a conception. The god has a very youthful
appearance, as is usual in all his representations, and with the exception of a
short mantle which falls from his shoulders, is unclothed. He stands against

the trunk of a tree, up which a serpent is creeping, and his left arm is
outstretched, as though about to punish.

HECATE.

Hecate would appear to have been originally a moon-goddess worshipped
by the Thracians. She became confounded, and eventually identified with
Selene and Persephone, and is one of those divinities of whom the ancients
had various conflicting accounts.
Hecate was the daughter of Perses and "gold-wreathed" Astræa (the starry
night[32]), and her sway extended over earth, heaven, and hell, for which
reason she is represented in works of art as a triple divinity, having three
female bodies, all young and beautiful, and united together.
In later times, when this divinity becomes identified with Persephone, she is
supposed to inhabit the lower world as a malignant deity, and henceforward
it is the gloomy, awe-inspiring side of her character which alone develops
itself. She now presides over all practices connected with witchcraft and
enchantments, haunts sepulchres, and the point where two roads cross, and
lonely spots where murders have been committed. She was supposed to be
connected with the appearance of ghosts and spectres, to possess unlimited
influence over the powers of the lower world, and to be able to lay to rest
unearthly apparitions by her magic spells and incantations.
Hecate appears as a gigantic woman, bearing a torch and a sword. Her feet
and hair are formed of snakes, and her passage is accompanied by voices of
thunder, weird shrieks and yells, and the deep baying and howling of dogs.
Her favour was propitiated by offerings and sacrifices, principally
consisting of black lambs. Her festivals were celebrated at night, by
torchlight, when these animals were offered to her, accompanied by many
peculiar ceremonies. These ceremonies were carried out with the minutest
attention to details, as it was believed that the omission of the slightest
particular would afford to her ministers, the evil spirits of the lower world,
who hovered round the worshippers, an opportunity for entering among
them, and exerting their baneful influence. At the end of every month food

was placed wherever two roads met, in readiness for her and other
malignant divinities.
In studying the peculiar characteristics which Hecate assumes when she
usurps the place of Persephone, the rightful mistress of the lower world, we
are reminded of the various superstitions with regard to spectres, witchcraft,
&c., which have, even down to our own times, exerted so powerful an
influence over the minds of the ignorant, and which would appear to owe
their origin to a remote pagan source.

SELENE (Luna).

Just as Helios personified the sun, so his sister Selene represented the
moon, and was supposed to drive her chariot across the sky whilst her
brother was reposing after the toils of the day.
When the shades of evening began to enfold the earth, the two milk-white
steeds of Selene rose out of the mysterious depths of Oceanus. Seated in a
silvery chariot, and accompanied by her daughter Herse, the goddess of the
dew, appeared the mild and gentle queen of the night, with a crescent on her
fair brow, a gauzy veil flowing behind, and a lighted torch in her hand.
Selene greatly admired a beautiful young shepherd named Endymion, to
whom Zeus had accorded the privilege of eternal youth, combined with the
faculty of sleeping whenever he desired, and as long as he wished. Seeing
this lovely youth fast asleep on Mount Latmus, Selene was so struck with
his beauty, that she came down every night from heaven to watch over and
protect him.

ARTEMIS (Diana).

Artemis was worshipped by the Greeks under various appellations, to each
of which belonged special characteristics. Thus she is known as the
Arcadian, Ephesian and Brauronian Artemis, and also as Selene-Artemis,
and in order fully to comprehend the worship of this divinity, we must
consider her under each aspect.

ARCADIAN ARTEMIS.

The Arcadian Artemis (the real Artemis of the Greeks) was the daughter of
Zeus and Leto, and twin-sister of Apollo. She was the goddess of Hunting
and Chastity, and having obtained from her father permission to lead a life
of celibacy, she ever remained a maiden-divinity. Artemis is the feminine
counterpart of her brother, the glorious god of Light, and, like him, though
she deals out destruction and sudden death to men and animals, she is also
able to alleviate suffering and cure diseases. Like Apollo also, she is skilled
in the use of the bow, but in a far more eminent degree, for in the character
of Artemis, who devoted herself to the chase with passionate ardour, this
becomes an all-distinguishing feature. Armed with her bow and quiver, and
attended by her train of huntresses, who were nymphs of the woods and
springs, she roamed over the mountains in pursuit of her favourite exercise,
destroying in her course the wild animals of the forest. When the chase was
ended, Artemis and her maidens loved to assemble in a shady grove, or on
the banks of a favourite stream, where they joined in the merry song, or
graceful dance, and made the hills resound with their joyous shouts.
As the type of purity and chastity, Artemis was especially venerated by
young maidens, who, before marrying, sacrificed their hair to her. She was
also the patroness of those vowed to celibacy, and punished severely any
infringement of their obligation.
The huntress-goddess is represented as being a head taller than her
attendant nymphs, and always appears as a youthful and slender maiden.
Her features are beautiful, but wanting in gentleness of expression; her hair
is gathered negligently into a knot at the back of her well-shaped head; and
her figure, though somewhat masculine, is most graceful in its attitude and
proportions. The short robe she wears, leaves her limbs free for the exercise
of the chase, her devotion to which is indicated by the quiver which is slung
over her shoulder, and the bow which she bears in her hand.
There are many famous statues of this divinity; but the most celebrated is
that known as the Diana of Versailles, now in the Louvre, which forms a not
unworthy companion to the Apollo-Belvedere of the Vatican. In this statue,
the goddess appears in the act of rescuing a hunted deer from its pursuers,
on whom she is turning with angry mien. One hand is laid protectingly on
the head of the stag, whilst with the other she draws an arrow from the
quiver which hangs over her shoulder.

Her attributes are the bow, quiver, and spear. The animals sacred to her are
the hind, dog, bear, and wild boar.
Artemis promptly resented any disregard or neglect of her worship; a
remarkable instance of this is shown in the story of the Calydonian boar-
hunt, which is as follows:—
Oeneus, king of Calydon in Ætolia, had incurred the
displeasure of Artemis by neglecting to include her in a
general sacrifice to the gods which he had offered up,
out of gratitude for a bountiful harvest. The goddess,
enraged at this neglect, sent a wild boar of extraordinary
size and prodigious strength, which destroyed the
sprouting grain, laid waste the fields, and threatened the
inhabitants with famine and death. At this juncture,
Meleager, the brave son of Oeneus, returned from the
Argonautic expedition, and finding his country ravaged
by this dreadful scourge, entreated the assistance of all the celebrated heroes
of the age to join him in hunting the ferocious monster. Among the most
famous of those who responded to his call were Jason, Castor and Pollux,
Idas and Lynceus, Peleus, Telamon, Admetus, Perithous, and Theseus. The
brothers of Althea, wife of Oeneus, joined the hunters, and Meleager also
enlisted into his service the fleet-footed huntress Atalanta.
The father of this maiden was Schoeneus, an Arcadian, who, disappointed
at the birth of a daughter when he had particularly desired a son, had
exposed her on the Parthenian Hill, where he left her to perish. Here she
was nursed by a she-bear, and at last found by some hunters, who reared
her, and gave her the name of Atalanta. As the maiden grew up, she became
an ardent lover of the chase, and was alike distinguished for her beauty and
courage. Though often wooed, she led a life of strict celibacy, an oracle
having predicted that inevitable misfortune awaited her, should she give
herself in marriage to any of her numerous suitors.
Many of the heroes objected to hunt in company with a maiden; but
Meleager, who loved Atalanta, overcame their opposition, and the valiant
band set out on their expedition. Atalanta was the first to wound the boar
with her spear, but not before two of the heroes had met their death from his

fierce tusks. After a long and desperate encounter, Meleager succeeded in
killing the monster, and presented the head and hide to Atalanta, as trophies
of the victory. The uncles of Meleager, however, forcibly took the hide from
the maiden, claiming their right to the spoil as next of kin, if Meleager
resigned it. Artemis, whose anger was still unappeased, caused a violent
quarrel to arise between uncles and nephew, and, in the struggle which
ensued, Meleager killed his mother's brothers, and then restored the hide to
Atalanta. When Althea beheld the dead bodies of the slain heroes, her grief
and anger knew no bounds. She swore to revenge the death of her brothers
on her own son, and unfortunately for him, the instrument of vengeance lay
ready to her hand.
At the birth of Meleager, the Moirae, or Fates, entered the house of Oeneus,
and pointing to a piece of wood then burning on the hearth, declared that as
soon as it was consumed the babe would surely die. On hearing this, Althea
seized the brand, laid it up carefully in a chest, and henceforth preserved it
as her most precious possession. But now, love for her son giving place to
the resentment she felt against the murderer of her brothers, she threw the
fatal brand into the devouring flames. As it consumed, the vigour of
Meleager wasted away, and when it was reduced to ashes, he expired.
Repenting too late the terrible effects of her rash deed, Althea, in remorse
and despair, took away her own life.
The news of the courage and intrepidity displayed by Atalanta in the
famous boar-hunt, being carried to the ears of her father, caused him to
acknowledge his long-lost child. Urged by him to choose one of her
numerous suitors, she consented to do so, but made it a condition that he
alone, who could outstrip her in the race, should become her husband,
whilst those she defeated should be put to death by her, with the lance
which she bore in her hand. Thus many suitors had perished, for the maiden
was unequalled for swiftness of foot, but at last a beautiful youth, named
Hippomenes, who had vainly endeavoured to win her love by his assiduous
attentions in the chase, ventured to enter the fatal lists. Knowing that only
by stratagem could he hope to be successful, he obtained, by the help of
Aphrodite, three golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which he
threw down at intervals during his course. Atalanta, secure of victory,
stooped to pick up the tempting fruit, and, in the meantime, Hippomenes
arrived at the goal. He became the husband of the lovely Atalanta, but

forgot, in his newly found happiness, the gratitude which he owed to
Aphrodite, and the goddess withdrew her favour from the pair. Not long
after, the prediction which foretold misfortune to Atalanta, in the event of
her marriage, was verified, for she and her husband, having strayed
unsanctioned into a sacred grove of Zeus, were both transformed into lions.
The trophies of the ever-memorable boar-hunt had been carried by Atalanta
into Arcadia, and, for many centuries, the identical hide and enormous tusks
of the Calydonian boar hung in the temple of Athene at Tegea. The tusks
were afterwards conveyed to Rome, and shown there among other
curiosities.
A forcible instance of the manner in which Artemis resented any intrusion
on her retirement, is seen in the fate which befell the famous hunter
Actaeon, who happening one day to see Artemis and her attendants bathing,
imprudently ventured to approach the spot. The goddess, incensed at his
audacity, sprinkled him with water, and transformed him into a stag,
whereupon he was torn in pieces and devoured by his own dogs.

EPHESIAN ARTEMIS.
The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as "Diana of the Ephesians," was a very
ancient Asiatic divinity of Persian origin called Metra,[33] whose worship
the Greek colonists found already established, when they first settled in
Asia Minor, and whom they identified with their own Greek Artemis,
though she really possessed but one single attribute in common with their
home deity.
Metra was a twofold divinity, and represented, in one phase of her
character, all-pervading love; in the other she was the light of heaven; and
as Artemis, in her character as Selene, was the only Greek female divinity
who represented celestial light, the Greek settlers, according to their custom
of fusing foreign deities into their own, seized at once upon this point of
resemblance, and decided that Metra should henceforth be regarded as
identical with Artemis.
In her character as the love which pervades all nature, and penetrates
everywhere, they believed her also to be present in the mysterious Realm of
Shades, where she exercised her benign sway, replacing to a certain extent

that ancient divinity Hecate, and partly usurping also the place of
Persephone, as mistress of the lower world. Thus they believed that it was
she who permitted the spirits of the departed to revisit the earth, in order to
communicate with those they loved, and to give them timely warning of
coming evil. In fact, this great, mighty, and omnipresent power of love, as
embodied in the Ephesian Artemis, was believed by the great thinkers of
old, to be the ruling spirit of the universe, and it was to her influence, that
all the mysterious and beneficent workings of nature were ascribed.
There was a magnificent temple erected to this divinity at Ephesus (a city of
Asia Minor), which was ranked among the seven wonders of the world, and
was unequalled in beauty and grandeur. The interior of this edifice was
adorned with statues and paintings, and contained one hundred and twenty-
seven columns, sixty feet in height, each column having been placed there
by a different king. The wealth deposited in this temple was enormous, and
the goddess was here worshipped with particular awe and solemnity. In the
interior of the edifice stood a statue of her, formed of ebony, with lions on
her arms and turrets on her head, whilst a number of breasts indicated the
fruitfulness of the earth and of nature. Ctesiphon was the principal architect
of this world-renowned structure, which, however, was not entirely
completed till two hundred and twenty years after the foundation-stone was
laid. But the labour of centuries was destroyed in a single night; for a man
called Herostratus, seized with the insane desire of making his name
famous to all succeeding generations, set fire to it and completely destroyed
it.[34] So great was the indignation and sorrow of the Ephesians at this
calamity, that they enacted a law, forbidding the incendiary's name to be
mentioned, thereby however, defeating their own object, for thus the name
of Herostratus has been handed down to posterity, and will live as long as
the memory of the famous temple of Ephesus.

BRAURONIAN ARTEMIS.
In ancient times, the country which we now call the Crimea, was known by
the name of the Taurica Chersonnesus. It was colonized by Greek settlers,
who, finding that the Scythian inhabitants had a native divinity somewhat
resembling their own Artemis, identified her with the huntress-goddess of
the mother-country. The worship of this Taurian Artemis was attended with
the most barbarous practices, for, in accordance with a law which she had

enacted, all strangers, whether male or female, landing, or shipwrecked on
her shores, were sacrificed upon her altars. It is supposed that this decree
was issued by the Taurian goddess of Chastity, to protect the purity of her
followers, by keeping them apart from foreign influences.
The interesting story of Iphigenia, a priestess in the temple of Artemis at
Tauris, forms the subject of one of Schiller's most beautiful plays. The
circumstances occurred at the commencement of the Trojan war, and are as
follows:—The fleet, collected by the Greeks for the siege of Troy, had
assembled at Aulis, in Bœotia, and was about to set sail, when Agamemnon,
the commander-in-chief, had the misfortune to kill accidentally a stag
which was grazing in a grove, sacred to Artemis. The offended goddess sent
continuous calms that delayed the departure of the fleet, and Calchas, the
soothsayer, who had accompanied the expedition, declared that nothing less
than the sacrifice of Agamemnon's favorite daughter, Iphigenia, would
appease the wrath of the goddess. At these words, the heroic heart of the
brave leader sank within him, and he declared that rather than consent to so
fearful an alternative, he would give up his share in the expedition and
return to Argos. In this dilemma Odysseus and other great generals called a
council to discuss the matter, and, after much deliberation, it was decided
that private feeling must yield to the welfare of the state. For a long time the
unhappy Agamemnon turned a deaf ear to their arguments, but at last they
succeeded in persuading him that it was his duty to make the sacrifice. He,
accordingly, despatched a messenger to his wife, Clytemnæstra, begging
her to send Iphigenia to him, alleging as a pretext that the great hero
Achilles desired to make her his wife. Rejoicing at the brilliant destiny
which awaited her beautiful daughter, the fond mother at once obeyed the
command, and sent her to Aulis. When the maiden arrived at her
destination, and discovered, to her horror, the dreadful fate which awaited
her, she threw herself in an agony of grief at her father's feet, and with sobs
and tears entreated him to have mercy on her, and to spare her young life.
But alas! her doom was sealed, and her now repentant and heart-broken
father was powerless to avert it. The unfortunate victim was bound to the
altar, and already the fatal knife was raised to deal the death-blow, when
suddenly Iphigenia disappeared from view, and in her place on the altar, lay
a beautiful deer ready to be sacrificed. It was Artemis herself, who, pitying
the youth and beauty of her victim, caused her to be conveyed in a cloud to

Taurica, where she became one of her priestesses, and intrusted with the
charge of her temple; a dignity, however, which necessitated the offering of
those human sacrifices presented to Artemis.
Many years passed away, during which time the long and wearisome siege
of Troy had come to an end, and the brave Agamemnon had returned home
to meet death at the hands of his wife and Aegisthus. But his daughter,
Iphigenia, was still an exile from her native country, and continued to
perform the terrible duties which her office involved. She had long given up
all hopes of ever being restored to her friends, when one day two Greek
strangers landed on Taurica's inhospitable shores. These were Orestes and
Pylades, whose romantic attachment to each other has made their names
synonymous for devoted self-sacrificing friendship. Orestes was Iphigenia's
brother, and Pylades her cousin, and their object in undertaking an
expedition fraught with so much peril, was to obtain the statue of the
Taurian Artemis. Orestes, having incurred the anger of the Furies for
avenging the murder of his father Agamemnon, was pursued by them
wherever he went, until at last he was informed by the oracle of Delphi that,
in order to pacify them, he must convey the image of the Taurian Artemis
from Tauris to Attica. This he at once resolved to do, and accompanied by
his faithful friend Pylades, who insisted on sharing the dangers of the
undertaking, he set out for Taurica. But the unfortunate youths had hardly
stepped on shore before they were seized by the natives, who, as usual,
conveyed them for sacrifice to the temple of Artemis. Iphigenia,
discovering that they were Greeks, though unaware of their near
relationship to herself, thought the opportunity a favourable one for sending
tidings of her existence to her native country, and, accordingly, requested
one of the strangers to be the bearer of a letter from her to her family. A
magnanimous dispute now arose between the friends, and each besought the
other to accept the precious privilege of life and freedom. Pylades, at length
overcome by the urgent entreaties of Orestes, agreed to be the bearer of the
missive, but on looking more closely at the superscription, he observed, to
his intense surprise, that it was addressed to Orestes. Hereupon an
explanation followed; the brother and sister recognized each other, amid
joyful tears and loving embraces, and assisted by her friends and kinsmen,
Iphigenia escaped with them from a country where she had spent so many
unhappy days, and witnessed so many scenes of horror and anguish.

The fugitives, having contrived to obtain the image of the Taurian Artemis,
carried it with them to Brauron in Attica. This divinity was henceforth
known as the Brauronian Artemis, and the rites which had rendered her
worship so infamous in Taurica were now introduced into Greece, and
human victims bled freely under the sacrificial knife, both in Athens and
Sparta. The revolting practice of offering human sacrifices to her, was
continued until the time of Lycurgus, the great Spartan lawgiver, who put an
end to it by substituting in its place one, which was hardly less barbarous,
namely, the scourging of youths, who were whipped on the altars of the
Brauronian Artemis in the most cruel manner; sometimes indeed they
expired under the lash, in which case their mothers, far from lamenting their
fate, are said to have rejoiced, considering this an honourable death for their
sons.

SELENE-ARTEMIS.
Hitherto we have seen Artemis only in the various phases of her terrestrial
character; but just as her brother Apollo drew into himself by degrees the
attributes of that more ancient divinity Helios, the sun-god, so, in like
manner, she came to be identified in later times with Selene, the moon-
goddess, in which character she is always represented as wearing on her
forehead a glittering crescent, whilst a flowing veil, bespangled with stars,
reaches to her feet, and a long robe completely envelops her.

DIANA.
The Diana of the Romans was identified with the Greek Artemis, with
whom she shares that peculiar tripartite character, which so strongly marks
the individuality of the Greek goddess. In heaven she was Luna (the moon),
on earth Diana (the huntress-goddess), and in the lower world Proserpine;
but, unlike the Ephesian Artemis, Diana, in her character as Proserpine,
carries with her into the lower world no element of love or sympathy; she
is, on the contrary, characterized by practices altogether hostile to man, such
as the exercise of witchcraft, evil charms, and other antagonistic influences,
and is, in fact, the Greek Hecate, in her later development.
The statues of Diana were generally erected at a point where three roads
met, for which reason she is called Trivia (from tri, three, and via, way).

A temple was dedicated to her on the Aventine hill by Servius Tullius, who
is said to have first introduced the worship of this divinity into Rome.
The Nemoralia, or Grove Festivals, were celebrated in her honour on the
13th of August, on the Lacus Nemorensis, or forest-buried lake, near Aricia.
The priest who officiated in her temple on this spot, was always a fugitive
slave, who had gained his office by murdering his predecessor, and hence
was constantly armed, in order that he might thus be prepared to encounter
a new aspirant.

HEPHÆSTUS (Vulcan).

Hephæstus, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of fire in its beneficial
aspect, and the presiding deity over all workmanship accomplished by
means of this useful element. He was universally honoured, not only as the
god of all mechanical arts, but also as a house and hearth divinity, who
exercised a beneficial influence on civilized society in general. Unlike the
other Greek divinities, he was ugly and deformed, being awkward in his
movements, and limping in his gait. This latter defect originated, as we
have already seen, in the wrath of his father Zeus, who hurled him down
from heaven[35] in consequence of his taking the part of Hera, in one of the
domestic disagreements, which so frequently arose between this royal pair.
Hephæstus was a whole day falling from Olympus to the earth, where he at
length alighted on the island of Lemnos. The inhabitants of the country,
seeing him descending through the air, received him in their arms; but in
spite of their care, his leg was broken by the fall, and he remained ever
afterwards lame in one foot. Grateful for the kindness of the Lemnians, he
henceforth took up his abode in their island, and there built for himself a
superb palace, and forges for the pursuit of his avocation. He instructed the
people how to work in metals, and also taught them other valuable and
useful arts.
It is said that the first work of Hephæstus was a most ingenious throne of
gold, with secret springs, which he presented to Hera. It was arranged in
such a manner that, once seated, she found herself unable to move, and
though all the gods endeavoured to extricate her, their efforts were
unavailing. Hephæstus thus revenged himself on his mother for the cruelty
she had always displayed towards him, on account of his want of

comeliness and grace. Dionysus, the wine god, contrived, however, to
intoxicate Hephæstus, and then induced him to return to Olympus, where,
after having released the queen of heaven from her very undignified
position, he became reconciled to his parents.
He now built for himself a glorious palace on Olympus, of shining gold,
and made for the other deities those magnificent edifices which they
inhabited. He was assisted in his various and exquisitely skilful works of
art, by two female statues of pure gold, formed by his own hand, which
possessed the power of motion, and always accompanied him wherever he
went. With the assistance of the Cyclops, he forged for Zeus his wonderful
thunderbolts, thus investing his mighty father with a new power of terrible
import. Zeus testified his appreciation of this precious gift, by bestowing
upon Hephæstus the beautiful Aphrodite in marriage,[36] but this was a
questionable boon; for the lovely Aphrodite, who was the personification of
all grace and beauty, felt no affection for her ungainly and unattractive
spouse, and amused herself by ridiculing his awkward movements and
unsightly person. On one occasion especially, when Hephæstus good-
naturedly took upon himself the office of cup-bearer to the gods, his
hobbling gait and extreme awkwardness created the greatest mirth amongst
the celestials, in which his disloyal partner was the first to join, with
unconcealed merriment.
Aphrodite greatly preferred Ares to her husband, and this preference
naturally gave rise to much jealousy on the part of Hephæstus, and caused
them great unhappiness.
Hephæstus appears to have been an indispensable member of the Olympic
Assembly, where he plays the part of smith, armourer, chariot-builder, &c.
As already mentioned, he constructed the palaces where the gods resided,
fashioned the golden shoes with which they trod the air or water, built for
them their wonderful chariots, and shod with brass the horses of celestial
breed, which conveyed these glittering equipages over land and sea. He also
made the tripods which moved of themselves in and out of the celestial
halls, formed for Zeus the far-famed ægis, and erected the magnificent
palace of the sun. He also created the brazen-footed bulls of Aetes, which
breathed flames from their nostrils, sent forth clouds of smoke, and filled
the air with their roaring.

Among his most renowned works of art for the use of mortals were: the
armour of Achilles and Æneas, the beautiful necklace of Harmonia, and the
crown of Ariadne; but his masterpiece was Pandora, of whom a detailed
account has already been given.
There was a temple on Mount Etna erected in his honour,
which none but the pure and virtuous were permitted to
enter. The entrance to this temple was guarded by dogs,
which possessed the extraordinary faculty of being able
to discriminate between the righteous and the
unrighteous, fawning upon and caressing the good,
whilst they rushed upon all evil-doers and drove them
away.
Hephæstus is usually represented as a powerful, brawny,
and very muscular man of middle height and mature age; his strong uplifted
arm is raised in the act of striking the anvil with a hammer, which he holds
in one hand, whilst with the other he is turning a thunderbolt, which an
eagle beside him is waiting to carry to Zeus. The principal seat of his
worship was the island of Lemnos, where he was regarded with peculiar
veneration.

VULCAN.
The Roman Vulcan was merely an importation from Greece, which never at
any time took firm root in Rome, nor entered largely into the actual life and
sympathies of the nation, his worship being unattended by the devotional
feeling and enthusiasm which characterized the religious rites of the other
deities. He still, however, retained in Rome his Greek attributes as god of
fire, and unrivalled master of the art of working in metals, and was ranked
among the twelve great gods of Olympus, whose gilded statues were
arranged consecutively along the Forum. His Roman name, Vulcan, would
seem to indicate a connection with the first great metal-working artificer of
Biblical history, Tubal-Cain.

POSEIDON (Neptune).

Poseidon was the son of Kronos and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus. He was
god of the sea, more particularly of the Mediterranean, and, like the element
over which he presided, was of a variable disposition, now violently
agitated, and now calm and placid, for which reason he is sometimes
represented by the poets as quiet and composed, and at others as disturbed
and angry.
In the earliest ages of Greek mythology, he merely
symbolized the watery element; but in later times, as
navigation and intercourse with other nations
engendered greater traffic by sea, Poseidon gained in
importance, and came to be regarded as a distinct
divinity, holding indisputable dominion over the sea, and
over all sea-divinities, who acknowledged him as their
sovereign ruler. He possessed the power of causing at
will, mighty and destructive tempests, in which the
billows rise mountains high, the wind becomes a
hurricane, land and sea being enveloped in thick mists, whilst destruction
assails the unfortunate mariners exposed to their fury. On the other hand,
his alone was the power of stilling the angry waves, of soothing the
troubled waters, and granting safe voyages to mariners. For this reason,
Poseidon was always invoked and propitiated by a libation before a voyage
was undertaken, and sacrifices and thanksgivings were gratefully offered to
him after a safe and prosperous journey by sea.

The symbol of his power was the fisherman's fork or trident,[37] by means
of which he produced earthquakes, raised up islands from the bottom of the
sea, and caused wells to spring forth out of the earth.
Poseidon was essentially the presiding deity over fishermen, and was on
that account, more particularly worshipped and revered in countries
bordering on the sea-coast, where fish naturally formed a staple commodity
of trade. He was supposed to vent his displeasure by sending disastrous
inundations, which completely destroyed whole countries, and were usually
accompanied by terrible marine monsters, who swallowed up and devoured
those whom the floods had spared. It is probable that these sea-monsters are
the poetical figures which represent the demons of hunger and famine,
necessarily accompanying a general inundation.

Poseidon is generally represented as resembling his brother Zeus in
features, height, and general aspect; but we miss in the countenance of the
sea-god the kindness and benignity which so pleasingly distinguish his
mighty brother. The eyes are bright and piercing, and the contour of the face
somewhat sharper in its outline than that of Zeus, thus corresponding, as it
were, with his more angry and violent nature. His hair waves in dark,
disorderly masses over his shoulders; his chest is broad, and his frame
powerful and stalwart; he wears a short, curling beard, and a band round his
head. He usually appears standing erect in a graceful shell-chariot, drawn
by hippocamps, or sea-horses, with golden manes and brazen hoofs, who
bound over the dancing waves with such wonderful swiftness, that the
chariot scarcely touches the water. The monsters of the deep,
acknowledging their mighty lord, gambol playfully around him, whilst the
sea joyfully smooths a path for the passage of its all-powerful ruler.
He inhabited a beautiful palace at the bottom of the
sea at Ægea in Eubœa, and also possessed a royal
residence on Mount Olympus, which, however, he
only visited when his presence was required at the
council of the gods.
His wonderful palace beneath the waters was of vast
extent; in its lofty and capacious halls thousands of his followers could
assemble. The exterior of the building was of bright gold, which the
continual wash of the waters preserved untarnished; in the interior, lofty and
graceful columns supported the gleaming dome. Everywhere fountains of
glistening, silvery water played; everywhere groves and arbours of
feathery-leaved sea-plants appeared, whilst rocks of pure crystal glistened
with all the varied colours of the rainbow. Some of the paths were strewn
with white sparkling sand, interspersed with jewels, pearls, and amber. This
delightful abode was surrounded on all sides by wide fields, where there
were whole groves of dark purple coralline, and tufts of beautiful scarlet-
leaved plants, and sea-anemones of every tint. Here grew bright, pinky sea-
weeds, mosses of all hues and shades, and tall grasses, which, growing
upwards, formed emerald caves and grottoes such as the Nereides love,
whilst fish of various kinds playfully darted in and out, in the full
enjoyment of their native element. Nor was illumination wanting in this
fairy-like region, which at night was lit up by the glow-worms of the deep.

But although Poseidon ruled with absolute power over the ocean and its
inhabitants, he nevertheless bowed submissively to the will of the great
ruler of Olympus, and appeared at all times desirous of conciliating him.
We find him coming to his aid when emergency demanded, and frequently
rendering him valuable assistance against his opponents. At the time when
Zeus was harassed by the attacks of the Giants, he proved himself a most
powerful ally, engaging in single combat with a hideous giant named
Polybotes, whom he followed over the sea, and at last succeeded in
destroying, by hurling upon him the island of Cos.
These amicable relations between the brothers were, however, sometimes
interrupted. Thus, for instance, upon one occasion Poseidon joined Hera
and Athene in a secret conspiracy to seize upon the ruler of heaven, place
him in fetters, and deprive him of the sovereign power. The conspiracy
being discovered, Hera, as the chief instigator of this sacrilegious attempt
on the divine person of Zeus, was severely chastised, and even beaten, by
her enraged spouse, as a punishment for her rebellion and treachery, whilst
Poseidon was condemned, for the space of a whole year, to forego his
dominion over the sea, and it was at this time that, in conjunction with
Apollo, he built for Laomedon the walls of Troy.
Poseidon married a sea-nymph named Amphitrite, whom he wooed under
the form of a dolphin. She afterwards became jealous of a beautiful maiden
called Scylla, who was beloved by Poseidon, and in order to revenge herself
she threw some herbs into a well where Scylla was bathing, which had the
effect of metamorphosing her into a monster of terrible aspect, having
twelve feet, six heads with six long necks, and a voice which resembled the
bark of a dog. This awful monster is said to have inhabited a cave at a very
great height in the famous rock which still bears her name,[38] and was
supposed to swoop down from her rocky eminence upon every ship that
passed, and with each of her six heads to secure a victim.
Amphitrite is often represented assisting Poseidon in attaching the sea-
horses to his chariot.
The Cyclops, who have been already alluded to in the history of Cronus,
were the sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite. They were a wild race of
gigantic growth, similar in their nature to the earth-born Giants, and had

only one eye each in the middle of their foreheads. They led a lawless life,
possessing neither social manners nor fear of the gods, and were the
workmen of Hephæstus, whose workshop was supposed to be in the heart
of the volcanic mountain Ætna.
Here we have another striking instance of the manner in which the Greeks
personified the powers of nature, which they saw in active operation around
them. They beheld with awe, mingled with astonishment, the fire, stones,
and ashes which poured forth from the summit of this and other volcanic
mountains, and, with their vivacity of imagination, found a solution of the
mystery in the supposition, that the god of Fire must be busy at work with
his men in the depths of the earth, and that the mighty flames which they
beheld, issued in this manner from his subterranean forge.
The chief representative of the Cyclops was the man-eating monster
Polyphemus, described by Homer as having been blinded and outwitted at
last by Odysseus. This monster fell in love with a beautiful nymph called
Galatea; but, as may be supposed, his addresses were not acceptable to the
fair maiden, who rejected them in favour of a youth named Acis, upon
which Polyphemus, with his usual barbarity, destroyed the life of his rival
by throwing upon him a gigantic rock. The blood of the murdered Acis,
gushing out of the rock, formed a stream which still bears his name.

Triton, Rhoda,[39] and Benthesicyme were also children of Poseidon and
Amphitrite.

The sea-god was the father of two giant sons called Otus and Ephialtes.[40]
When only nine years old they were said to be twenty-seven cubits[41] in
height and nine in breadth. These youthful giants were as rebellious as they
were powerful, even presuming to threaten the gods themselves with
hostilities. During the war of the Gigantomachia, they endeavoured to scale
heaven by piling mighty mountains one upon another. Already had they
succeeded in placing Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, when
this impious project was frustrated by Apollo, who destroyed them with his
arrows. It was supposed that had not their lives been thus cut off before
reaching maturity, their sacrilegious designs would have been carried into
effect.

Pelias and Neleus were also sons of Poseidon. Their mother Tyro was
attached to the river-god Enipeus, whose form Poseidon assumed, and thus
won her love. Pelias became afterwards famous in the story of the
Argonauts, and Neleus was the father of Nestor, who was distinguished in
the Trojan War.
The Greeks believed that it was to Poseidon they were indebted for the
existence of the horse, which he is said to have produced in the following
manner: Athene and Poseidon both claiming the right to name Cecropia (the
ancient name of Athens), a violent dispute arose, which was finally settled
by an assembly of the Olympian gods, who decided that whichever of the
contending parties presented mankind with the most useful gift, should
obtain the privilege of naming the city. Upon this Poseidon struck the
ground with his trident, and the horse sprang forth in all his untamed
strength and graceful beauty. From the spot which Athene touched with her
wand, issued the olive-tree, whereupon the gods unanimously awarded to
her the victory, declaring her gift to be the emblem of peace and plenty,
whilst that of Poseidon was thought to be the symbol of war and bloodshed.
Athene accordingly called the city Athens, after herself, and it has ever
since retained this name.
Poseidon tamed the horse for the use of mankind, and was believed to have
taught men the art of managing horses by the bridle. The Isthmian games
(so named because they were held on the Isthmus of Corinth), in which
horse and chariot races were a distinguishing feature, were instituted in
honour of Poseidon.
He was more especially worshipped in the Peloponnesus, though
universally revered throughout Greece and in the south of Italy. His
sacrifices were generally black and white bulls, also wild boars and rams.
His usual attributes are the trident, horse, and dolphin.
In some parts of Greece this divinity was identified with the sea-god
Nereus, for which reason the Nereides, or daughters of Nereus, are
represented as accompanying him.

NEPTUNE.

The Romans worshipped Poseidon under the name of Neptune, and
invested him with all the attributes which belong to the Greek divinity.
The Roman commanders never undertook any naval expedition without
propitiating Neptune by a sacrifice.
His temple at Rome was in the Campus Martius, and the festivals
commemorated in his honour were called Neptunalia.

SEA DIVINITIES.

OCEANUS.

Oceanus was the son of Uranus and Gæa. He was the personification of the
ever-flowing stream, which, according to the primitive notions of the early
Greeks, encircled the world, and from which sprang all the rivers and
streams that watered the earth. He was married to Tethys, one of the Titans,
and was the father of a numerous progeny called the Oceanides, who are
said to have been three thousand in number. He alone, of all the Titans,
refrained from taking part against Zeus in the Titanomachia, and was, on
that account, the only one of the primeval divinities permitted to retain his
dominion under the new dynasty.

NEREUS.

Nereus appears to have been the personification of the sea in its calm and
placid moods, and was, after Poseidon, the most important of the sea-
deities. He is represented as a kind and benevolent old man, possessing the
gift of prophecy, and presiding more particularly over the Ægean Sea, of
which he was considered to be the protecting spirit. There he dwelt with his
wife Doris and their fifty blooming daughters, the Nereides, beneath the
waves in a beautiful grotto-palace, and was ever ready to assist distressed
mariners in the hour of danger.

PROTEUS.

Proteus, more familiarly known as "The Old Man of the Sea," was a son of
Poseidon, and gifted with prophetic power. But he had an invincible
objection to being consulted in his capacity as seer, and those who wished
him to foretell events, watched for the hour of noon, when he was in the
habit of coming up to the island of Pharos,[42] with Poseidon's flock of
seals, which he tended at the bottom of the sea. Surrounded by these
creatures of the deep, he used to slumber beneath the grateful shade of the
rocks. This was the favourable moment to seize the prophet, who, in order
to avoid importunities, would change himself into an infinite variety of
forms. But patience gained the day; for if he were only held long enough,
he became wearied at last, and, resuming his true form, gave the
information desired, after which he dived down again to the bottom of the
sea, accompanied by the animals he tended.

TRITON and the TRITONS.

Triton was the only son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, but
he possessed little influence, being altogether a minor
divinity. He is usually represented as preceding his father
and acting as his trumpeter, using a conch-shell for this
purpose. He lived with his parents in their beautiful golden palace beneath
the sea at Ægea, and his favourite pastime was to ride over the billows on
horses or sea-monsters. Triton is always represented as half man, half fish,
the body below the waist terminating in the tail of a dolphin. We frequently
find mention of Tritons who are either the offspring or kindred of Triton.

GLAUCUS.

Glaucus is said to have become a sea-divinity in the following manner.
While angling one day, he observed that the fish he caught and threw on the
bank, at once nibbled at the grass and then leaped back into the water. His
curiosity was naturally excited, and he proceeded to gratify it by taking up a
few blades and tasting them. No sooner was this done than, obeying an
irresistible impulse, he precipitated himself into the deep, and became a sea-
god.

Like most sea-divinities he was gifted with prophetic power, and each year
visited all the islands and coasts with a train of marine monsters, foretelling
all kinds of evil. Hence fishermen dreaded his approach, and endeavoured,
by prayer and fasting, to avert the misfortunes which he prophesied. He is
often represented floating on the billows, his body covered with mussels,
sea-weed, and shells, wearing a full beard and long flowing hair, and
bitterly bewailing his immortality.

THETIS.

The silver-footed, fair-haired Thetis, who plays an important part in the
mythology of Greece, was the daughter of Nereus, or, as some assert, of
Poseidon. Her grace and beauty were so remarkable that Zeus and Poseidon
both sought an alliance with her; but, as it had been foretold that a son of
hers would gain supremacy over his father, they relinquished their
intentions, and she became the wife of Peleus, son of Æacus. Like Proteus,
Thetis possessed the power of transforming herself into a variety of
different shapes, and when wooed by Peleus she exerted this power in order
to elude him. But, knowing that persistence would eventually succeed, he
held her fast until she assumed her true form. Their nuptials were celebrated
with the utmost pomp and magnificence, and were honoured by the
presence of all the gods and goddesses, with the exception of Eris. How the
goddess of discord resented her exclusion from the marriage festivities has
already been shown.
Thetis ever retained great influence over the mighty lord of heaven, which,
as we shall see hereafter, she used in favour of her renowned son, Achilles,
in the Trojan War.
When Halcyone plunged into the sea in despair after the shipwreck and
death of her husband King Ceyx, Thetis transformed both husband and wife
into the birds called kingfishers (halcyones), which, with the tender
affection which characterized the unfortunate couple, always fly in pairs.
The idea of the ancients was that these birds brought forth their young in
nests, which float on the surface of the sea in calm weather, before and after
the shortest day, when Thetis was said to keep the waters smooth and
tranquil for their especial benefit; hence the term "halcyon-days," which
signifies a period of rest and untroubled felicity.

THAUMAS, PHORCYS, and CETO.

The early Greeks, with their extraordinary power of personifying all and
every attribute of Nature, gave a distinct personality to those mighty
wonders of the deep, which, in all ages, have afforded matter of speculation
to educated and uneducated alike. Among these personifications we find
Thaumas, Phorcys, and their sister Ceto, who were the offspring of Pontus.
Thaumas (whose name signifies Wonder) typifies that peculiar, translucent
condition of the surface of the sea when it reflects, mirror-like, various
images, and appears to hold in its transparent embrace the flaming stars and
illuminated cities, which are so frequently reflected on its glassy bosom.
Thaumas married the lovely Electra (whose name signifies the sparkling
light produced by electricity), daughter of Oceanus. Her amber-coloured
hair was of such rare beauty that none of her fair-haired sisters could
compare with her, and when she wept, her tears, being too precious to be
lost, formed drops of shining amber.
Phorcys and Ceto personified more especially the hidden perils and terrors
of the ocean. They were the parents of the Gorgons, the Græa, and the
Dragon which guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides.

LEUCOTHEA.

Leucothea was originally a mortal named Ino, daughter
of Cadmus, king of Thebes. She married Athamas, king
of Orchomenus, who, incensed at her unnatural conduct
to her step-children,[43] pursued her and her son to the
sea-shore, when, seeing no hope of escape, she flung herself with her child
into the deep. They were kindly received by the Nereides, and became sea-
divinities under the name of Leucothea and Palæmon.

THE SIRENS.

The Sirens would appear to have been personifications of those numerous
rocks and unseen dangers, which abound on the S.W. coast of Italy. They
were sea-nymphs, with the upper part of the body that of a maiden and the

lower that of a sea-bird, having wings attached to their shoulders, and were
endowed with such wonderful voices, that their sweet songs are said to have
lured mariners to destruction.

ARES (Mars).

Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of war, who gloried in strife for
its own sake; he loved the tumult and havoc of the battlefield, and delighted
in slaughter and extermination; in fact he presents no benevolent aspect
which could possibly react favourably upon human life.
Epic poets, in particular, represent the god of battles as a wild ungovernable
warrior, who passes through the armies like a whirlwind, hurling to the
ground the brave and cowardly alike; destroying chariots and helmets, and
triumphing over the terrible desolation which he produces.
In all the myths concerning Ares, his sister Athene ever appears in
opposition to him, endeavouring by every means in her power to defeat his
bloodthirsty designs. Thus she assists the divine hero Diomedes at the siege
of Troy, to overcome Ares in battle, and so well does he profit by her timely
aid, that he succeeds in wounding the sanguinary war-god, who makes his
exit from the field, roaring like ten thousand bulls.
Ares appears to have been an object of aversion to all the gods of Olympus,
Aphrodite alone excepted. As the son of Hera, he had inherited from his
mother the strongest feelings of independence and contradiction, and as he
took delight in upsetting that peaceful course of state-life which it was pre-
eminently the care of Zeus to establish, he was naturally disliked and even
hated by him.
When wounded by Diomedes, as above related, he complains to his father,
but receives no sympathy from the otherwise kindly and beneficent ruler of
Olympus, who thus angrily addresses him: "Do not trouble me with thy
complaints, thou who art of all the gods of Olympus most hateful to me, for
thou delightest in nought save war and strife. The very spirit of thy mother
lives in thee, and wert thou not my son, long ago wouldst thou have lain
deeper down in the bowels of the earth than the son of Uranus."

Ares, upon one occasion, incurred the anger of Poseidon
by slaying his son Halirrhothios, who had insulted
Alcippe, the daughter of the war-god. For this deed,
Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal
of the Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in
Athens. Ares was acquitted, and this event is supposed to
have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of Ares),
which afterwards became so famous as a court of justice.
In the Gigantomachia, Ares was defeated by the Aloidæ,
the two giant-sons of Poseidon, who put him in chains, and kept him in
prison for thirteen months.
Ares is represented as a man of youthful appearance; his tall muscular form
combines great strength with wonderful agility. In his right hand he bears a
sword or a mighty lance, while on the left arm he carries his round shield
(see next page). His demoniacal surroundings are Terror and Fear;[44] Enyo,
the goddess of the war-cry; Keidomos, the demon of the noise of battles;
and Eris (Contention), his twin-sister and companion, who always precedes
his chariot when he rushes to the fight, the latter being evidently a simile of
the poets to express the fact that war follows contention.
Eris is represented as a woman of florid complexion, with dishevelled hair,
and her whole appearance angry and menacing. In one hand she brandishes
a poniard and a hissing adder, whilst in the other she carries a burning torch.
Her dress is torn and disorderly, and her hair intertwined with venomous
snakes. This divinity was never invoked by mortals, except when they
desired her assistance for the accomplishment of evil purposes.

MARS.
The Roman divinity most closely resembling the Greek Ares, and identified
with him, was called Mars, Mamers, and Marspiter or Father Mars.
The earliest Italian tribes, who were mostly engaged in the pursuit of
husbandry, regarded this deity more especially as the god of spring, who
vanquished the powers of winter, and encouraged the peaceful arts of
agriculture. But with the Romans, who were an essentially warlike nation,
Mars gradually loses his peaceful character, and, as god of war, attains, after

Jupiter, the highest position among the Olympic gods. The Romans looked
upon him as their special protector, and declared him to have been the
father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of their city. But although he
was especially worshipped in Rome as god of war, he still continued to
preside over agriculture, and was also the protecting deity who watched
over the welfare of the state.
As the god who strode with warlike step to the battlefield, he was called
Gradivus (from gradus, a step), it being popularly believed by the Romans
that he himself marched before them to battle, and acted as their invisible
protector. As the presiding deity over agriculture, he was styled Sylvanus,
whilst in his character as guardian of the state, he bore the name of
Quirinus.[45]
The priests of Mars were twelve in number, and were called Salii, or the
dancers, from the fact that sacred dances, in full armour, formed an
important item in their peculiar ceremonial. This religious order, the
members of which were always chosen from the noblest families in Rome,
was first instituted by Numa Pompilius, who intrusted to their special
charge the Anciliæ, or sacred shields. It is said that one morning, when
Numa was imploring the protection of Jupiter for the newly-founded city of
Rome, the god of heaven, as though in answer to his prayer, sent down an
oblong brazen shield, and, as it fell at the feet of the king, a voice was heard
announcing that on its preservation depended the future safety and
prosperity of Rome. In order, therefore, to lessen the chances of this sacred
treasure being abstracted, Numa caused eleven more to be made exactly
like it, which were then given into the care of the Salii.
The assistance and protection of the god of war was always solemnly
invoked before the departure of a Roman army for the field of battle, and
any reverses of fortune were invariably ascribed to his anger, which was
accordingly propitiated by means of extraordinary sin-offerings and
prayers.
In Rome a field, called the Campus Martius, was dedicated to Mars. It was
a large, open space, in which armies were collected and reviewed, general
assemblies of the people held, and the young nobility trained to martial
exercises.

The most celebrated and magnificent of the numerous temples built by the
Romans in honour of this deity was the one erected by Augustus in the
Forum, to commemorate the overthrow of the murderers of Cæsar.
Of all existing statues of Mars the most renowned is that in the Villa
Ludovisi at Rome, in which he is represented as a powerful, muscular man
in the full vigour of youth. The attitude is that of thoughtful repose, but the
short, curly hair, dilated nostrils, and strongly marked features leave no
doubt as to the force and turbulence of his character. At his feet, the sculptor
has placed the little god of love, who looks up all undaunted at the mighty
war-god, as though mischievously conscious that this unusually quiet mood
is attributable to his influence.
Religious festivals in honour of Mars were generally held in the month of
March; but he had also a festival on the Ides of October, when chariot-races
took place, after which, the right-hand horse of the team which had drawn
the victorious chariot, was sacrificed to him. In ancient times, human
sacrifices, more especially prisoners of war, were offered to him; but, at a
later period, this cruel practice was discontinued.
The attributes of this divinity are the helmet, shield, and spear. The animals
consecrated to him were the wolf, horse, vulture, and woodpecker.
Intimately associated with Mars in his character as god of war, was a
goddess called BELLONA, who was evidently the female divinity of battle
with one or other of the primitive nations of Italy (most probably the
Sabines), and is usually seen accompanying Mars, whose war-chariot she
guides. Bellona appears on the battle-field, inspired with mad rage, cruelty,
and the love of extermination. She is in full armour, her hair is dishevelled,
and she bears a scourge in one hand, and a lance in the other.
A temple was erected to her on the Campus Martius. Before the entrance to
this edifice stood a pillar, over which a spear was thrown when war was
publicly declared.

NIKE (Victoria).

Nike, the goddess of victory, was the daughter of the Titan Pallas, and of
Styx, the presiding nymph of the river of that name in the lower world.

In her statues, Nike somewhat resembles Athene, but may easily be
recognized by her large, graceful wings and flowing drapery, which is
negligently fastened on the right shoulder, and only partially conceals her
lovely form. In her left hand, she holds aloft a crown of laurel, and in the
right, a palm-branch. In ancient sculpture, Nike is usually represented in
connection with colossal statues of Zeus or Pallas-Athene, in which case
she is life-sized, and stands on a ball, held in the open palm of the deity she
accompanies. Sometimes she is represented engaged in inscribing the
victory of a conqueror on his shield, her right foot being slightly raised and
placed on a ball.
A celebrated temple was erected to this divinity on the Acropolis at Athens,
which is still to be seen, and is in excellent preservation.

VICTORIA.
Under the name of Victoria, Nike was highly honoured by the Romans, with
whom love of conquest was an all-absorbing characteristic. There were
several sanctuaries in Rome dedicated to her, the principal of which was on
the Capitol, where it was the custom of generals, after success had attended
their arms, to erect statues of the goddess in commemoration of their
victories. The most magnificent of these statues, was that raised by
Augustus after the battle of Actium. A festival was celebrated in honour of
Nike on the 12th of April.

HERMES (Mercury).

Hermes was the swift-footed messenger, and trusted ambassador of all the
gods, and conductor of shades to Hades. He presided over the rearing and
education of the young, and encouraged gymnastic exercises and athletic
pursuits, for which reason, all gymnasiums and wrestling schools
throughout Greece were adorned with his statues. He is said to have
invented the alphabet, and to have taught the art of interpreting foreign
languages, and his versatility, sagacity, and cunning were so extraordinary,
that Zeus invariably chose him as his attendant, when, disguised as a
mortal, he journeyed on earth.

Hermes was worshipped as god of eloquence, most probably from the fact
that, in his office as ambassador, this faculty was indispensable to the
successful issue of the negotiations with which he was intrusted. He was
regarded as the god who granted increase and prosperity to flocks and
herds, and, on this account, was worshipped with special veneration by
herdsmen.
In ancient times, trade was conducted chiefly by means of the exchange of
cattle. Hermes, therefore, as god of herdsmen, came to be regarded as the
protector of merchants, and, as ready wit and adroitness are valuable
qualities both in buying and selling, he was also looked upon as the patron
of artifice and cunning. Indeed, so deeply was this notion rooted in the
minds of the Greek people, that he was popularly believed to be also god of
thieves, and of all persons who live by their wits.
As the patron of commerce, Hermes was naturally supposed to
be the promoter of intercourse among nations; hence, he is
essentially the god of travellers, over whose safety he presided,
and he severely punished those who refused assistance to the
lost or weary wayfarer. He was also guardian of streets and
roads, and his statues, called Hermæ (which were pillars of
stone surmounted by a head of Hermes), were placed at cross-
roads, and frequently in streets and public squares.
Being the god of all undertakings in which gain was a feature,
he was worshipped as the giver of wealth and good luck, and
any unexpected stroke of fortune was attributed to his influence. He also
presided over the game of dice, in which he is said to have been instructed
by Apollo.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, the eldest and most beautiful of the
seven Pleiades (daughters of Atlas), and was born in a cave of Mount
Cyllene in Arcadia. As a mere babe, he exhibited an extraordinary faculty
for cunning and dissimulation; in fact, he was a thief from his cradle, for,
not many hours after his birth, we find him creeping stealthily out of the
cave in which he was born, in order to steal some oxen belonging to his
brother Apollo, who was at this time feeding the flocks of Admetus. But he
had not proceeded very far on his expedition before he found a tortoise,

which he killed, and, stretching seven strings across the empty shell,
invented a lyre, upon which he at once began to play with exquisite skill.
When he had sufficiently amused himself with the instrument, he placed it
in his cradle, and then resumed his journey to Pieria, where the cattle of
Admetus were grazing. Arriving at sunset at his destination, he succeeded in
separating fifty oxen from his brother's herd, which he now drove before
him, taking the precaution to cover his feet with sandals made of twigs of
myrtle, in order to escape detection. But the little rogue was not
unobserved, for the theft had been witnessed by an old shepherd named
Battus, who was tending the flocks of Neleus, king of Pylos (father of
Nestor). Hermes, frightened at being discovered, bribed him with the finest
cow in the herd not to betray him, and Battus promised to keep the secret.
But Hermes, astute as he was dishonest, determined to test the shepherd's
integrity. Feigning to go away, he assumed the form of Admetus, and then
returning to the spot offered the old man two of his best oxen if he would
disclose the author of the theft. The ruse succeeded, for the avaricious
shepherd, unable to resist the tempting bait, gave the desired information,
upon which Hermes, exerting his divine power, changed him into a lump of
touchstone, as a punishment for his treachery and avarice. Hermes now
killed two of the oxen, which he sacrificed to himself and the other gods,
concealing the remainder in the cave. He then carefully extinguished the
fire, and, after throwing his twig shoes into the river Alpheus, returned to
Cyllene.
Apollo, by means of his all-seeing power, soon discovered who it was that
had robbed him, and hastening to Cyllene, demanded restitution of his
property. On his complaining to Maia of her son's conduct, she pointed to
the innocent babe then lying, apparently fast asleep, in his cradle,
whereupon, Apollo angrily aroused the pretended sleeper, and charged him
with the theft; but the child stoutly denied all knowledge of it, and so
cleverly did he play his part, that he even inquired in the most naive manner
what sort of animals cows were. Apollo threatened to throw him into
Tartarus if he would not confess the truth, but all to no purpose. At last, he
seized the babe in his arms, and brought him into the presence of his august
father, who was seated in the council chamber of the gods. Zeus listened to
the charge made by Apollo, and then sternly desired Hermes to say where
he had hidden the cattle. The child, who was still in swaddling-clothes,

looked up bravely into his father's face and said, "Now, do I look capable of
driving away a herd of cattle; I, who was only born yesterday, and whose
feet are much too soft and tender to tread in rough places? Until this
moment, I lay in sweet sleep on my mother's bosom, and have never even
crossed the threshold of our dwelling. You know well that I am not guilty;
but, if you wish, I will affirm it by the most solemn oaths." As the child
stood before him, looking the picture of innocence, Zeus could not refrain
from smiling at his cleverness and cunning, but, being perfectly aware of
his guilt, he commanded him to conduct Apollo to the cave where he had
concealed the herd, and Hermes, seeing that further subterfuge was useless,
unhesitatingly obeyed. But when the divine shepherd was about to drive his
cattle back into Pieria, Hermes, as though by chance, touched the chords of
his lyre. Hitherto Apollo had heard nothing but the music of his own three-
stringed lyre and the syrinx, or Pan's pipe, and, as he listened entranced to
the delightful strains of this new instrument, his longing to possess it
became so great, that he gladly offered the oxen in exchange, promising at
the same time, to give Hermes full dominion over flocks and herds, as well
as over horses, and all the wild animals of the woods and forests. The offer
was accepted, and, a reconciliation being thus effected between the
brothers, Hermes became henceforth god of herdsmen, whilst Apollo
devoted himself enthusiastically to the art of music.
They now proceeded together to Olympus, where Apollo
introduced Hermes as his chosen friend and companion, and,
having made him swear by the Styx, that he would never steal
his lyre or bow, nor invade his sanctuary at Delphi, he presented
him with the Caduceus, or golden wand. This wand was
surmounted by wings, and on presenting it to Hermes, Apollo
informed him that it possessed the faculty of uniting in love, all
beings divided by hate. Wishing to prove the truth of this
assertion, Hermes threw it down between two snakes which
were fighting, whereupon the angry combatants clasped each other in a
loving embrace, and curling round the staff, remained ever after
permanently attached to it. The wand itself typified power; the serpents,
wisdom; and the wings, despatch—all qualities characteristic of a
trustworthy ambassador.

The young god was now presented by his father with a winged silver cap
(Petasus), and also with silver wings for his feet (Talaria), and was
forthwith appointed herald of the gods, and conductor of shades to Hades,
which office had hitherto been filled by Aïdes.
As messenger of the gods, we find him employed on all occasions requiring
special skill, tact, or despatch. Thus he conducts Hera, Athene, and
Aphrodite to Paris, leads Priam to Achilles to demand the body of Hector,
binds Prometheus to Mount Caucasus, secures Ixion to the eternally
revolving wheel, destroys Argus, the hundred-eyed guardian of Io, &c. &c.
As conductor of shades, Hermes was always invoked by the dying to grant
them a safe and speedy passage across the Styx. He also possessed the
power of bringing back departed spirits to the upper world, and was,
therefore, the mediator between the living and the dead.
The poets relate many amusing stories of the youthful tricks played by this
mischief-loving god upon the other immortals. For instance, he had the
audacity to extract the Medusa's head from the shield of Athene, which he
playfully attached to the back of Hephæstus; he also stole the girdle of
Aphrodite; deprived Artemis of her arrows, and Ares of his spear, but these
acts were always performed with such graceful dexterity, combined with
such perfect good humour, that even the gods and goddesses he thus
provoked, were fain to pardon him, and he became a universal favourite
with them all.
It is said that Hermes was one day flying over Athens, when, looking down
into the city, he beheld a number of maidens returning in solemn procession
from the temple of Pallas-Athene. Foremost among them was Herse, the
beautiful daughter of king Cecrops, and Hermes was so struck with her
exceeding loveliness that he determined to seek an interview with her. He
accordingly presented himself at the royal palace, and begged her sister
Agraulos to favour his suit; but, being of an avaricious turn of mind, she
refused to do so without the payment of an enormous sum of money. It did
not take the messenger of the gods long to obtain the means of fulfilling this
condition, and he soon returned with a well-filled purse. But meanwhile
Athene, to punish the cupidity of Agraulos, had caused the demon of envy
to take possession of her, and the consequence was, that, being unable to

contemplate the happiness of her sister, she sat down before the door, and
resolutely refused to allow Hermes to enter. He tried every persuasion and
blandishment in his power, but she still remained obstinate. At last, his
patience being exhausted, he changed her into a mass of black stone, and,
the obstacle to his wishes being removed, he succeeded in persuading Herse
to become his wife.
In his statues, Hermes is represented as a beardless
youth, with broad chest and graceful but muscular limbs;
the face is handsome and intelligent, and a genial smile
of kindly benevolence plays round the delicately
chiselled lips.
As messenger of the gods he wears the Petasus and
Talaria, and bears in his hand the Caduceus or herald's
staff.
As god of eloquence, he is often represented with chains
of gold hanging from his lips, whilst, as the patron of merchants, he bears a
purse in his hand.
The wonderful excavations in Olympia, to which allusion has already been
made, have brought to light an exquisite marble group of Hermes and the
infant Bacchus, by Praxiteles. In this great work of art, Hermes is
represented as a young and handsome man, who is looking down kindly and
affectionately at the child resting on his arm, but unfortunately nothing
remains of the infant save the right hand, which is laid lovingly on the
shoulder of his protector.
The sacrifices to Hermes consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and
especially lambs and young goats. As god of eloquence, the tongues of
animals were sacrificed to him.

MERCURY.
Mercury was the Roman god of commerce and gain. We find mention of a
temple having been erected to him near the Circus Maximus as early as B.C.
495; and he had also a temple and a sacred fount near the Porta Capena.
Magic powers were ascribed to the latter, and on the festival of Mercury,

which took place on the 25th of May, it was the custom for merchants to
sprinkle themselves and their merchandise with this holy water, in order to
insure large profits from their wares.
The Fetiales (Roman priests whose duty it was to act as guardians of the
public faith) refused to recognize the identity of Mercury with Hermes, and
ordered him to be represented with a sacred branch as the emblem of peace,
instead of the Caduceus. In later times, however, he was completely
identified with the Greek Hermes.

DIONYSUS (Bacchus).

Dionysus, also called Bacchus (from bacca, berry), was the god of wine,
and the personification of the blessings of Nature in general.
The worship of this divinity, which is supposed to have
been introduced into Greece from Asia (in all probability
from India), first took root in Thrace, whence it
gradually spread into other parts of Greece.
Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, and was
snatched by Zeus from the devouring flames in which
his mother perished, when he appeared to her in all the
splendour of his divine glory. The motherless child was
intrusted to the charge of Hermes, who conveyed him to
Semele's sister, Ino. But Hera, still implacable in her
vengeance, visited Athamas, the husband of Ino, with
madness, and the child's life being no longer safe, he was
transferred to the fostering care of the nymphs of Mount Nysa. An aged
satyr named Silenus, the son of Pan, took upon himself the office of
guardian and preceptor to the young god, who, in his turn, became much
attached to his kind tutor; hence we see Silenus always figuring as one of
the chief personages in the various expeditions of the wine-god.
Dionysus passed an innocent and uneventful childhood, roaming through
the woods and forests, surrounded by nymphs, satyrs, and shepherds.
During one of these rambles, he found a fruit growing wild, of a most
refreshing and cooling nature. This was the vine, from which he

subsequently learnt to extract a juice which formed a most exhilarating
beverage. After his companions had partaken freely of it, they felt their
whole being pervaded by an unwonted sense of pleasurable excitement, and
gave full vent to their overflowing exuberance, by shouting, singing, and
dancing. Their numbers were soon swelled by a crowd, eager to taste a
beverage productive of such extraordinary results, and anxious to join in the
worship of a divinity to whom they were indebted for this new enjoyment.
Dionysus, on his part, seeing how agreeably his discovery had affected his
immediate followers, resolved to extend the boon to mankind in general. He
saw that wine, used in moderation, would enable man to enjoy a happier,
and more sociable existence, and that, under its invigorating influence, the
sorrowful might, for a while, forget their grief and the sick their pain. He
accordingly gathered round him his zealous followers, and they set forth on
their travels, planting the vine and teaching its cultivation wherever they
went.
We now behold Dionysus at the head of a large army composed of men,
women, fauns, and satyrs, all bearing in their hands the Thyrsus (a staff
entwined with vine-branches surmounted by a fir-cone), and clashing
together cymbals and other musical instruments. Seated in a chariot drawn
by panthers, and accompanied by thousands of enthusiastic followers,
Dionysus made a triumphal progress through Syria, Egypt, Arabia, India,
&c., conquering all before him, founding cities, and establishing on every
side a more civilized and sociable mode of life among the inhabitants of the
various countries through which he passed.
When Dionysus returned to Greece from his Eastern expedition, he
encountered great opposition from Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and Pentheus,
king of Thebes. The former, highly disapproving of the wild revels which
attended the worship of the wine-god, drove away his attendants, the
nymphs of Nysa, from that sacred mountain, and so effectually intimidated
Dionysus, that he precipitated himself into the sea, where he was received
into the arms of the ocean-nymph, Thetis. But the impious king bitterly
expiated his sacrilegious conduct. He was punished with the loss of his
reason, and, during one of his mad paroxysms, killed his own son Dryas,
whom he mistook for a vine.

Pentheus, king of Thebes, seeing his subjects so completely infatuated by
the riotous worship of this new divinity, and fearing the demoralizing
effects of the unseemly nocturnal orgies held in honour of the wine-god,
strictly prohibited his people from taking any part in the wild Bacchanalian
revels. Anxious to save him from the consequences of his impiety, Dionysus
appeared to him under the form of a youth in the king's train, and earnestly
warned him to desist from his denunciations. But the well-meant
admonition failed in its purpose, for Pentheus only became more incensed
at this interference, and, commanding Dionysus to be cast into prison,
caused the most cruel preparations to be made for his immediate execution.
But the god soon freed himself from his ignoble confinement, for scarcely
had his jailers departed, ere the prison-doors opened of themselves, and,
bursting asunder his iron chains, he escaped to rejoin his devoted followers.
Meanwhile, the mother of the king and her sisters, inspired with
Bacchanalian fury, had repaired to Mount Cithæron, in order to join the
worshippers of the wine-god in those dreadful orgies which were
solemnized exclusively by women, and at which no man was allowed to be
present. Enraged at finding his commands thus openly disregarded by the
members of his own family, Pentheus resolved to witness for himself the
excesses of which he had heard such terrible reports, and for this purpose,
concealed himself behind a tree on Mount Cithæron; but his hiding-place
being discovered, he was dragged out by the half-maddened crew of
Bacchantes and, horrible to relate, he was torn in pieces by his own mother
Agave and her two sisters.
An incident which occurred to Dionysus on one of his travels has been a
favourite subject with the classic poets. One day, as some Tyrrhenian pirates
approached the shores of Greece, they beheld Dionysus, in the form of a
beautiful youth, attired in radiant garments. Thinking to secure a rich prize,
they seized him, bound him, and conveyed him on board their vessel,
resolved to carry him with them to Asia and there sell him as a slave. But
the fetters dropped from his limbs, and the pilot, who was the first to
perceive the miracle, called upon his companions to restore the youth
carefully to the spot whence they had taken him, assuring them that he was
a god, and that adverse winds and storms would, in all probability, result
from their impious conduct. But, refusing to part with their prisoner, they
set sail for the open sea. Suddenly, to the alarm of all on board, the ship

stood still, masts and sails were covered with clustering vines and wreaths
of ivy-leaves, streams of fragrant wine inundated the vessel, and heavenly
strains of music were heard around. The terrified crew, too late repentant,
crowded round the pilot for protection, and entreated him to steer for the
shore. But the hour of retribution had arrived. Dionysus assumed the form
of a lion, whilst beside him appeared a bear, which, with a terrific roar,
rushed upon the captain and tore him in pieces; the sailors, in an agony of
terror, leaped overboard, and were changed into dolphins. The discreet and
pious steersman was alone permitted to escape the fate of his companions,
and to him Dionysus, who had resumed his true form, addressed words of
kind and affectionate encouragement, and announced his name and dignity.
They now set sail, and Dionysus desired the pilot to land him at the island
of Naxos, where he found the lovely Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king of
Crete. She had been abandoned by Theseus on this lonely spot, and, when
Dionysus now beheld her, was lying fast asleep on a rock, worn out with
sorrow and weeping. Wrapt in admiration, the god stood gazing at the
beautiful vision before him, and when she at length unclosed her eyes, he
revealed himself to her, and, in gentle tones, sought to banish her grief.
Grateful for his kind sympathy, coming as it did at a moment when she had
deemed herself forsaken and friendless, she gradually regained her former
serenity, and, yielding to his entreaties, consented to become his wife.
Dionysus, having established his worship in various parts of the world,
descended to the realm of shades in search of his ill-fated mother, whom he
conducted to Olympus, where, under the name of Thyone, she was admitted
into the assembly of the immortal gods.

Among the most noted worshippers of Dionysus was Midas,[46] the wealthy
king of Phrygia, the same who, as already related, gave judgment against
Apollo. Upon one occasion Silenus, the preceptor and friend of Dionysus,
being in an intoxicated condition, strayed into the rose-gardens of this
monarch, where he was found by some of the king's attendants, who bound
him with roses and conducted him to the presence of their royal master.
Midas treated the aged satyr with the greatest consideration, and, after
entertaining him hospitably for ten days, led him back to Dionysus, who
was so grateful for the kind attention shown to his old friend, that he offered
to grant Midas any favour he chose to demand; whereupon the avaricious
monarch, not content with his boundless wealth, and still thirsting for more,

desired that everything he touched might turn to gold. The request was
complied with in so literal a sense, that the now wretched Midas bitterly
repented his folly and cupidity, for, when the pangs of hunger assailed him,
and he essayed to appease his cravings, the food became gold ere he could
swallow it; as he raised the cup of wine to his parched lips, the sparkling
draught was changed into the metal he had so coveted, and when at length,
wearied and faint, he stretched his aching frame on his hitherto luxurious
couch, this also was transformed into the substance which had now become
the curse of his existence. The despairing king at last implored the god to
take back the fatal gift, and Dionysus, pitying his unhappy plight, desired
him to bathe in the river Pactolus, a small stream in Lydia, in order to lose
the power which had become the bane of his life. Midas joyfully obeying
the injunction, was at once freed from the consequences of his avaricious
demand, and from this time forth the sands of the river Pactolus have ever
contained grains of gold.
Representations of Dionysus are of two kinds. According to the earliest
conceptions, he appears as a grave and dignified man in the prime of life;
his countenance is earnest, thoughtful, and benevolent; he wears a full
beard, and is draped from head to foot in the garb of an Eastern monarch.
But the sculptors of a later period represent him as a youth of singular
beauty, though of somewhat effeminate appearance; the expression of the
countenance is gentle and winning; the limbs are supple and gracefully
moulded; and the hair, which is adorned by a wreath of vine or ivy leaves,
falls over the shoulders in long curls. In one hand he bears the Thyrsus, and
in the other a drinking-cup with two handles, these being his distinguishing
attributes. He is often represented riding on a panther, or seated in a chariot
drawn by lions, tigers, panthers, or lynxes.
Being the god of wine, which is calculated to promote sociability, he rarely
appears alone, but is usually accompanied by Bacchantes, satyrs, and
mountain-nymphs.
The finest modern representation of Ariadne is that by Danneker, at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In this statue she appears riding on a panther; the
beautiful upturned face inclines slightly over the left shoulder; the features
are regular and finely cut, and a wreath of ivy-leaves encircles the well-
shaped head. With her right hand she gracefully clasps the folds of drapery

which fall away negligently from her rounded form, whilst the other rests
lightly and caressingly on the head of the animal.
Dionysus was regarded as the patron of the drama, and at the state festival
of the Dionysia, which was celebrated with great pomp in the city of
Athens, dramatic entertainments took place in his honour, for which all the
renowned Greek dramatists of antiquity composed their immortal tragedies
and comedies.
He was also a prophetic divinity, and possessed oracles, the principal of
which was that on Mount Rhodope in Thrace.
The tiger, lynx, panther, dolphin, serpent, and ass were sacred to this god.
His favourite plants were the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel. His sacrifices
consisted of goats, probably on account of their being destructive to
vineyards.

BACCHUS OR LIBER.
The Romans had a divinity called Liber who presided over vegetation, and
was, on this account, identified with the Greek Dionysus, and worshipped
under the name of Bacchus.
The festival of Liber, called the Liberalia, was celebrated on the 17th of
March.

AÏDES (Pluto).

Aïdes, Aïdoneus, or Hades, was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and the
youngest brother of Zeus and Poseidon. He was the ruler of that
subterranean region called Erebus, which was inhabited by the shades or
spirits of the dead, and also by those dethroned and exiled deities who had
been vanquished by Zeus and his allies. Aïdes, the grim and gloomy
monarch of this lower world, was the successor of Erebus, that ancient
primeval divinity after whom these realms were called.
The early Greeks regarded Aïdes in the light of their greatest foe, and
Homer tells us that he was "of all the gods the most detested," being in their
eyes the grim robber who stole from them their nearest and dearest, and

eventually deprived each of them of their share in terrestrial existence. His
name was so feared that it was never mentioned by mortals, who, when they
invoked him, struck the earth with their hands, and in sacrificing to him
turned away their faces.
The belief of the people with regard to a future state was, in the Homeric
age, a sad and cheerless one. It was supposed that when a mortal ceased to
exist, his spirit tenanted the shadowy outline of the human form it had
quitted. These shadows, or shades as they were called, were driven by Aïdes
into his dominions, where they passed their time, some in brooding over the
vicissitudes of fortune which they had experienced on earth, others in
regretting the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life, but all in a condition
of semi-consciousness, from which the intellect could only be roused to full
activity by drinking of the blood of the sacrifices offered to their shades by
living friends, which, for a time, endowed them with their former mental
vigour. The only beings supposed to enjoy any happiness in a future state
were the heroes, whose acts of daring and deeds of prowess had, during
their life, reflected honour on the land of their birth; and even these,
according to Homer, pined after their career of earthly activity. He tells us
that when Odysseus visited the lower world at the command of Circe, and
held communion with the shades of the heroes of the Trojan war, Achilles
assured him that he would rather be the poorest day-labourer on earth than
reign supreme over the realm of shades.
The early Greek poets offer but scanty allusions to Erebus. Homer appears
purposely to envelop these realms in vagueness and mystery, in order,
probably, to heighten the sensation of awe inseparably connected with the
lower world. In the Odyssey he describes the entrance to Erebus as being
beyond the furthermost edge of Oceanus, in the far west, where dwelt the
Cimmerians, enveloped in eternal mists and darkness.
In later times, however, in consequence of extended intercourse with
foreign nations, new ideas became gradually introduced, and we find
Egyptian theories with regard to a future state taking root in Greece, which
become eventually the religious belief of the whole nation. It is now that the
poets and philosophers, and more especially the teachers of the Eleusinian
Mysteries, begin to inculcate the doctrine of the future reward and
punishment of good and bad deeds. Aïdes, who had hitherto been regarded

as the dread enemy of mankind, who delights in his grim office, and keeps
the shades imprisoned in his dominions after withdrawing them from the
joys of existence, now receives them with hospitality and friendship, and
Hermes replaces him as conductor of shades to Hades. Under this new
aspect Aïdes usurps the functions of a totally different divinity called Plutus
(the god of riches), and is henceforth regarded as the giver of wealth to
mankind, in the shape of those precious metals which lie concealed in the
bowels of the earth.
The later poets mention various entrances to Erebus, which were for the
most part caves and fissures. There was one in the mountain of Taenarum,
another in Thesprotia, and a third, the most celebrated of all, in Italy, near
the pestiferous Lake Avernus, over which it is said no bird could fly, so
noxious were its exhalations.
In the dominions of Aïdes there were four great rivers, three of which had to
be crossed by all the shades. These three were Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus
(lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream which flowed
nine times round these realms.
The shades were ferried over the Styx by the grim, unshaven old boatman
Charon, who, however, only took those whose bodies had received funereal
rites on earth, and who had brought with them his indispensable toll, which
was a small coin or obolus, usually placed under the tongue of a dead
person for this purpose. If these conditions had not been fulfilled, the
unhappy shades were left behind to wander up and down the banks for a
hundred years as restless spirits.
On the opposite bank of the Styx was the tribunal of Minos, the supreme
judge, before whom all shades had to appear, and who, after hearing full
confession of their actions whilst on earth, pronounced the sentence of
happiness or misery to which their deeds had entitled them. This tribunal
was guarded by the terrible triple-headed dog Cerberus, who, with his three
necks bristling with snakes, lay at full length on the ground;—a formidable
sentinel, who permitted all shades to enter, but none to return.
The happy spirits, destined to enjoy the delights of Elysium, passed out on
the right, and proceeded to the golden palace where Aïdes and Persephone
held their royal court, from whom they received a kindly greeting, ere they

set out for the Elysian Fields which lay beyond.[47] This blissful region was
replete with all that could charm the senses or please the imagination; the
air was balmy and fragrant, rippling brooks flowed peacefully through the
smiling meadows, which glowed with the varied hues of a thousand
flowers, whilst the groves resounded with the joyous songs of birds. The
occupations and amusements of the happy shades were of the same nature
as those which they had delighted in whilst on earth. Here the warrior found
his horses, chariots, and arms, the musician his lyre, and the hunter his
quiver and bow.
In a secluded vale of Elysium there flowed a gentle, silent stream, called
Lethe (oblivion), whose waters had the effect of dispelling care, and
producing utter forgetfulness of former events. According to the
Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, it was supposed that
after the shades had inhabited Elysium for a thousand years they were
destined to animate other bodies on earth, and before leaving Elysium they
drank of the river Lethe, in order that they might enter upon their new
career without any remembrance of the past.
The guilty souls, after leaving the presence of Minos, were conducted to the
great judgment-hall of Hades, whose massive walls of solid adamant were
surrounded by the river Phlegethon, the waves of which rolled flames of
fire, and lit up, with their lurid glare, these awful realms. In the interior sat
the dread judge Rhadamanthus, who declared to each comer the precise
torments which awaited him in Tartarus. The wretched sinners were then
seized by the Furies, who scourged them with their whips, and dragged
them along to the great gate, which closed the opening to Tartarus, into
whose awful depths they were hurled, to suffer endless torture.
Tartarus was a vast and gloomy expanse, as far below Hades as the earth is
distant from the skies. There the Titans, fallen from their high estate,
dragged out a dreary and monotonous existence; there also were Otus and
Ephialtes, those giant sons of Poseidon, who, with impious hands, had
attempted to scale Olympus and dethrone its mighty ruler. Principal among
the sufferers in this abode of gloom were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion,
and the Danaïdes.

TITYUS, one of the earth-born giants, had insulted Hera on her way to
Peitho, for which offence Zeus flung him into Tartarus, where he suffered
dreadful torture, inflicted by two vultures, which perpetually gnawed his
liver.
TANTALUS was a wise and wealthy king of Lydia, with whom the gods
themselves condescended to associate; he was even permitted to sit at table
with Zeus, who delighted in his conversation, and listened with interest to
the wisdom of his observations. Tantalus, however, elated at these
distinguished marks of divine favour, presumed upon his position, and used
unbecoming language to Zeus himself; he also stole nectar and ambrosia
from the table of the gods, with which he regaled his friends; but his
greatest crime consisted in killing his own son, Pelops, and serving him up
at one of the banquets to the gods, in order to test their omniscience. For
these heinous offences he was condemned by Zeus to eternal punishment in
Tartarus, where, tortured with an ever-burning thirst, he was plunged up to
the chin in water, which, as he stooped to drink, always receded from his
parched lips. Tall trees, with spreading branches laden with delicious fruits,
hung temptingly over his head; but no sooner did he raise himself to grasp
them, than a wind arose, and carried them beyond his reach.
SISYPHUS was a great tyrant who, according to some accounts,
barbarously murdered all travellers who came into his dominions, by
hurling upon them enormous pieces of rock. In punishment for his crimes
he was condemned to roll incessantly a huge block of stone up a steep hill,
which, as soon as it reached the summit, always rolled back again to the
plain below.
IXION was a king of Thessaly to whom Zeus accorded the privilege of
joining the festive banquets of the gods; but, taking advantage of his exalted
position, he presumed to aspire to the favour of Hera, which so greatly
incensed Zeus, that he struck him with his thunderbolts, and commanded
Hermes to throw him into Tartarus, and bind him to an ever-revolving
wheel.
The DANAÏDES were the fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos, who
had married their fifty cousins, the sons of Ægyptus. By the command of
their father, who had been warned by an oracle that his son-in-law would

cause his death, they all killed their husbands in one night, Hypermnestra
alone excepted. Their punishment in the lower world was to fill with water
a vessel full of holes,—a never-ending and useless task.

Aïdes is usually represented as a man of mature years
and stern majestic mien, bearing a striking resemblance
to his brother Zeus; but the gloomy and inexorable
expression of the face contrasts forcibly with that
peculiar benignity which so characterizes the
countenance of the mighty ruler of heaven. He is seated
on a throne of ebony, with his queen, the grave and sad
Persephone, beside him, and wears a full beard, and long
flowing black hair, which hangs straight down over his
forehead; in his hand he either bears a two-pronged fork or the keys of the
lower world, and at his feet sits Cerberus. He is sometimes seen in a chariot
of gold, drawn by four black horses, and wearing on his head a helmet
made for him by the Cyclops, which rendered the wearer invisible. This
helmet he frequently lent to mortals and immortals.
Aïdes, who was universally worshipped throughout Greece, had temples
erected to his honour in Elis, Olympia, and also at Athens.
His sacrifices, which took place at night, consisted of black sheep, and the
blood, instead of being sprinkled on the altars or received in vessels, as at
other sacrifices, was permitted to run down into a trench, dug for this
purpose. The officiating priests wore black robes, and were crowned with
cypress.
The narcissus, maiden-hair, and cypress were sacred to this divinity.

PLUTO.
Before the introduction into Rome of the religion and literature of Greece,
the Romans had no belief in a realm of future happiness or misery,
corresponding to the Greek Hades; hence they had no god of the lower
world identical with Aïdes. They supposed that there was, in the centre of
the earth, a vast, gloomy, and impenetrably dark cavity called Orcus, which
formed a place of eternal rest for the dead. But with the introduction of
Greek mythology, the Roman Orcus became the Greek Hades, and all the
Greek notions with regard to a future state now obtained with the Romans,
who worshipped Aïdes under the name of Pluto, his other appellations

being Dis (from dives, rich) and Orcus from the dominions over which he
ruled. In Rome there were no temples erected to this divinity.

PLUTUS.

Plutus, the son of Demeter and a mortal called Iasion, was the god of
wealth, and is represented as being lame when he makes his appearance,
and winged when he takes his departure. He was supposed to be both blind
and foolish, because he bestows his gifts without discrimination, and
frequently upon the most unworthy objects.
Plutus was believed to have his abode in the bowels of the earth, which was
probably the reason why, in later times, Aïdes became confounded with this
divinity.

MINOR DIVINITIES.

THE HARPIES.

The Harpies, who, like the Furies, were employed by the
gods as instruments for the punishment of the guilty,
were three female divinities, daughters of Thaumas and
Electra, called Aello, Ocypete, and Celæno.
They were represented with the head of a fair-haired
maiden and the body of a vulture, and were perpetually
devoured by the pangs of insatiable hunger, which caused them to torment
their victims by robbing them of their food; this they either devoured with
great gluttony, or defiled in such a manner as to render it unfit to be eaten.
Their wonderfully rapid flight far surpassed that of birds, or even of the
winds themselves. If any mortal suddenly and unaccountably disappeared,
the Harpies were believed to have carried him off. Thus they were supposed
to have borne away the daughters of King Pandareos to act as servants to
the Erinyes.

The Harpies would appear to be personifications of sudden tempests,
which, with ruthless violence, sweep over whole districts, carrying off or
injuring all before them.

ERINYES, EUMENIDES (Furiæ, Diræ).

The Erinyes or Furies were female divinities who personified the torturing
pangs of an evil conscience, and the remorse which inevitably follows
wrong-doing.
Their names were Alecto, Megæra, and Tisiphone, and their origin was
variously accounted for. According to Hesiod, they sprang from the blood
of Uranus, when wounded by Cronus, and were hence supposed to be the
embodiment of all the terrible imprecations, which the defeated deity called
down upon the head of his rebellious son. According to other accounts they
were the daughters of Night.
Their place of abode was the lower world, where they were employed by
Aïdes and Persephone to chastise and torment those shades who, during
their earthly career, had committed crimes, and had not been reconciled to
the gods before descending to Hades.
But their sphere of action was not confined to the realm of shades, for they
appeared upon earth as the avenging deities who relentlessly pursued and
punished murderers, perjurers, those who had failed in duty to their parents,
in hospitality to strangers, or in the respect due to old age. Nothing escaped
the piercing glance of these terrible divinities, from whom flight was
unavailing, for no corner of the earth was so remote as to be beyond their
reach, nor did any mortal dare to offer to their victims an asylum from their
persecutions.
The Furies are frequently represented with wings; their bodies are black,
blood drips from their eyes, and snakes twine in their hair. In their hands
they bear either a dagger, scourge, torch, or serpent.
When they pursued Orestes they constantly held up a mirror to his horrified
gaze, in which he beheld the face of his murdered mother.

These divinities were also called Eumenides, which signifies the "well-
meaning" or "soothed goddesses;" This appellation was given to them
because they were so feared and dreaded that people dared not call them by
their proper title, and hoped by this means to propitiate their wrath.
In later times the Furies came to be regarded as salutary agencies, who, by
severely punishing sin, upheld the cause of morality and social order, and
thus contributed to the welfare of mankind. They now lose their awe-
inspiring aspect, and are represented, more especially in Athens, as earnest
maidens, dressed, like Artemis, in short tunics suitable for the chase, but
still retaining, in their hands, the wand of office in the form of a snake.
Their sacrifices consisted of black sheep and a libation composed of a
mixture of honey and water, called Nephalia. A celebrated temple was
erected to the Eumenides at Athens, near the Areopagus.

MOIRÆ or FATES (Parcæ).

The ancients believed that the duration of human existence and the destinies
of mortals were regulated by three sister-goddesses, called Clotho,
Lachesis, and Atropos, who were the daughters of Zeus and Themis.
The power which they wielded over the fate of man was significantly
indicated under the figure of a thread, which they spun out for the life of
each human being from his birth to the grave. This occupation they divided
between them. Clotho wound the flax round the distaff, ready for her sister
Lachesis, who span out the thread of life, which Atropos, with her scissors,
relentlessly snapt asunder, when the career of an individual was about to
terminate.
Homer speaks of one Moira only, the daughter of Night, who represents the
moral force by which the universe is governed, and to whom both mortals
and immortals were forced to submit, Zeus himself being powerless to avert
her decrees; but in later times this conception of one inexorable, all-
conquering fate became amplified by the poets into that above described,
and the Moiræ are henceforth the special presiding deities over the life and
death of mortals.

The Moiræ are represented by the poets as stern, inexorable female
divinities, aged, hideous, and also lame, which is evidently meant to
indicate the slow and halting march of destiny, which they controlled.
Painters and sculptors, on the other hand, depicted them as beautiful
maidens of a grave but kindly aspect.
There is a charming representation of Lachesis, which depicts her in all the
grace of youth and beauty. She is sitting spinning, and at her feet lie two
masks, one comic, the other tragic, as though to convey the idea, that, to a
divinity of fate, the brightest and saddest scenes of earthly existence are
alike indifferent, and that she quietly and steadily pursues her occupation,
regardless of human weal or woe.
When represented at the feet of Aïdes in the lower world they are clad in
dark robes; but when they appear in Olympus they wear bright garments,
bespangled with stars, and are seated on radiant thrones, with crowns on
their heads.
It was considered the function of the Moiræ to indicate to the Furies the
precise torture which the wicked should undergo for their crimes.
They were regarded as prophetic divinities, and had sanctuaries in many
parts of Greece.
The Moiræ are mentioned as assisting the Charites to conduct Persephone
to the upper world at her periodical reunion with her mother Demeter. They
also appear in company with Eileithyia, goddess of birth.

NEMESIS.

Nemesis, the daughter of Nyx, represents that power which adjusts the
balance of human affairs, by awarding to each individual the fate which his
actions deserve. She rewards, humble, unacknowledged merit, punishes
crime, deprives the worthless of undeserved good fortune, humiliates the
proud and overbearing, and visits all evil on the wrong-doer; thus
maintaining that proper balance of things, which the Greeks recognized as a
necessary condition of all civilized life. But though Nemesis, in her original
character, was the distributor of rewards as well as punishments, the world

was so full of sin, that she found but little occupation in her first capacity,
and hence became finally regarded as the avenging goddess only.
We have seen a striking instance of the manner in which this divinity
punishes the proud and arrogant in the history of Niobe. Apollo and Artemis
were merely the instruments for avenging the insult offered to their mother;
but it was Nemesis who prompted the deed, and presided over its execution.
Homer makes no mention of Nemesis; it is therefore evident that she was a
conception of later times, when higher views of morality had obtained
among the Greek nation.
Nemesis is represented as a beautiful woman of thoughtful and benign
aspect and regal bearing; a diadem crowns her majestic brow, and she bears
in her hand a rudder, balance, and cubit;—fitting emblems of the manner in
which she guides, weighs, and measures all human events. She is also
sometimes seen with a wheel, to symbolize the rapidity with which she
executes justice. As the avenger of evil she appears winged, bearing in her
hand either a scourge or a sword, and seated in a chariot drawn by griffins.
Nemesis is frequently called Adrastia, and also Rhamnusia, from Rhamnus
in Attica, the chief seat of her worship, which contained a celebrated statue
of the goddess.
Nemesis was worshipped by the Romans, (who invoked her on the Capitol),
as a divinity who possessed the power of averting the pernicious
consequences of envy.

NIGHT AND HER CHILDREN.
DEATH, SLEEP, AND DREAMS.

NYX (Nox).

Nyx, the daughter of Chaos, being the personification of Night, was,
according to the poetic ideas of the Greeks, considered to be the mother of
everything mysterious and inexplicable, such as death, sleep, dreams, &c.
She became united to Erebus, and their children were Aether and Hemera

(Air and Daylight), evidently a simile of the poets, to indicate that darkness
always precedes light.
Nyx inhabited a palace in the dark regions of the lower world, and is
represented as a beautiful woman, seated in a chariot, drawn by two black
horses. She is clothed in dark robes, wears a long veil, and is accompanied
by the stars, which follow in her train.

THANATOS (Mors) AND HYPNUS (Somnus).

Thanatos (Death) and his twin-brother Hypnus (Sleep) were the children of
Nyx.
Their dwelling was in the realm of shades, and when they appear among
mortals, Thanatos is feared and hated as the enemy of mankind, whose hard
heart knows no pity, whilst his brother Hypnus is universally loved and
welcomed as their kindest and most beneficent friend.
But though the ancients regarded Thanatos as a gloomy and mournful
divinity, they did not represent him with any exterior repulsiveness. On the
contrary, he appears as a beautiful youth, who holds in his hand an inverted
torch, emblematical of the light of life being extinguished, whilst his
disengaged arm is thrown lovingly round the shoulder of his brother
Hypnus.
Hypnus is sometimes depicted standing erect with closed eyes; at others he
is in a recumbent position beside his brother Thanatos, and usually bears a
poppy-stalk in his hand.
A most interesting description of the abode of Hypnus is given by Ovid in
his Metamorphoses. He tells us how the god of Sleep dwelt in a mountain-
cave near the realm of the Cimmerians, which the sun never pierced with
his rays. No sound disturbed the stillness, no song of birds, not a branch
moved, and no human voice broke the profound silence which reigned
everywhere. From the lowermost rocks of the cave issued the river Lethe,
and one might almost have supposed that its course was arrested, were it
not for the low, monotonous hum of the water, which invited slumber. The
entrance was partially hidden by numberless white and red poppies, which
Mother Night had gathered and planted there, and from the juice of which

she extracts drowsiness, which she scatters in liquid drops all over the earth,
as soon as the sun-god has sunk to rest. In the centre of the cave stands a
couch of blackest ebony, with a bed of down, over which is laid a coverlet
of sable hue. Here the god himself reposes, surrounded by innumerable
forms. These are idle dreams, more numerous than the sands of the sea.
Chief among them is Morpheus, that changeful god, who may assume any
shape or form he pleases. Nor can the god of Sleep resist his own power;
for though he may rouse himself for a while, he soon succumbs to the
drowsy influences which surround him.

MORPHEUS.

Morpheus, the son of Hypnus, was the god of Dreams.
He is always represented winged, and appears sometimes as a youth,
sometimes as an old man. In his hand he bears a cluster of poppies, and as
he steps with noiseless footsteps over the earth, he gently scatters the seeds
of this sleep-producing plant over the eyes of weary mortals.
Homer describes the House of Dreams as having two gates: one, whence
issue all deceptive and flattering visions, being formed of ivory; the other,
through which proceed those dreams which are fulfilled, of horn.

THE GORGONS.

The Gorgons, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, were the three daughters of
Phorcys and Ceto, and were the personification of those benumbing, and, as
it were, petrifying sensations, which result from sudden and extreme fear.
They were frightful winged monsters, whose bodies were covered with
scales; hissing, wriggling snakes clustered round their heads instead of hair;
their hands were of brass; their teeth resembled the tusks of a wild boar; and
their whole aspect was so appalling, that they are said to have turned into
stone all who beheld them.
These terrible sisters were supposed to dwell in that remote and mysterious
region in the far West, beyond the sacred stream of Oceanus.

The Gorgons were the servants of Aïdes, who made use of them to terrify
and overawe those shades, doomed to be kept in a constant state of unrest as
a punishment for their misdeeds, whilst the Furies, on their part, scourged
them with their whips and tortured them incessantly.
The most celebrated of the three sisters was Medusa, who alone was mortal.
She was originally a golden-haired and very beautiful maiden, who, as a
priestess of Athene, was devoted to a life of celibacy; but, being wooed by
Poseidon, whom she loved in return, she forgot her vows, and became
united to him in marriage. For this offence she was punished by the goddess
in a most terrible manner. Each wavy lock of the beautiful hair which had
so charmed her husband, was changed into a venomous snake; her once
gentle, love-inspiring eyes now became blood-shot, furious orbs, which
excited fear and disgust in the mind of the beholder; whilst her former
roseate hue and milk-white skin assumed a loathsome greenish tinge.
Seeing herself thus transformed into so repulsive an object, Medusa fled
from her home, never to return. Wandering about, abhorred, dreaded, and
shunned by all the world, she now developed into a character, worthy of her
outward appearance. In her despair she fled to Africa, where, as she passed
restlessly from place to place, infant snakes dropped from her hair, and thus,
according to the belief of the ancients, that country became the hotbed of
these venomous reptiles. With the curse of Athene upon her, she turned into
stone whomsoever she gazed upon, till at last, after a life of nameless
misery, deliverance came to her in the shape of death, at the hands of
Perseus.
It is well to observe that when the Gorgons are spoken of in the singular, it
is Medusa who is alluded to.
Medusa was the mother of Pegasus and Chrysaor, father of the three-
headed, winged giant Geryones, who was slain by Heracles.

GRÆÆ.

The Grææ, who acted as servants to their sisters the Gorgons, were also
three in number; their names were Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino.

In their original conception they were merely personifications of kindly and
venerable old age, possessing all its benevolent attributes without its natural
infirmities. They were old and gray from their birth, and so they ever
remained. In later times, however, they came to be regarded as misshapen
females, decrepid, and hideously ugly, having only one eye, one tooth, and
one gray wig between them, which they lent to each other, when one of
them wished to appear before the world.
When Perseus entered upon his expedition to slay the Medusa, he repaired
to the abode of the Grææ, in the far west, to inquire the way to the Gorgons,
and on their refusing to give any information, he deprived them of their one
eye, tooth, and wig, and did not restore them until he received the necessary
directions.

SPHINX.

The Sphinx was an ancient Egyptian divinity, who personified wisdom, and
the fertility of nature. She is represented as a lion-couchant, with the head
and bust of a woman, and wears a peculiar sort of hood, which completely
envelops her head, and falls down on either side of the face.
Transplanted into Greece, this sublime and mysterious Egyptian deity
degenerates into an insignificant, and yet malignant power, and though she
also deals in mysteries, they are, as we shall see, of a totally different
character, and altogether inimical to human life.
The Sphinx is represented, according to Greek
genealogy, as the offspring of Typhon and Echidna.[48]
Hera, being upon one occasion displeased with the
Thebans, sent them this awful monster, as a punishment
for their offences. Taking her seat on a rocky eminence
near the city of Thebes, commanding a pass which the
Thebans were compelled to traverse in their usual way of business, she
propounded to all comers a riddle, and if they failed to solve it, she tore
them in pieces.
During the reign of King Creon, so many people had fallen a sacrifice to
this monster, that he determined to use every effort to rid the country of so

terrible a scourge. On consulting the oracle of Delphi, he was informed that
the only way to destroy the Sphinx was to solve one of her riddles, when
she would immediately precipitate herself from the rock on which she was
seated.
Creon, accordingly, made a public declaration to the effect, that whoever
could give the true interpretation of a riddle propounded by the monster,
should obtain the crown, and the hand of his sister Jocaste. Œdipus offered
himself as a candidate, and proceeding to the spot where she kept guard,
received from her the following riddle for solution: "What creature goes in
the morning on four legs, at noon on two, and in the evening on three?"
Œdipus replied, that it must be man, who during his infancy creeps on all
fours, in his prime walks erect on two legs, and when old age has enfeebled
his powers, calls a staff to his assistance, and thus has, as it were, three legs.
The Sphinx no sooner heard this reply, which was the correct solution of
her riddle, than she flung herself over the precipice, and perished in the
abyss below.
The Greek Sphinx may be recognized by having wings and by being of
smaller dimensions than the Egyptian Sphinx.

TYCHE (Fortuna) AND ANANKE (Necessitas).

TYCHE (Fortuna).
Tyche personified that peculiar combination of circumstances which we call
luck or fortune, and was considered to be the source of all unexpected
events in human life, whether good or evil. If a person succeeded in all he
undertook without possessing any special merit of his own, Tyche was
supposed to have smiled on his birth. If, on the other hand, undeserved ill-
luck followed him through life, and all his efforts resulted in failure, it was
ascribed to her adverse influence.
This goddess of Fortune is variously represented. Sometimes she is depicted
bearing in her hand two rudders, with one of which she steers the bark of
the fortunate, and with the other that of the unfortunate among mortals. In
later times she appears blindfolded, and stands on a ball or wheel, indicative
of the fickleness and ever-revolving changes of fortune. She frequently

bears the sceptre and cornucopia[49] or horn of plenty, and is usually
winged. In her temple at Thebes, she is represented holding the infant
Plutus in her arms, to symbolize her power over riches and prosperity.
Tyche was worshipped in various parts of Greece, but more particularly by
the Athenians, who believed in her special predilection for their city.

FORTUNA.
Tyche was worshipped in Rome under the name of Fortuna, and held a
position of much greater importance among the Romans than the Greeks.
In later times Fortuna is never represented either winged or standing on a
ball; she merely bears the cornucopia. It is evident, therefore, that she had
come to be regarded as the goddess of good luck only, who brings blessings
to man, and not, as with the Greeks, as the personification of the
fluctuations of fortune.
In addition to Fortuna, the Romans worshipped Felicitas as the giver of
positive good fortune.

ANANKE (Necessitas).
As Ananke, Tyche assumes quite another character, and becomes the
embodiment of those immutable laws of nature, by which certain causes
produce certain inevitable results.
In a statue of this divinity at Athens she was represented with hands of
bronze, and surrounded with nails and hammers. The hands of bronze
probably indicated the irresistible power of the inevitable, and the hammer
and chains the fetters which she forged for man.
Ananke was worshipped in Rome under the name of Necessitas.

KER.

In addition to the Moiræ, who presided over the life of mortals, there was
another divinity, called Ker, appointed for each human being at the moment
of his birth. The Ker belonging to an individual was believed to develop
with his growth, either for good or evil; and when the ultimate fate of a

mortal was about to be decided, his Ker was weighed in the balance, and,
according to the preponderance of its worth or worthlessness, life or death
was awarded to the human being in question. It becomes evident, therefore,
that according to the belief of the early Greeks, each individual had it in his
power, to a certain extent, to shorten or prolong his own existence.
The Keres, who are frequently mentioned by Homer, were the goddesses
who delighted in the slaughter of the battle-field.

ATE.

Ate, the daughter of Zeus and Eris, was a divinity who delighted in evil.
Having instigated Hera to deprive Heracles of his birthright, her father
seized her by the hair of her head, and hurled her from Olympus, forbidding
her, under the most solemn imprecations, ever to return. Henceforth she
wandered among mankind, sowing dissension, working mischief, and luring
men to all actions inimical to their welfare and happiness. Hence, when a
reconciliation took place between friends who had quarrelled, Ate was
blamed as the original cause of disagreement.

MOMUS.

Momus, the son of Nyx, was the god of raillery and ridicule, who delighted
to criticise, with bitter sarcasm, the actions of gods and men, and contrived
to discover in all things some defect or blemish. Thus when Prometheus
created the first man, Momus considered his work incomplete because there
was no aperture in the breast through which his inmost thoughts might be
read. He also found fault with a house built by Athene because, being
unprovided with the means of locomotion, it could never be removed from
an unhealthy locality. Aphrodite alone defied his criticism, for, to his great
chagrin, he could find no fault with her perfect form.[50]
In what manner the ancients represented this god is unknown. In modern art
he is depicted like a king's jester, with a fool's cap and bells.

EROS (Cupid, Amor) AND PSYCHE.

According to Hesiod's Theogony, Eros, the divine spirit of Love, sprang
forth from Chaos, while all was still in confusion, and by his beneficent
power reduced to order and harmony the shapeless, conflicting elements,
which, under his influence, began to assume distinct forms. This ancient
Eros is represented as a full-grown and very beautiful youth, crowned with
flowers, and leaning on a shepherd's crook.
In the course of time, this beautiful conception gradually faded away, and
though occasional mention still continues to be made of the Eros of Chaos,
he is replaced by the son of Aphrodite, the popular, mischief-loving little
god of Love, so familiar to us all.
In one of the myths concerning Eros, Aphrodite is described as complaining
to Themis, that her son, though so beautiful, did not appear to increase in
stature; whereupon Themis suggested that his small proportions were
probably attributable to the fact of his being always alone, and advised his
mother to let him have a companion. Aphrodite accordingly gave him, as a
playfellow, his younger brother Anteros (requited love), and soon had the
gratification of seeing the little Eros begin to grow and thrive; but, curious
to relate, this desirable result only continued as long as the brothers
remained together, for the moment they were separated, Eros shrank once
more to his original size.
By degrees the conception of Eros became multiplied and we hear of little
love-gods (Amors), who appear under the most charming and diversified
forms. These love-gods, who afforded to artists inexhaustible subjects for
the exercise of their imagination, are represented as being engaged in
various occupations, such as hunting, fishing, rowing, driving chariots, and
even busying themselves in mechanical labour.
Perhaps no myth is more charming and interesting than that of
Eros and Psyche, which is as follows:—Psyche, the youngest
of three princesses, was so transcendently beautiful that
Aphrodite herself became jealous of her, and no mortal dared
to aspire to the honour of her hand. As her sisters, who were by
no means equal to her in attractions, were married, and Psyche
still remained unwedded, her father consulted the oracle of
Delphi, and, in obedience to the divine response, caused her to

be dressed as though for the grave, and conducted to the edge of a yawning
precipice. No sooner was she alone than she felt herself lifted up, and
wafted away by the gentle west wind Zephyrus, who transported her to a
verdant meadow, in the midst of which stood a stately palace, surrounded
by groves and fountains.
Here dwelt Eros, the god of Love, in whose arms Zephyrus deposited his
lovely burden. Eros, himself unseen, wooed her in the softest accents of
affection; but warned her, as she valued his love, not to endeavour to behold
his form. For some time Psyche was obedient to the injunction of her
immortal spouse, and made no effort to gratify her natural curiosity; but,
unfortunately, in the midst of her happiness she was seized with an
unconquerable longing for the society of her sisters, and, in accordance with
her desire, they were conducted by Zephyrus to her fairy-like abode. Filled
with envy at the sight of her felicity, they poisoned her mind against her
husband, and telling her that her unseen lover was a frightful monster, they
gave her a sharp dagger, which they persuaded her to use for the purpose of
delivering herself from his power.
After the departure of her sisters, Psyche resolved to take the first
opportunity of following their malicious counsel. She accordingly rose in
the dead of night, and taking a lamp in one hand and a dagger in the other,
stealthily approached the couch where Eros was reposing, when, instead of
the frightful monster she had expected to see, the beauteous form of the god
of Love greeted her view. Overcome with surprise and admiration, Psyche
stooped down to gaze more closely on his lovely features, when, from the
lamp which she held in her trembling hand, there fell a drop of burning oil
upon the shoulder of the sleeping god, who instantly awoke, and seeing
Psyche standing over him with the instrument of death in her hand,
sorrowfully reproached her for her treacherous designs, and, spreading out
his wings, flew away.
In despair at having lost her lover, the unhappy Psyche endeavoured to put
an end to her existence by throwing herself into the nearest river; but
instead of closing over her, the waters bore her gently to the opposite bank,
where Pan (the god of shepherds) received her, and consoled her with the
hope of becoming eventually reconciled to her husband.

Meanwhile her wicked sisters, in expectation of meeting with the same
good fortune which had befallen Psyche, placed themselves on the edge of
the rock, but were both precipitated into the chasm below.
Psyche herself, filled with a restless yearning for her lost love, wandered all
over the world in search of him. At length she appealed to Aphrodite to take
compassion on her; but the goddess of Beauty, still jealous of her charms,
imposed upon her the hardest tasks, the accomplishment of which often
appeared impossible. In these she was always assisted by invisible,
beneficent beings, sent to her by Eros, who still loved her, and continued to
watch over her welfare.
Psyche had to undergo a long and severe penance before
she became worthy to regain the happiness, which she
had so foolishly trifled away. At last Aphrodite
commanded her to descend into the under world, and
obtain from Persephone a box containing all the charms
of beauty. Psyche's courage now failed her, for she
concluded that death must of necessity precede her
entrance into the realm of shades. About to abandon
herself to despair, she heard a voice which warned her of
every danger to be avoided on her perilous journey, and
instructed her with regard to certain precautions to be
observed. These were as follows:—not to omit to
provide herself with the ferryman's toll for Charon, and the cake to pacify
Cerberus, also to refrain from taking any part in the banquets of Aïdes and
Persephone, and, above all things, to bring the box of beauty charms
unopened to Aphrodite. In conclusion, the voice assured her, that
compliance with the above conditions would insure for her a safe return to
the realms of light. But, alas, Psyche, who had implicitly followed all
injunctions, could not withstand the temptation of the last condition; and,
hardly had she quitted the lower world, when, unable to resist the curiosity
which devoured her, she raised the lid of the box with eager expectation.
But, instead of the wondrous charms of beauty which she expected to
behold, there issued from the casket a dense black vapour, which had the
effect of throwing her into a death-like sleep, out of which Eros, who had
long hovered round her unseen, at length awoke her with the point of one of
his golden arrows. He gently reproached her with this second proof of her

curiosity and folly, and then, having persuaded Aphrodite to be reconciled
to his beloved, he induced Zeus to admit her among the immortal gods.
Their reunion was celebrated amidst the rejoicings of all the Olympian
deities. The Graces shed perfume on their path, the Hours sprinkled roses
over the sky, Apollo added the music of his lyre, and the Muses united their
voices in a glad chorus of delight.
This myth would appear to be an allegory, which signifies that the soul,
before it can be reunited to its original divine essence, must be purified by
the chastening sorrows and sufferings of its earthly career.[51]
Eros is represented as a lovely boy, with rounded limbs, and a merry,
roguish expression. He has golden wings, and a quiver slung over his
shoulder, which contained his magical and unerring arrows; in one hand he
bears his golden bow, and in the other a torch.
He is also frequently depicted riding on a lion, dolphin, or eagle, or seated
in a chariot drawn by stags or wild boars, undoubtedly emblematical of the
power of love as the subduer of all nature, even of the wild animals.
In Rome, Eros was worshipped under the name of Amor or Cupid.

HYMEN.

Hymen or Hymenæus, the son of Apollo and the muse Urania, was the god
who presided over marriage and nuptial solemnities, and was hence invoked
at all marriage festivities.
There is a myth concerning this divinity, which tells us that Hymen was a
beautiful youth of very poor parents, who fell in love with a wealthy
maiden, so far above him in rank, that he dared not cherish the hope of ever
becoming united to her. Still he missed no opportunity of seeing her, and,
upon one occasion, disguised himself as a girl, and joined a troop of
maidens, who, in company with his beloved, were proceeding from Athens
to Eleusis, in order to attend a festival of Demeter. On their way thither they
were surprised by pirates, who carried them off to a desert island, where the
ruffians, after drinking deeply, fell into a heavy sleep. Hymen, seizing the
opportunity, slew them all, and then set sail for Athens, where he found the

parents of the maidens in the greatest distress at their unaccountable
disappearance. He comforted them with the assurance that their children
should be restored to them, provided they would promise to give him in
marriage the maiden he loved. The condition being gladly complied with,
he at once returned to the island, and brought back the maidens in safety to
Athens, whereupon he became united to the object of his love; and their
union proved so remarkably happy, that henceforth the name of Hymen
became synonymous with conjugal felicity.

IRIS (The Rainbow).

Iris, the daughter of Thaumas and Electra, personified the rainbow, and was
the special attendant and messenger of the queen of heaven, whose
commands she executed with singular tact, intelligence, and swiftness.
Most primitive nations have regarded the rainbow as a bridge of
communication between heaven and earth, and this is doubtless the reason
why Iris, who represented that beautiful phenomenon of nature, should have
been invested by the Greeks with the office of communicating between
gods and men.
Iris is usually represented seated behind the chariot of Hera, ready to do the
bidding of her royal mistress. She appears under the form of a slender
maiden of great beauty, robed in an airy fabric of variegated hues,
resembling mother-of-pearl; her sandals are bright as burnished silver, she
has golden wings, and wherever she appears, a radiance of light, and a
sweet odour, as of delicate spring flowers, pervades the air.

HEBE (Juventas).

Hebe was the personification of eternal youth under its most attractive and
joyous aspect.
She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and though of such distinguished
rank, is nevertheless represented as cup-bearer to the gods; a forcible
exemplification of the old patriarchal custom, in accordance with which the
daughters of the house, even when of the highest lineage, personally
assisted in serving the guests.

Hebe is represented as a comely, modest maiden, small,
of a beautifully rounded contour, with nut-brown tresses
and sparkling eyes. She is often depicted pouring out
nectar from an upraised vessel, or bearing in her hand a
shallow dish, supposed to contain ambrosia, the ever
youth-renewing food of the immortals.
In consequence of an act of awkwardness, which caused
her to slip while serving the gods, Hebe was deprived of
her office, which was henceforth delegated to
Ganymedes, son of Tros.
Hebe afterwards became the bride of Heracles, when, after his apotheosis,
he was received among the immortals.

JUVENTAS.
Juventas was the Roman divinity identified with Hebe, whose attributes,
however, were regarded by the Romans as applying more particularly to the
imperishable vigour and immortal glory of the state.
In Rome, several temples were erected in honour of this goddess.

GANYMEDES.

Ganymedes, the youngest son of Tros, king of Troy, was one day drawing
water from a well on Mount Ida, when he was observed by Zeus, who,
struck with his wonderful beauty, sent his eagle to transport him to
Olympus, where he was endowed with immortality, and appointed cup-
bearer to the gods.
Ganymedes is represented as a youth of exquisite beauty, with short golden
locks, delicately chiselled features, beaming blue eyes, and pouting lips.

THE MUSES.

Of all the Olympic deities, none occupy a more distinguished position than
the Muses, the nine beautiful daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.

In their original signification, they presided merely over music, song, and
dance; but with the progress of civilization the arts and sciences claimed
their special presiding divinities, and we see these graceful creations, in
later times, sharing among them various functions, such as poetry,
astronomy, &c.
The Muses were honoured alike by mortals and immortals. In Olympus,
where Apollo acted as their leader, no banquet or festivity was considered
complete without their joy-inspiring presence, and on earth no social
gathering was celebrated without libations being poured out to them; nor
was any task involving intellectual effort ever undertaken, without earnestly
supplicating their assistance. They endowed their chosen favourites with
knowledge, wisdom, and understanding; they bestowed upon the orator the
gift of eloquence, inspired the poet with his noblest thoughts, and the
musician with his sweetest harmonies.
Like so many of the Greek divinities, however, the refined conception of
the Muses is somewhat marred by the acerbity with which they punished
any effort on the part of mortals to rival them in their divine powers. An
instance of this is seen in the case of Thamyris, a Thracian bard, who
presumed to invite them to a trial of skill in music. Having vanquished him,
they not only afflicted him with blindness, but deprived him also of the
power of song.
Another example of the manner in which the gods punished presumption
and vanity is seen in the story of the daughters of King Pierus. Proud of the
perfection to which they had brought their skill in music, they presumed to
challenge the Muses themselves in the art over which they specially
presided. The contest took place on Mount Helicon, and it is said that when
the mortal maidens commenced their song, the sky became dark and misty,
whereas when the Muses raised their heavenly voices, all nature seemed to
rejoice, and Mount Helicon itself moved with exultation. The Pierides were
signally defeated, and were transformed by the Muses into singing birds, as
a punishment for having dared to challenge comparison with the immortals.
Undeterred by the above example, the Sirens also entered into a similar
contest. The songs of the Muses were loyal and true, whilst those of the
Sirens were the false and deceptive strains with which so many unfortunate

mariners had been lured to their death. The Sirens were defeated by the
Muses, and as a mark of humiliation, were deprived of the feathers with
which their bodies were adorned.
The oldest seat of the worship of the Muses was Pieria in Thrace, where
they were supposed to have first seen the light of day. Pieria is a district on
one of the sloping declivities of Mount Olympus, whence a number of
rivulets, as they flow towards the plains beneath, produce those sweet,
soothing sounds, which may possibly have suggested this spot as a fitting
home for the presiding divinities of song.
They dwelt on the summits of Mounts Helicon, Parnassus, and Pindus, and
loved to haunt the springs and fountains which gushed forth amidst these
rocky heights, all of which were sacred to them and to poetic inspiration.
Aganippe and Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, and the Castalian spring on
Mount Parnassus, were sacred to the Muses. The latter flowed between two
lofty rocks above the city of Delphi, and in ancient times its waters were
introduced into a square stone basin, where they were retained for the use of
the Pythia and the priests of Apollo.
The libations to these divinities consisted of water, milk,
and honey, but never of wine.
Their names and functions are as follows:—
CALLIOPE, the most honoured of the Muses, presided
over heroic song and epic poetry, and is represented with
a pencil in her hand, and a slate upon her knee.
CLIO, the muse of History, holds in her hand a roll of
Calliope.
parchment, and wears a wreath of laurel.
MELPOMENE, the muse of Tragedy, bears a tragic mask.
THALIA, the muse of Comedy, carries in her right hand a shepherd's
crook, and has a comic mask beside her.
POLYHYMNIA, the muse of Sacred Hymns, is crowned with a wreath of
laurel. She is always represented in a thoughtful attitude, and entirely
enveloped in rich folds of drapery.

TERPSICHORE, the muse of Dance and Roundelay, is represented in the
act of playing on a seven-stringed lyre.
URANIA, the muse of Astronomy, stands erect, and bears in her left hand a
celestial globe.
EUTERPE, the muse of Harmony, is represented bearing a musical
instrument, usually a flute.
ERATO, the muse of Love and hymeneal songs, wears a wreath of laurel,
and is striking the chords of a lyre.

Clio. Terpsichore. Euterpe. Erato.

With regard to the origin of the Muses, it is said that they were created by
Zeus in answer to a request on the part of the victorious deities, after the
war with the Titans, that some special divinities should be called into
existence, in order to commemorate in song the glorious deeds of the
Olympian gods.

Urania. Melpomene. Thalia. Polyhymnia.

PEGASUS.

Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse who sprang from the body of Medusa
when she was slain by the hero Perseus, the son of Zeus and Danaë.
Spreading out his wings he immediately flew to the top of Mount Olympus,
where he was received with delight and admiration by all the immortals. A
place in his palace was assigned to him by Zeus, who employed him to
carry his thunder and lightning. Pegasus permitted none but the gods to
mount him, except in the case of Bellerophon, whom, at the command of
Athene, he carried aloft, in order that he might slay the Chimæra with his
arrows.
The later poets represent Pegasus as being at the service of the Muses, and
for this reason he is more celebrated in modern times than in antiquity. He
would appear to represent that poetical inspiration, which tends to develop
man's higher nature, and causes the mind to soar heavenwards. The only
mention by the ancients of Pegasus in connection with the Muses, is the
story of his having produced with his hoofs, the famous fountain
Hippocrene.
It is said that during their contest with the Pierides, the Muses played and
sang on the summit of Mount Helicon with such extraordinary power and
sweetness, that heaven and earth stood still to listen, whilst the mountain
raised itself in joyous ecstasy towards the abode of the celestial gods.
Poseidon, seeing his special function thus interfered with, sent Pegasus to

check the boldness of the mountain, in daring to move without his
permission. When Pegasus reached the summit, he stamped the ground with
his hoofs, and out gushed the waters of Hippocrene, afterwards so
renowned as the sacred fount, whence the Muses quaffed their richest
draughts of inspiration.

THE HESPERIDES.

The Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, dwelt in an island in the far west,
whence they derived their name.
They were appointed by Hera to act as guardians to a tree bearing golden
apples, which had been presented to her by Gæa on the occasion of her
marriage with Zeus.
It is said that the Hesperides, being unable to withstand the temptation of
tasting the golden fruit confided to their care, were deprived of their office,
which was henceforth delegated to the terrible dragon Ladon, who now
became the ever-watchful sentinel of these precious treasures.
The names of the Hesperides were Aegle, Arethusa, and Hesperia.

CHARITES (Gratiæ) GRACES.

All those gentler attributes which beautify and refine human existence were
personified by the Greeks under the form of three lovely sisters,
Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia, the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (or,
according to later writers, of Dionysus and Aphrodite).
They are represented as beautiful, slender maidens in the full bloom of
youth, with hands and arms lovingly intertwined, and are either undraped,
or wear a fleecy, transparent garment of an ethereal fabric.
They portray every gentle emotion of the heart, which vents itself in
friendship and benevolence, and were believed to preside over those
qualities which constitute grace, modesty, unconscious beauty, gentleness,
kindliness, innocent joy, purity of mind and body, and eternal youth.

They not only possessed the most perfect beauty themselves, but also
conferred this gift upon others. All the enjoyments of life were enhanced by
their presence, and were deemed incomplete without them; and wherever
joy or pleasure, grace and gaiety reigned, there they were supposed to be
present.
Temples and altars were everywhere erected in their honour, and people of
all ages and of every rank in life entreated their favour. Incense was burnt
daily upon their altars, and at every banquet they were invoked, and a
libation poured out to them, as they not only heightened all enjoyment, but
also by their refining influence moderated the exciting effects of wine.
Music, eloquence, poetry, and art, though the direct work of the Muses,
received at the hands of the Graces an additional touch of refinement and
beauty; for which reason they are always regarded as the friends of the
Muses, with whom they lived on Mount Olympus.
Their special function was to act, in conjunction with the Seasons, as
attendants upon Aphrodite, whom they adorned with wreaths of flowers,
and she emerges from their hands like the Queen of Spring, perfumed with
the odour of roses and violets, and all sweet-scented blossoms.
The Graces are frequently seen in attendance on other divinities; thus they
carry music for Apollo, myrtles for Aphrodite, &c., and frequently
accompany the Muses, Eros, or Dionysus.

HORÆ (Seasons).

Closely allied to the Graces were the Horæ, or Seasons, who were also
represented as three beautiful maidens, daughters of Zeus and Themis.
Their names were Eunomia, Dice, and Irene.
It may appear strange that these divinities, presiding over the seasons,
should be but three in number, but this is quite in accordance with the
notions of the ancient Greeks, who only recognized spring, summer, and
autumn as seasons; nature being supposed to be wrapt in death or slumber,
during that cheerless and unproductive portion of the year which we call
winter. In some parts of Greece there were but two Horæ, Thallo, goddess
of the bloom, and Carpo, of the corn and fruit-bearing season.

The Horæ are always regarded as friendly towards mankind, and totally
devoid of guile or subtlety; they are represented as joyous, but gentle
maidens, crowned with flowers, and holding each other by the hand in a
round dance. When they are depicted separately as personifications of the
different seasons, the Hora representing spring appears laden with flowers,
that of summer bears a sheaf of corn, whilst the personification of autumn
has her hands filled with clusters of grapes and other fruits. They also
appear in company with the Graces in the train of Aphrodite, and are seen
with Apollo and the Muses.
They are inseparably connected with all that is good and beautiful in nature,
and as the regular alternation of the seasons, like all her other operations,
demands the most perfect order and regularity, the Horæ, being the
daughters of Themis, came to be regarded as the representatives of order,
and the just administration of human affairs in civilized communities. Each
of these graceful maidens took upon herself a separate function: Eunomia
presided more especially over state life, Dice guarded the interests of
individuals, whilst Irene, the gayest and brightest of the three sisters, was
the light-hearted companion of Dionysus.
The Horæ were also the deities of the fast-fleeting hours, and thus presided
over the smaller, as well as the larger divisions of time. In this capacity they
assist every morning in yoking the celestial horses to the glorious chariot of
the sun, which they again help to unyoke when he sinks to rest.
In their original conception they were personifications of the clouds, and
are described as opening and closing the gates of heaven, and causing fruits
and flowers to spring forth, when they pour down upon them their
refreshing and life-giving streams.

THE NYMPHS.

The graceful beings called the Nymphs were the presiding deities of the
woods, grottoes, streams, meadows, &c.
These divinities were supposed to be beautiful maidens of fairy-like form,
and robed in more or less shadowy garments. They were held in the greatest
veneration, though, being minor divinities, they had no temples dedicated to

them, but were worshipped in caves or grottoes, with libations of milk,
honey, oil, &c.
They may be divided into three distinct classes, viz., water, mountain, and
tree or wood nymphs.

WATER NYMPHS.

OCEANIDES, NEREIDES, AND NAIADES.
The worship of water-deities is common to most primitive nations. The
streams, springs, and fountains of a country bear the same relation to it
which the blood, coursing through the numberless arteries of a human
being, bears to the body; both represent the living, moving, life-awakening
element, without which existence would be impossible. Hence we find
among most nations a deep feeling of attachment to the streams and waters
of their native land, the remembrance of which, when absent in foreign
climes, is always treasured with peculiar fondness. Thus among the early
Greeks, each tribe came to regard the rivers and springs of its individual
state as beneficent powers, which brought blessing and prosperity to the
country. It is probable also that the charm which ever accompanies the
sound of running water exercised its power over their imagination. They
heard with delight the gentle whisper of the fountain, lulling the senses with
its low, rippling tones; the soft purling of the brook as it rushes over the
pebbles, or the mighty voice of the waterfall as it dashes on in its headlong
course; and the beings which they pictured to themselves as presiding over
all these charming sights and sounds of nature, corresponded, in their
graceful appearance, with the scenes with which they were associated.

OCEANIDES.
The Oceanides, or Ocean Nymphs, were the daughters of Oceanus and
Tethys, and, like most sea divinities, were endowed with the gift of
prophecy.
They are personifications of those delicate vapour-like exhalations, which,
in warm climates, are emitted from the surface of the sea, more especially at
sunset, and are impelled forwards by the evening breeze. They are

accordingly represented as misty, shadowy beings, with graceful swaying
forms, and robed in pale blue, gauze-like fabrics.

THE NEREIDES.
The Nereides were the daughters of Nereus and Doris, and were nymphs of
the Mediterranean Sea.
They are similar in appearance to the Oceanides, but their beauty is of a less
shadowy order, and is more like that of mortals. They wear a flowing, pale
green robe; their liquid eyes resemble, in their clear depths, the lucid waters
of the sea they inhabit; their hair floats carelessly over their shoulders, and
assumes the greenish tint of the water itself, which, far from deteriorating
from their beauty, greatly adds to its effect. The Nereides either accompany
the chariot of the mighty ruler of the sea, or follow in his train.
We are told by the poets that the lonely mariner watches the Nereides with
silent awe and wondering delight, as they rise from their grotto-palaces in
the deep, and dance, in joyful groups, over the sleeping waves. Some, with
arms entwined, follow with their movements the melodies which seem to
hover over the sea, whilst others scatter liquid gems around, these being
emblematical of the phosphorescent light, so frequently observed at night
by the traveller in southern waters.
The best known of the Nereides were Thetis, the wife of Peleus, Amphitrite,
the spouse of Poseidon, and Galatea, the beloved of Acis.

THE NAIADES.
The Naiades were the nymphs of fresh-water springs, lakes, brooks, rivers,
&c.
As the trees, plants, and flowers owed their nourishment to their genial,
fostering care, these divinities were regarded by the Greeks as special
benefactors to mankind. Like all the nymphs, they possessed the gift of
prophecy, for which reason many of the springs and fountains over which
they presided were believed to inspire mortals who drank of their waters
with the power of foretelling future events. The Naiades are intimately
connected in idea with those flowers which are called after them Nymphæ,

or water-lilies, whose broad, green leaves and yellow cups float upon the
surface of the water, as though proudly conscious of their own grace and
beauty.
We often hear of the Naiades forming alliances with mortals, and also of
their being wooed by the sylvan deities of the woods and dales.

DRYADES, OR TREE NYMPHS.

The tree nymphs partook of the distinguishing characteristics of the
particular tree to whose life they were wedded, and were known
collectively by the name of the Dryades.
The Hamadryades, or oak nymphs, represent in their peculiar individuality
the quiet, self-reliant power which appears to belong essentially to the
grand and lordly king of the forest.
The Birch Nymph is a melancholy maiden with floating hair, resembling the
branches of the pale and fragile-looking tree which she inhabits.
The Beech Nymph is strong and sturdy, full of life and joyousness, and
appears to give promise of faithful love and undisturbed repose, whilst her
rosy cheeks, deep brown eyes, and graceful form bespeak health, vigour,
and vitality.
The nymph of the Linden Tree is represented as a little coy maiden, whose
short silver-gray dress reaches a little below the knee, and displays to
advantage her delicately formed limbs. The sweet face, which is partly
averted, reveals a pair of large blue eyes, which appear to look at you with
wondering surprise and shy mistrust; her pale, golden hair is bound by the
faintest streak of rose-coloured ribbon.
The tree nymph, being wedded to the life of the tree she inhabited, ceased
to exist when it was either felled, or so injured as to wither away and die.

NYMPHS OF THE VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS.

NAPÆÆ AND OREADES.

The Napææ were the kind and gentle nymphs of the valleys and glens who
appear in the train of Artemis. They are represented as lovely maidens with
short tunics, which, reaching only to the knee, do not impede their swift and
graceful movements in the exercise of the chase. Their pale brown tresses
are fastened in a knot at the back of the head, whence a few stray curls
escape over their shoulders. The Napææ are shy as the fawns, and quite as
frolicsome.
The Oreades, or mountain nymphs, who are the principal and constant
companions of Artemis, are tall, graceful maidens, attired as huntresses.
They are ardent followers of the chase, and spare neither the gentle deer nor
the timid hare, nor indeed any animal they meet with in their rapid course.
Wherever their wild hunt goes the shy Napææ are represented as hiding
behind the leaves, whilst their favourites, the fawns, kneel tremblingly
beside them, looking up beseechingly for protection from the wild
huntresses; and even the bold Satyrs dart away at their approach, and seek
safety in flight.
There is a myth connected with one of these mountain nymphs, the
unfortunate Echo. She became enamoured of a beautiful youth named
Narcissus, son of the river-god Cephissus, who, however, failed to return
her love, which so grieved her that she gradually pined away, becoming a
mere shadow of her former self, till, at length, nothing remained of her
except her voice, which henceforth gave back, with unerring fidelity, every
sound that was uttered in the hills and dales. Narcissus himself also met
with an unhappy fate, for Aphrodite punished him by causing him to fall in
love with his own image, which he beheld in a neighbouring fountain,
whereupon, consumed with unrequited love, he wasted away, and was
changed into the flower which bears his name.
The Limoniades, or meadow nymphs, resemble the Naiades, and are usually
represented dancing hand in hand in a circle.
The Hyades, who in appearance are somewhat similar to the Oceanides, are
cloudy divinities, and, from the fact of their being invariably accompanied
by rain, are represented as incessantly weeping.
The Meliades were the nymphs who presided over fruit-trees.

Before concluding this subject, attention should be drawn to the fact that, in
more modern times, this beautiful idea of animating all nature in detail
reappears under the various local traditions extant in different countries.
Thus do the Oceanides and Nereides live again in the mermaids, whose
existence is still believed in by mariners, whilst the flower and meadow
nymphs assume the shape of those tiny elves and fairies, who were formerly
believed to hold their midnight revels in every wood and on every common;
indeed, even at the present day, the Irish peasantry, especially in the west,
firmly believe in the existence of the fairies, or "good people," as they are
called.

THE WINDS.

According to the oldest accounts, Æolus was a king of the Æolian Islands,
to whom Zeus gave the command of the winds, which he kept shut up in a
deep cave, and which he freed at his pleasure, or at the command of the
gods.
In later times the above belief underwent a change, and the winds came to
be regarded as distinct divinities, whose aspect accorded with the respective
winds with which they were identified. They were depicted as winged
youths in full vigour in the act of flying through the air.
The principal winds were: Boreas (the north wind), Eurus (the east wind),
Zephyrus (the west wind), and Notus (the south wind), who were said to be
the children of Eos and Astræus.
There are no myths of interest connected with these divinities. Zephyrus
was united to Chloris (Flora), the goddess of flowers. Of Boreas it is related
that while flying over the river Ilissus, he beheld on the banks Oreithyia, the
charming daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, whom he carried off to
his native Thrace, and there made her his bride. Boreas and Oreithyia were
the parents of Zetes and Calais, afterwards famous in the expedition of the
Argonauts.
There was an altar erected at Athens in honour of Boreas, in
commemoration of his having destroyed the Persian fleet sent to attack the
Greeks.

On the Acropolis at Athens there was a celebrated octagonal temple, built
by Pericles, which was dedicated to the winds, and on its sides were their
various representations. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen.

PAN (Faunus).

Pan was the god of fertility, and the special patron of
shepherds and huntsmen; he presided over all rural
occupations, was chief of the Satyrs, and head of all
rural divinities.
According to the common belief, he was the son of
Hermes and a wood nymph, and came into the world
with horns sprouting from his forehead, a goat's beard
and a crooked nose, pointed ears, and the tail and feet of
a goat, and presented altogether so repulsive an appearance that, at the sight
of him, his mother fled in dismay.
Hermes, however, took up his curious little offspring, wrapt him in a hare
skin, and carried him in his arms to Olympus. The grotesque form and
merry antics of the little stranger made him a great favourite with all the
immortals, especially Dionysus; and they bestowed upon him the name of
Pan (all), because he had delighted them all.
His favourite haunts were grottoes, and his delight was to wander in
uncontrolled freedom over rocks and mountains, following his various
pursuits, ever cheerful, and usually very noisy. He was a great lover of
music, singing, dancing, and all pursuits which enhance the pleasures of
life; and hence, in spite of his repulsive appearance, we see him surrounded
with nymphs of the forests and dales, who love to dance round him to the
cheerful music of his pipe, the syrinx. The myth concerning the origin of
Pan's pipe is as follows:—Pan became enamoured of a beautiful nymph,
called Syrinx, who, appalled at his terrible appearance, fled from the
pertinacious attentions of her unwelcome suitor. He pursued her to the
banks of the river Ladon, when, seeing his near approach, and feeling
escape impossible, she called on the gods for assistance, who, in answer to
her prayer, transformed her into a reed, just as Pan was about to seize her.
Whilst the love-sick Pan was sighing and lamenting his unfortunate fate, the

winds gently swayed the reeds, and produced a murmuring sound as of one
complaining. Charmed with the soothing tones, he endeavoured to
reproduce them himself, and after cutting seven of the reeds of unequal
length, he joined them together, and succeeded in producing the pipe, which
he called the syrinx, in memory of his lost love.
Pan was regarded by shepherds as their most valiant protector, who
defended their flocks from the attacks of wolves. The shepherds of these
early times, having no penfolds, were in the habit of gathering together their
flocks in mountain caves, to protect them against the inclemency of the
weather, and also to secure them at night against the attacks of wild
animals; these caves, therefore, which were very numerous in the mountain
districts of Arcadia, Bœotia, &c., were all consecrated to Pan.
As it is customary in all tropical climates to repose during the heat of the
day, Pan is represented as greatly enjoying his afternoon sleep in the cool
shelter of a tree or cave, and also as being highly displeased at any sound
which disturbed his slumbers, for which reason the shepherds were always
particularly careful to keep unbroken silence during these hours, whilst they
themselves indulged in a quiet siesta.
Pan was equally beloved by huntsmen, being himself a great lover of the
woods, which afforded to his cheerful and active disposition full scope, and
in which he loved to range at will. He was regarded as the patron of the
chase, and the rural sportsmen, returning from an unsuccessful day's sport,
beat, in token of their displeasure, the wooden image of Pan, which always
occupied a prominent place in their dwellings.
All sudden and unaccountable sounds which startle travellers in lonely
spots, were attributed to Pan, who possessed a frightful and most discordant
voice; hence the term panic terror, to indicate sudden fear. The Athenians
ascribed their victory at Marathon to the alarm which he created among the
Persians by his terrible voice.
Pan was gifted with the power of prophecy, which he is said to have
imparted to Apollo, and he possessed a well-known and very ancient oracle
in Arcadia, in which state he was more especially worshipped.

The artists of later times have somewhat toned down the original very
unattractive conception of Pan, as above described, and merely represent
him as a young man, hardened by the exposure to all weathers which a rural
life involves, and bearing in his hand the shepherd's crook and syrinx—
these being his usual attributes—whilst small horns project from his
forehead. He is either undraped, or wears merely the light cloak called the
chlamys.
The usual offerings to Pan were milk and honey in shepherds' bowls. Cows,
lambs, and rams were also sacrificed to him.
After the introduction of Pan into the worship of Dionysus, we hear of a
number of little Pans (Panisci), who are sometimes confounded with the
Satyrs.

FAUNUS.
The Romans had an old Italian divinity called Faunus, who, as the god of
shepherds, was identified with the Greek Pan, and represented in a similar
manner.
Faunus is frequently called Inuus or the fertilizer, and Lupercus or the one
who wards off wolves. Like Pan, he possessed the gift of prophecy, and was
the presiding spirit of the woods and fields; he also shared with his Greek
prototype the faculty of alarming travellers in solitary places. Bad dreams
and evil apparitions were attributed to Faunus, and he was believed to enter
houses stealthily at night for this purpose.
Fauna was the wife of Faunus, and participated in his functions.

THE SATYRS.

The Satyrs were a race of woodland spirits, who evidently personified the
free, wild, and untrammelled life of the forest. Their appearance was both
grotesque and repulsive; they had flat broad noses, pointed ears, and little
horns sprouting from their foreheads, a rough shaggy skin, and small goat's
tails. They led a life of pleasure and self-indulgence, followed the chase,
revelled in every description of wild music and dancing, were terrible wine-
bibbers, and addicted to the deep slumbers which follow heavy potations.

They were no less dreaded by mortals than by the gentle
woodland nymphs, who always avoided their coarse
rough sports.
The Satyrs were conspicuous figures in the train of
Dionysus, and, as we have seen, Silenus their chief was
tutor to the wine god. The older Satyrs were called
Silens, and are represented in antique sculpture, as more
nearly approaching the human form.
In addition to the ordinary Satyrs, artists delighted in depicting little Satyrs,
young imps, frolicking about the woods in a marvellous variety of droll
attitudes. These little fellows greatly resemble their friends and
companions, the Panisci.
In rural districts it was customary for the shepherds and peasants who
attended the festivals of Dionysus, to dress themselves in the skins of goats
and other animals, and, under this disguise, they permitted themselves all
kinds of playful tricks and excesses, to which circumstance the conception
of the Satyrs is by some authorities attributed.
In Rome the old Italian wood-divinities, the FAUNS, who had goats' feet
and all other characteristics of the Satyrs greatly exaggerated, were
identified with them.

PRIAPUS.

Priapus, the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was regarded as the god of
fruitfulness, the protector of flocks, sheep, goats, bees, the fruit of the vine,
and all garden produce.
His statues, which were set up in gardens and vineyards, acted not only as
objects of worship, but also as scarecrows, the appearance of this god being
especially repulsive and unsightly. These statues were formed of wood or
stone, and from the hips downwards were merely rude columns. They
represent him as having a red and very ugly face; he bears in his hand a
pruning knife, and his head is crowned with a wreath of vine and laurel. He
usually carries fruit in his garments or a cornucopia in his hand, always,
however, retaining his singularly revolting aspect. It is said that Hera,

wishing to punish Aphrodite, sent her this misshapen and unsightly son, and
that when he was born, his mother was so horrified at the sight of him, that
she ordered him to be exposed on the mountains, where he was found by
some shepherds, who, taking pity on him, saved his life.
This divinity was chiefly worshipped at Lampsacus, his birthplace. Asses
were sacrificed to him, and he received the first-fruits of the fields and
gardens, with a libation of milk and honey.
The worship of Priapus was introduced into Rome at the same time as that
of Aphrodite, and was identified with a native Italian divinity named
Mutunus.

ASCLEPIAS (Æsculapius).

Asclepias, the god of the healing art, was the son of Apollo and the nymph
Coronis. He was educated by the noble Centaur Chiron, who instructed him
in all knowledge, but more especially in that of the properties of herbs.
Asclepias searched out the hidden powers of plants, and discovered cures
for the various diseases which afflict the human body. He brought his art to
such perfection, that he not only succeeded in warding off death, but also
restored the dead to life. It was popularly believed that he was materially
assisted in his wonderful cures by the blood of the Medusa, given to him by
Pallas-Athene.
It is well to observe that the shrines of this divinity,
which were usually built in healthy places, on hills
outside the town, or near wells which were believed to
have healing powers, offered at the same time means of
cure for the sick and suffering, thus combining religious
with sanitary influences. It was the custom for the
sufferer to sleep in the temple, when, if he had been
earnest in his devotions, Asclepias appeared to him in a
dream, and revealed the means to be employed for the
cure of his malady. On the walls of these temples were
hung tablets, inscribed by the different pilgrims with the
particulars of their maladies, the remedies practised, and the cures worked
by the god:—a custom undoubtedly productive of most beneficial results.

Groves, temples, and altars were dedicated to Asclepias in many parts of
Greece, but Epidaurus, the chief seat of his worship,—where, indeed, it is
said to have originated,—contained his principal temple, which served at
the same time as a hospital.
The statue of Asclepias in the temple at Epidaurus was formed of ivory and
gold, and represented him as an old man with a full beard, leaning on a staff
round which a serpent is climbing. The serpent was the distinguishing
symbol of this divinity, partly because these reptiles were greatly used by
the ancients in the cure of diseases, and partly also because all the prudence
and wisdom of the serpent were deemed indispensable to the judicious
physician.
His usual attributes are a staff, a bowl, a bunch of herbs, a pineapple, a dog,
and a serpent.
His children inherited, for the most part, the distinguished talents of their
father. Two of his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, accompanied Agamemnon
to the Trojan war, in which expedition they became renowned, not only as
military heroes, but also as skilful physicians.
Their sisters, HYGEIA (health), and PANACEA (all-healing), had temples
dedicated to them, and received divine honours. The function of Hygeia
was to maintain the health of the community, which great blessing was
supposed to be brought by her as a direct and beneficent gift from the gods.

ÆSCULAPIUS.
The worship of Æsculapius was introduced into Rome from Epidaurus,
whence the statue of the god of healing was brought at the time of a great
pestilence. Grateful for their deliverance from this plague, the Romans
erected a temple in his honour, on an island near the mouth of the Tiber.

ROMAN DIVINITIES.

JANUS.

From the earliest ages Janus was regarded by the Romans with the utmost
affection and veneration, as a divinity who ranked only second to Jupiter
himself, and through whom all prayers and petitions were transmitted to the
other gods.
He was believed to preside over the beginnings of all things, hence it was
he who inaugurated the years, months, and seasons, and in course of time
came to be considered as specially protecting the beginnings of all human
enterprises. The great importance which the Romans attached to an
auspicious commencement, as contributing to the ultimate success of an
enterprise, accounts for the high estimation in which Janus was held as the
god of beginnings.
This divinity would appear to have been the ancient sun-god of the Italian
tribes, in which capacity he opens and closes the gates of heaven every
morning and evening. Hence he was regarded as the door-keeper of heaven,
and also as the presiding deity over all gates, entrances, &c., on earth.
The fact of his being the god of city gates, which were called Jani after him,
is ascribed, however, to the following myth:—After the abduction of their
women by the Romans, the Sabines, in revenge, invaded the Roman state,
and were already about to enter the gates of the city, when suddenly a hot
sulphur spring, which was believed to have been sent by Janus for their
special preservation, gushed forth from the earth, and arrested the progress
of the enemy.
In his character as guardian of gates and doors, he was also regarded as a
protecting deity of the home, for which reason little shrines were erected to
him over the doors of houses, which contained an image of the god, having
two faces.
Janus possessed no temples in the ordinary acceptation of the word, but all
the gates of cities were dedicated to him. Close to the Forum of Rome stood
the so-called temple of Janus, which, however, was merely an arched
passage, closed by massive gates. This temple was open only in time of
war, as it was supposed that the god had then taken his departure with the
Roman army, over whose welfare he personally presided. It is worthy of
notice, as an evidence of the many wars in which the Romans were

engaged, that the gates of this sanctuary were only closed three times during
700 years.
As the god who ushers in the new year, the first month was called after him,
and on the 1st of January his most important festival was celebrated, on
which occasion all entrances of public and private buildings were decorated
with laurel branches and garlands of flowers.
His sacrifices, consisting of cakes, wine, and barley, were offered to him at
the beginning of every month; and before sacrificing to the other gods his
name was always invoked, and a libation poured out to him.
Janus is usually represented with two faces; in his special function as door-
keeper of heaven he stands erect, bearing a key in one hand, and a rod or
sceptre in the other.
It is supposed that Janus was the most ancient king of Italy, who, during his
life, governed his subjects with such wisdom and moderation that, in
gratitude for the benefits conferred upon them, his people deified him after
death and placed him in the foremost rank among their divinities. We have
already seen in the history of Cronus that Saturn, who was identified with
the Greek Cronus (god of time), was the friend and colleague of Janus.
Anxious to prove his gratitude to his benefactor, Cronus endowed him with
the knowledge of past and future events, which enabled him to adopt the
wisest measures for the welfare of his subjects, and it is on this account that
Janus is represented with two faces looking in opposite directions, the one
to the past, the other to the future.

FLORA.

Flora was the goddess of flowers, and was regarded as a beneficent power,
who watched over and protected the early blossoms.
She was held in the highest estimation by the Romans, and a festival, called
the Floralia, was celebrated in her honour from the 28th of April to the 1st
of May. This festival was a season of universal merriment, in which flowers
were used profusely in adorning houses, streets, &c., and were worn by
young girls in their hair.

Flora, who typified the season of Spring, is generally represented as a
lovely maiden, garlanded with flowers.

ROBIGUS.

In opposition to Flora we find an antagonistic divinity, called Robigus, a
worker of evil, who delighted in the destruction of the tender herbs by
mildew, and whose wrath could only be averted by prayers and sacrifices,
when he was invoked under the title of Averuncus, or the Avertor.
The festival of Robigus (the Robigalia) was celebrated on the 25th of April.

POMONA.

Pomona was the goddess of orchards and fruit-trees, who, according to
Ovid, cares not for woods or streams, but loves her gardens and the boughs
that bear the thriving fruit.
Pomona, who typifies Autumn, is represented as a lovely maiden, laden
with branches of fruit-trees.

VERTUMNUS.

Vertumnus was the god of garden and field produce. He personifies the
change of seasons, and that process of transformation in nature by means of
which the leaf-buds become developed into blossoms, and the blossoms
into fruit.
The change of seasons is symbolized in a myth which represents Vertumnus
as metamorphosing himself into a variety of different forms in order to gain
the affection of Pomona, who so loved her vocation that she abjured all
thoughts of marriage. He first appears to her as a ploughman, typifying
Spring; then as a reaper, to represent Summer; afterwards as a vine-
gatherer, to indicate Autumn; and finally as a gray-haired old woman,
symbolical of the snows of Winter; but it was not until he assumed his true
form, that of a beautiful youth, that he succeeded in his suit.

Vertumnus is generally represented crowned with wheat-sheaves, and
bearing in his hand a cornucopia.

PALES.

Pales, a very ancient Italian divinity, is represented sometimes as a male,
sometimes as a female power.
As a male divinity he is more particularly the god of shepherds and flocks.
As a female deity, Pales presides over husbandry and the fruitfulness of
herds. Her festivals, the Palilia, were celebrated on the 21st of April, the day
on which the city of Rome was founded. During this festival it was
customary for shepherds to ignite a mass of straw, through which they
rushed with their flocks, believing that this ordeal would purify them from
sin.
The name Palatine, which originally signified a pastoral colony, is derived
from this divinity. Her offerings were cakes and milk.

PICUS.

Picus, the son of Saturn and father of Faunus, was a woodland divinity,
gifted with prophetic powers.
An ancient myth relates that Picus was a beautiful youth, united to a nymph
called Canens. The sorceress Circe, infatuated by his beauty, endeavoured
to secure his love, but he rejected her advances, and she, in revenge,
changed him into a woodpecker, under which form he still retained his
powers of prophecy.
Picus is represented as a youth, with a woodpecker perched upon his head,
which bird became henceforth regarded as possessed of the power of
prophecy.

PICUMNUS AND PILUMNUS.

Picumnus and Pilumnus were two household divinities of the Romans, who
were the special presiding deities of new-born infants.

SILVANUS.

Silvanus was a woodland divinity, who, like Faunus, greatly resembled the
Greek Pan. He was the presiding deity of plantations and forests, and
specially protected the boundaries of fields.
Silvanus is represented as a hale old man, carrying a cypress-tree, for,
according to Roman mythology, the transformation of the youth Cyparissus
into the tree which bears his name was attributed to him.
His sacrifices consisted of milk, meat, wine, grapes, wheat-ears, and pigs.

TERMINUS.

Terminus was the god who presided over all boundaries and landmarks.
He was originally represented by a simple block of stone, which in later
times became surmounted by a head of this divinity. Numa Pompilius, the
great benefactor of his people, anxious to inculcate respect for the rights of
property, specially enjoined the erection of these blocks of stone, as a
durable monument to mark the line dividing one property from another. He
also caused altars to be raised to Terminus, and instituted his festival (the
Terminalia), which was celebrated on the 23rd of February.
Upon one occasion, when Tarquin wished to remove the altars of several
deities, in order to build a new temple, it is said that Terminus and Juventas
alone objected to being displaced. This obstinate refusal on their part was
interpreted as a good omen, signifying that the city of Rome would never
lose her boundaries, and would remain ever young and vigorous.

CONSUS.

Consus was the god of secret counsel.

The Romans believed that when an idea developed itself spontaneously
within the mind of an individual, it was Consus who had prompted the
suggestion. This applied, however, more particularly to plans which
resulted satisfactorily.
An altar was erected to this divinity on the Circus Maximus, which was
kept always covered, except during his festival, the Consualia, which was
celebrated on the 18th of August.

LIBITINA.

Libitina was the goddess who presided over funerals. This divinity was
identified with Venus, possibly because the ancients considered that the
power of love extended even to the realms of death.
Her temple in Rome, which was erected by Servius Tullius, contained all
the requisites for funerals, and these could either be bought or hired there. A
register of all deaths which occurred in the city of Rome was kept in this
temple, and in order to ascertain the rate of mortality, a piece of money was
paid by command of Servius Tullius, on the demise of each person.

LAVERNA.

Laverna was the presiding goddess of thieves, and of all artifice and fraud.
There was an altar erected to her near the Porta Lavernalis, which was
called after her, and she possessed a sacred grove on the Via Salavia.

COMUS.

Comus was the presiding genius of banquets, festive scenes, revelry, and all
joyous pleasures and reckless gaiety.
He is represented as a young man crowned with flowers, his face heated
and flushed with wine, leaning against a post in a half-sleepy and drunken
attitude, with a torch falling from his hand.

THE CAMENÆ.

The Camenæ were prophetic nymphs held in high veneration by the ancient
Italians. They were four in number, the best known of whom are Carmenta
and Egeria.
Carmenta was celebrated as being the mother of Evander, who led an
Arcadian colony into Italy, and founded a town on the river Tiber, which
became afterwards incorporated with the city of Rome. Evander is said to
have been the first who introduced Greek art and civilization into Italy, and
also the worship of Greek divinities.
A temple was erected to Carmenta on the Capitoline Hill, and a festival,
called the Carmentalia, was celebrated in her honour on the 11th of January.
Egeria is said to have initiated Numa Pompilius in the forms of religious
worship, which he introduced among his people. She was regarded as the
giver of life, and was therefore invoked by women before the birth of their
children.
The Camenæ are frequently identified by Roman writers with the Muses.

GENII.

A comforting and assuring belief existed among the Romans, that each
individual was accompanied through life, from the hour of his birth to that
of his death, by a protecting spirit, called his genius, who prompted him to
good and noble deeds, and acted towards him as a guardian angel,
comforting him in sorrow, and guiding him throughout his earthly career.
In the course of time a second genius was believed to exist, of an evil
nature, who, as the instigator of all wrong-doing, was ever at war with the
beneficent genius; and on the issue of the conflict between these
antagonistic influences, depended the fate of the individual. The genii were
depicted as winged beings, greatly resembling our modern representations
of guardian angels.
Every state, town, or city, (as well as every man), possessed its special
genius. The sacrifices to the genii consisted of wine, cakes, and incense,
which were offered to them on birthdays.

The genius which guided a woman was called, after the queen of heaven,
Juno.
Among the Greeks, beings called Dæmons were regarded as exercising
similar functions to those of the Roman genii. They were believed to be the
spirits of the righteous race which existed in the Golden Age, who watched
over mankind, carrying their prayers to the gods, and the gifts of the gods to
them.

MANES.

LEMURES (LARVÆ) AND LARES.
The Manes were the spirits of the departed, and were of two kinds, viz.,
Lemures (or Larvæ) and Lares.
The Lemures were those Manes who haunted their former abodes on earth
as evil spirits, appearing at night under awful forms and hideous shapes,
greatly to the alarm of their friends and relatives. They were so feared that a
festival, called the Lemuralia, was celebrated in order to propitiate them.
It appears extremely probable that the superstitions with regard to ghosts,
haunted houses, &c., which exist even at the present day, owe their origin to
this very ancient pagan source.
The Lares Familiares were a much more pleasing conception. They were
the spirits of the ancestors of each family, who exercised after death a
protecting power over the well-being and prosperity of the family to which
they had in life belonged. The place of honour beside the hearth was
occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was supposed to have
been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of profound
veneration, and was honoured on all occasions by every member of the
family; a portion of each meal was laid before it, and it was believed to take
an active part in all family affairs and domestic events, whether of a sad or
joyful nature. Before starting on any expedition the master of the house
saluted the statue of the Lar, and, on his return, a solemn thanksgiving was
offered to this, the presiding deity of his hearth and home, in grateful
acknowledgment of his protection; whereupon the statue was crowned with

garlands of flowers, these being the favourite offerings to the Lares on all
occasions of especial family rejoicing.
The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to the
Lar, in the belief that he would exercise over her a protecting influence and
shield her from evil.
In addition to those above enumerated there were also public Lares, who
were guardians of the state, highroads, country, and sea. Their temples were
always open for any pious worshipper to enter, and on their altars public
sacrifices were offered for the welfare of the state or city.

PENATES.

The Penates were deities selected by each family, and frequently by its
individual members, as a special protector. Various causes led to this
selection. If, for instance, a child were born on the festival of Vesta, it was
thought that that deity would henceforward act as its special guardian. If a
youth possessed great business talents he adopted Mercury as his tutelary
deity; should he, on the other hand, develop a passion for music, Apollo
was selected as his patron god, and so forth. These became regarded as the
special divinities of the household, small images of them adorned the
surroundings of the hearth, and honours similar to those paid to the Lares
were accorded to them.
Just as there were public Lares so there were public Penates, which were
worshipped by the Roman people under the form of two youthful warriors,
who, in later times, were regarded as identical with Castor and Pollux. They
are generally represented on horseback, with conical caps on their heads,
and bearing long spears in their hands.

PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND
ROMANS.

TEMPLES.

In very remote times the Greeks had no shrines or sanctuaries devoted to
public worship, but performed their devotions beneath the vast and
boundless canopy of heaven, in the great temple of nature itself. Believing
that their divinities throned above the clouds, pious worshippers naturally
sought the highest available points, in order to place themselves in the
closest communion possible with their gods; hence the summits of high
mountains were selected for devotional purposes, and the more exalted the
rank and importance of the divinity invoked, the more elevated was the site
selected for his or her worship. But the inconvenience attending this mode
of worship gradually suggested the idea of erecting edifices which would
afford means of shelter from the inclemency of the weather.
These structures were, in the first instance, of the most simple form, and
without decoration; but when, with the progress of civilization, the Greeks
became a wealthy and powerful people, temples were built and adorned
with the greatest splendour and magnificence, talent, labour, and wealth
being lavished unsparingly on their erection and decoration; indeed so
massively were they constructed, that some of them have, to a certain
extent, withstood the ravages of time. The city of Athens especially contains
numerous remains of these buildings of antiquity. On the Acropolis we may
still behold, among other monuments of ancient art, the temple of Athene-
Polias, and that of Theseus, the latter of which is the most entire ancient
edifice in the world. In the island of Delos, also, are to be seen the ruins of

the temples of Apollo and Artemis, both of which are in a wonderful state of
preservation. These ruins are most valuable, being sufficiently complete to
enable us to study, by their aid, the plan and character of the original
structure.
Among the Lacedæmonians, however, we find no vestiges of these stately
temples, for they were specially enjoined by a law of Lycurgus to serve the
gods with as little outlay as possible. When the great lawgiver was asked
the reason of this injunction, he replied that the Lacedæmonians, being a
poor nation, might otherwise abstain altogether from the observance of their
religious duties, and wisely added that magnificent edifices and costly
sacrifices were not so pleasing to the gods, as the true piety and unfeigned
devotion of their worshippers.
The most ancient temples known to us served a double purpose: they were
not only consecrated to the service of the gods, but were at the same time
venerable monuments in honour of the dead. Thus, for instance, the temple
of Pallas-Athene, in the tower of the city of Larissa, served as the sepulchre
of Acrisius, and the Acropolis at Athens received the ashes of Cecrops,
founder of the city.
A temple was frequently dedicated to two or more gods, and was always
built after the manner considered most acceptable to the particular divinities
to whom it was consecrated; for just as trees, birds, and animals of every
description were held to be sacred to certain deities, so almost every god
had a form of building peculiar to himself, which was deemed more
acceptable to him than any other. Thus the Doric style of architecture was
sacred to Zeus, Ares, and Heracles; the Ionic to Apollo, Artemis, and
Dionysus; and the Corinthian to Hestia.
In the porch of the temple stood a vessel of stone or brass, containing holy
water (which had been consecrated by putting into it a burning torch, taken
from the altar), with which all those admitted to take part in the sacrifices
were besprinkled. In the inmost recess of the sanctuary was the most holy
place, into which none but the priests were suffered to enter.
Temples in the country were usually surrounded with groves of trees. The
solitude of these shady retreats naturally tended to inspire the worshipper
with awe and reverence, added to which the delightful shade and coolness

afforded by tall leafy trees is peculiarly grateful in hot countries. Indeed so
general did this custom of building temples in groves become, that all
places devoted to sacred purposes, even where no trees existed, were called
groves. That this practice must be of very remote antiquity is proved by the
Biblical injunction, having for its object the separation of the Jews from all
idolatrous practices: "Thou shalt not plant thee a grove of trees near unto
the altar of the Lord thy God."

STATUES.

The Greeks worshipped their gods without any visible representations of
them until the time of Cecrops. The most ancient of these representations
consisted of square blocks of stone, upon which the name of the deity
intended to be represented was engraved. The first attempts at sculpture
were rude stocks, with a head at one end and a shapeless trunk at the other,
tapering slightly down to the feet, which, however, were not divided, the
limbs being in no way defined. But the artists of later times devoted all their
genius to the successful production of the highest ideals of their gods, some
of which are preserved to this day, and are regarded as examples of purest
art.
On a pedestal in the centre of the edifice stood the statue of the divinity to
whom the temple was dedicated, surrounded by images of other gods, all of
which were fenced off by rails.

ALTARS.

The altar in a Greek temple, which stood in the centre of the building and in
front of the statue of the presiding deity, was generally of a circular form,
and constructed of stone. It was customary to engrave upon it the name or
distinguishing symbol of the divinity to whom it was dedicated; and it was
held so sacred that if any malefactor fled to it his life was safe from his
pursuers, and it was considered one of the greatest acts of sacrilege to force
him from this asylum.
The most ancient altars were adorned with horns, which in former times
were emblems of power and dignity, as wealth, and consequently
importance, consisted among most primitive nations in flocks and herds.

In addition to those erected in places of public worship, altars were
frequently raised in groves, on highways, or in the market-places of cities.
The gods of the lower world had no altars whatever, ditches or trenches
being dug for the reception of the blood of the sacrifices offered to them.

PRIESTS.

In ancient times the priests were recognized as a special social caste, and
were distinguished not only by their sacerdotal vestments, but also by their
piety, wisdom, and blameless life. They were the chosen mediators between
gods and men, and offered prayers and sacrifices in the name of the people,
whom they also instructed as to what vows, gifts, and offerings would be
most acceptable to the gods.
Every deity had a different order of priests consecrated to his worship, and
in every place a high-priest was appointed, whose duty it was to superintend
the rest of his order, and also to carry out the more sacred rites and religious
observances.
Priests and priestesses were permitted to marry, but not a second time;
some, however, voluntarily adopted a life of celibacy.

SACRIFICES.

There is no doubt that a feeling of gratitude to the gods for their protecting
care, and the abundance with which they were believed to bless mankind,
has induced men of all nations and in all countries to feel a desire to
sacrifice to their divinities some portion of the gifts so generously lavished
upon them.
Among the Greeks, sacrifices were of various kinds. They consisted of free-
will offerings, propitiatory offerings, &c.
Free-will offerings were grateful acknowledgments for benefits received,
and usually consisted of the first-fruits of the field, or the finest of the
flocks and herds, which were required to be without spot or blemish.

Propitiatory offerings were brought with the object of appeasing the anger
of the gods.
In addition to those above enumerated, sacrifices were made, either with a
view of obtaining success in an enterprise about to be undertaken, or in
fulfilment of a vow, or at the command of an oracle.
Every sacrifice was accompanied by salt and also by a libation, which
usually consisted of wine, the cup being always filled to the brim,
indicating that the offering was made without stint. When sacrificing to the
infernal gods the cup containing the libation was filled with blood.
The animals offered to the Olympian divinities were white, whilst those to
the gods of the lower world were black. When a man offered a special
sacrifice for himself or his family it partook of the nature of his occupation;
thus a shepherd brought a sheep, a vine-grower his grapes, and so forth. But
in the case of public sacrifices, the supposed individuality of the deity was
always consulted. For instance, to Demeter a sow was offered, because that
animal is apt to root up the seed-corn; to Dionysus a goat, on account of its
being destructive to vineyards, &c.
The value of offerings depended greatly upon the position of the individual;
it being regarded as a contempt of the gods for a rich man to bring a sordid
offering, whilst from a poor man the smallest oblation was considered
acceptable.
Hecatombs consisted of a hundred animals, and were offered by entire
communities, or by wealthy individuals who either desired, or had obtained
some special favour from the gods.
When a sacrifice was to be offered, a fire was kindled on the altar, into
which wine and frankincense were poured, in order to increase the flame. In
very ancient times, the victim was laid upon the altar and burned whole; but
after the time of Prometheus portions only of the shoulders, thighs, entrails,
&c., were sacrificed, the remainder becoming the perquisites of the priests.
The officiating priests wore a crown composed of the leaves of the tree
sacred to the deity they invoked. Thus when sacrificing to Apollo the
crowns were of laurel; when to Heracles, of poplar. This practice of wearing

crowns was, at a later period, adopted by the general public at banquets and
other festivities.
On occasions of special solemnity the horns of the victim were overlaid
with gold, and the altars decked with flowers and sacred herbs.
The mode of conducting the sacrifices was as follows:—All things being
prepared, a salt cake, the sacrificial knife, and the crowns, were placed in a
small basket, and carried to the sanctuary by a young maiden, whereupon
the victim was conducted into the temple, frequently to the accompaniment
of music. If a small animal, it was driven loose to the altar; if a large one, it
was led by a long trailing rope, in order to indicate that it was not an
unwilling sacrifice.
When all were assembled, the priest, after walking in solemn state round
the altar, besprinkled it with a mixture of meal and holy water, after which
he also besprinkled the assembled worshippers, and exhorted them to join
with him in prayer. The service being ended, the priest first tasted the
libation, and after causing the congregation to do the like, poured the
remainder between the horns of the victim, after which frankincense was
strewn upon the altar, and a portion of the meal and water poured upon the
animal, which was then killed. If by any chance the victim escaped the
stroke, or became in any way restless, it was regarded as an evil omen; if,
on the contrary, it expired without a struggle, it was considered auspicious.
At the sacrifices to the aërial divinities music was added, whilst dances
were performed round the altar, and sacred hymns sung. These hymns were
generally composed in honour of the gods, and contained an account of
their famous actions, their clemency and beneficence, and the gifts
conferred by them on mankind. In conclusion, the gods were invoked for a
continuance of their favour, and when the service was ended a feast was
held.

ORACLES.

The desire to penetrate the dark veil of futurity, and thereby to avert, if
possible, threatened danger, has animated mankind in all ages of the world.
Prophetic knowledge was sought by the Greeks at the mouth of oracles,

whose predictions were interpreted to the people by priests, specially
appointed for the purpose.
The most famous of these institutions was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi,
which was held in general repute all over the world. People flocked from
far and near to consult this wonderful mouth-piece of the gods, one month
in the year being specially set apart for the purpose.
The priestess who delivered the oracles was called the Pythia, after the
serpent Python, which was killed by Apollo. Having first bathed in the
waters of the Castalian spring, she was conducted into the temple by the
priests, and was seated on a sort of three-legged stool or table, called a
tripod, which was placed over the mouth of a cave whence issued
sulphurous vapours. Here she gradually became affected in a remarkable
manner, and fell into an ecstatic condition, in which she uttered wild and
extraordinary phrases, which were held to be the utterance of Apollo
himself; these the priests interpreted to the people, but in most cases in so
ambiguous a manner that the fulfilment of the prediction could not easily be
disputed. During the ceremony, clouds of incense filled the temple, and hid
the priestess from the view of the uninitiated, and at its conclusion she was
reconducted, in a fainting condition, to her cell.
The following is a striking instance of the ambiguity of oracular
predictions:—Crœsus, the rich king of Lydia, before going to war with
Cyrus, king of Persia, consulted an oracle as to the probable success of the
expedition. The reply he received was, that if he crossed a certain river he
would destroy a great empire. Interpreting the response as being favourable
to his design, Crœsus crossed the river, and encountered the Persian king,
by whom he was entirely defeated; and his own empire being destroyed, the
prediction of the oracle was said to have been fulfilled.

SOOTHSAYERS (Augurs).

In addition to the manifestation of the will of the gods by means of oracles,
the Greeks also believed that certain men, called soothsayers, were gifted
with the power of foretelling future events from dreams, from observing the
flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, and even the direction of
the flames and smoke from the altar, &c.

AUGURS.
The Roman soothsayers were called augurs, and played an important part in
the history of the Romans, as no enterprise was ever undertaken without
first consulting them with regard to its ultimate success.

FESTIVALS.

Festivals were instituted as seasons of rest, rejoicing, and thanksgiving, and
also as anniversaries to commemorate events of national importance. The
most ancient festivals were those held after the ingathering of the harvest or
vintage, and were celebrated with rejoicings and merry-makings, which
lasted many days, during which time the first-fruits of the fields were
offered to the gods, accompanied by prayers and thanksgiving.
The festivals held in cities in honour of special divinities, or in
commemoration of particular events, were conducted with an elaborate
ceremonial. Gorgeous processions, games, chariot races, &c., were
conspicuous features on these occasions, and dramatic performances,
representing particular episodes in the lives of the gods and heroes,
frequently took place.
We subjoin a few of the most interesting of the Greek and Roman festivals.

GREEK FESTIVALS.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.

One of the most ancient and important among the festivals observed by the
Greeks was that of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which was celebrated in
honour of Demeter and Persephone. The name was derived from Eleusis, a
town in Attica, where the Mysteries were first introduced by the goddess
herself. They were divided into the Greater and Lesser Mysteries, and,
according to the general account, were held every five years. The Greater,
which were celebrated in honour of Demeter, and lasted nine days, were
held in autumn; the Lesser, dedicated to Persephone (who at these festivals
was affectionately called Cora, or the maiden), were held in spring.

It is supposed that the secrets taught to the initiated by the priests—the
expounders of the Mysteries—were moral meanings, elucidated from the
myths concerning Demeter and Persephone; but the most important belief
inculcated was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. That the lessons
taught were of the highest moral character is universally admitted. "The
souls of those who participated in them were filled with the sweetest hopes
both as to this and the future world;" and it was a common saying among
the Athenians: "In the Mysteries no one is sad."
The initiation into these solemn rites (which was originally the exclusive
privilege of the Athenians) was accompanied with awe-inspiring
ceremonies; and secrecy was so strictly enjoined that its violation was
punished by death. At the conclusion of the initiation great rejoicings took
place, chariot-races, wrestling matches, &c., were held, and solemn
sacrifices offered.
The initiation into the Lesser Mysteries served as a preparation for the
Greater.

THESMOPHORIA.

The Thesmophoria was another festival held in honour of Demeter, in her
character as presiding over marriage and social institutions resulting from
the spread of agriculture.
This festival was celebrated exclusively by women.

DIONYSIA.

A joyous spring festival was held in honour of Dionysus, in the month of
March, and lasted several days.
This festival, which was called the Greater Dionysia, was celebrated with
particular splendour at Athens, when strangers flocked from all parts of the
world to take part in the ceremonies. The city was gaily decorated, the
houses were garlanded with ivy-leaves, crowds perambulated the streets,
everything wore its holiday garb, and wine was freely indulged in.

In the processions which took place during these
festivities, the statue of Dionysus was carried, and men
and women, crowned with ivy and bearing the thyrsus,
were dressed in every description of grotesque costume,
and played on drums, pipes, flutes, cymbals, &c. Some
representing Silenus rode on asses, others wearing fawn-
skins appeared as Pan or the Satyrs, and the whole
multitude sang pæans in honour of the wine-god. Public
shows, games, and sports took place, and the entire city
was full of revelry.
What lent additional interest to these festivals was the custom of
introducing new comedies and tragedies to the public, representations of
which were given, and prizes awarded to those which elicited the greatest
admiration.
The Lesser Dionysia were vintage festivals, celebrated in
rural districts in the month of November, and were
characterized by drinking, feasting, and joviality of all
kinds.
In connection with some of the festivals in honour of
Dionysus were certain mystic observances, into which
only women, called Menades or Bacchantes, were
initiated. Clad in fawn-skins, they assembled by night on
the mountain sides, some carrying blazing torches,
others thyrsi, and all animated with religious enthusiasm and frenzy. They
shouted, clapped their hands, danced wildly, and worked themselves up to
such a pitch of excitement and fury that in their mad frenzy they tore in
pieces the animal brought as a sacrifice to Dionysus.
Under the name of Bacchanalia, these mystic rites were introduced into
Rome, where men also were allowed to participate in them; but they were
attended with such frightful excesses that the state authorities at length
interfered and prohibited them.

PANATHENÆA.

The Panathenæa was a famous festival celebrated in Athens in honour of
Athene-Polias, the guardian of the state. There were two festivals of this
name, the Lesser and the Greater Panathenæa. The former was held
annually, and the latter, which lasted several days, was celebrated every
fourth year.
For the Greater Panathenæa a garment, embroidered with gold, called the
Peplus, was specially woven by Athenian maidens, on which was
represented the victory gained by Athene over the Giants. This garment was
suspended to the mast of a ship which stood outside the city; and during the
festival, which was characterized by a grand procession, the ship (with the
Peplus on its mast) was impelled forward by means of invisible machinery,
and formed the most conspicuous feature of the pageant. The whole
population, bearing olive branches in their hands, took part in the
procession; and amidst music and rejoicings this imposing pageant wended
its way to the temple of Athene-Polias, where the Peplus was deposited on
the statue of the goddess.
At this festival, Homer's poems were declaimed aloud, and poets also
introduced their own works to the public. Musical contests, foot and horse
races, and wrestling matches were held, and dances were performed by
boys in armour.
Men who had deserved well of their country were presented at the festival
with a crown of gold, and the name of the person so distinguished was
announced publicly by a herald.
The victors in the races and athletic games received, as a prize, a vase of
oil, supposed to have been extracted from the fruit of the sacred olive-tree
of Athene.

DAPHNEPHORIA.

The Daphnephoria was celebrated at Thebes in honour of Apollo every
ninth year.
The distinguishing feature of this festival was a procession to the temple of
Apollo, in which a young priest (the Daphnephorus) of noble descent,
splendidly attired and wearing a crown of gold, was preceded by a youth,

carrying an emblematical representation of the sun, moon, stars, and days of
the year, and followed by beautiful maidens bearing laurel branches, and
singing hymns in honour of the god.

ROMAN FESTIVALS.

SATURNALIA.

The Saturnalia, a national festival held in December in honour of Saturn,
was celebrated after the ingathering of the harvest, and lasted several days.
It was a time of universal rejoicing, cessation from labour, and merry-
making. School children had holidays, friends sent presents to each other,
the law-courts were closed, and no business was transacted.
Crowds of people from the surrounding country flocked to Rome for this
festival attired in every variety of masquerade dress; practical jokes were
given and received with the utmost good humour, shouts of exultation filled
the air, all classes abandoned themselves to enjoyment, and unrestrained
hilarity reigned supreme. Social distinctions were for a time suspended, or
even reversed; and so heartily was the spirit of this festival entered into, that
masters waited upon their slaves at banquets which they provided for them;
the slaves being dressed upon these occasions in the garments of their
masters.
There appears little doubt that the modern Carnival is a survival of the
ancient Saturnalia.

CEREALIA.

This festival was celebrated in honour of Ceres. It was solemnized
exclusively by women, who, dressed in white garments, wandered about
with torches in their hands, to represent the search of the goddess for her
daughter Proserpine.
During this festival, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, to
which none were admitted unless clothed in white.

VESTALIA.

The Vestalia was a festival held in honour of Vesta on the 9th of June, and
was celebrated exclusively by women, who walked barefooted in
procession to the temple of the goddess.
The priestesses of Vesta, called Vestales or Vestal Virgins, played a
conspicuous part in these festivals. They were six in number, and were
chosen—between the ages of six and ten—from the noblest families in
Rome. Their term of office was thirty years. During the first ten years, they
were initiated in their religious duties, during the second ten they performed
them, and during the third they instructed novices. Their chief duty was to
watch and feed the ever-burning flame on the altar of Vesta, the extinction
of which was regarded as a national calamity of ominous import.
Great honours and privileges were accorded to them; the best seats were
reserved for their use at all public spectacles, and even the consuls and
prætors made way for them to pass. If they met a criminal on his way to
execution they had the power to pardon him, provided it could be proved
that the meeting was accidental.
The Vestales were vowed to chastity, a violation of which was visited by the
frightful punishment of being buried alive.

PART II.—LEGENDS.
CADMUS.

The following is the legendary account of the founding of Thebes:—
After the abduction of his daughter Europa by Zeus, Agenor, king of
Phœnicia, unable to reconcile himself to her loss, despatched his son
Cadmus in search of her, desiring him not to return without his sister.
For many years Cadmus pursued his search through various countries, but
without success. Not daring to return home without her, he consulted the
oracle of Apollo at Delphi; and the reply was that he must desist from his
task, and take upon himself a new duty, i.e. that of founding a city, the site
of which would be indicated to him by a heifer which had never borne the
yoke, and which would lie down on the spot whereon the city was to be
built.
Scarcely had Cadmus left the sacred fane, when he observed a heifer who
bore no marks of servitude on her neck, walking slowly in front of him. He
followed the animal for a considerable distance, until at length, on the site
where Thebes afterwards stood, she looked towards heaven and, gently
lowing, lay down in the long grass. Grateful for this mark of divine favour,
Cadmus resolved to offer up the animal as a sacrifice, and accordingly sent
his followers to fetch water for the libation from a neighbouring spring.
This spring, which was sacred to Ares, was situated in a wood, and guarded
by a fierce dragon, who, at the approach of the retainers of Cadmus,
suddenly pounced upon them and killed them.
After waiting some time for the return of his servants Cadmus grew
impatient, and hastily arming himself with his lance and spear, set out to
seek them. On reaching the spot, the mangled remains of his unfortunate
followers met his view, and near them he beheld the frightful monster,
dripping with the blood of his victims. Seizing a huge rock, the hero hurled
it with all his might upon the dragon; but protected by his tough black skin
and steely scales as by a coat of mail, he remained unhurt. Cadmus now

tried his lance, and with more success, for it pierced the side of the beast,
who, furious with pain, sprang at his adversary, when Cadmus, leaping
aside, succeeded in fixing the point of his spear within his jaws, which final
stroke put an end to the encounter.
While Cadmus stood surveying his vanquished foe Pallas-Athene appeared
to him, and commanded him to sow the teeth of the dead dragon in the
ground. He obeyed; and out of the furrows there arose a band of armed
men, who at once commenced to fight with each other, until all except five
were killed. These last surviving warriors made peace with each other, and
it was with their assistance that Cadmus now built the famous city of
Thebes. In later times the noblest Theban families proudly claimed their
descent from these mighty earth-born warriors.
Ares was furious with rage when he discovered that Cadmus had slain his
dragon, and would have killed him had not Zeus interfered, and induced
him to mitigate his punishment to that of servitude for the term of eight
years. At the end of that time the god of war became reconciled to Cadmus,
and, in token of his forgiveness, bestowed upon him the hand of his
daughter Harmonia in marriage. Their nuptials were almost as celebrated as
those of Peleus and Thetis. All the gods honoured them with their presence,
and offered rich gifts and congratulations. Cadmus himself presented his
lovely bride with a splendid necklace fashioned by Hephæstus, which,
however, after the death of Harmonia, always proved fatal to its possessor.
The children of Cadmus and Harmonia were one son, Polydorus, and four
daughters, Autonoe, Ino, Semele, and Agave.
For many years the founder of Thebes reigned happily, but at length a
conspiracy was formed against him, and he was deprived of his throne by
his grandson Pentheus. Accompanied by his faithful wife Harmonia, he
retired into Illyria, and after death they were both changed by Zeus into
serpents, and transferred to Elysium.

PERSEUS.

Perseus, one of the most renowned of the legendary heroes of antiquity, was
the son of Zeus and Danaë, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos.

An oracle having foretold to Acrisius that a son of Danaë would be the
cause of his death, he imprisoned her in a tower of brass in order to keep
her secluded from the world. Zeus, however, descended through the roof of
the tower in the form of a shower of gold, and the lovely Danaë became his
bride.
For four years Acrisius remained in ignorance of this union, but one
evening as he chanced to pass by the brazen chamber, he heard the cry of a
young child proceeding from within, which led to the discovery of his
daughter's marriage with Zeus. Enraged at finding all his precautions
unavailing, Acrisius commanded the mother and child to be placed in a
chest and thrown into the sea.
But it was not the will of Zeus that they should perish. He directed Poseidon
to calm the troubled waters, and caused the chest to float safely to the island
of Seriphus. Dictys, brother of Polydectes, king of the island, was fishing
on the sea-shore when he saw the chest stranded on the beach; and pitying
the helpless condition of its unhappy occupants, he conducted them to the
palace of the king, where they were treated with the greatest kindness.
Polydectes eventually became united to Danaë, and bestowed upon Perseus
an education befitting a hero. When he saw his stepson develop into a noble
and manly youth he endeavoured to instil into his mind a desire to signalize
himself by the achievement of some great and heroic deed, and after mature
deliberation it was decided that the slaying of the Gorgon, Medusa, would
bring him the greatest renown.
For the successful accomplishment of his object it was necessary for him to
be provided with a pair of winged sandals, a magic wallet, and the helmet
of Aïdes, which rendered the wearer invisible, all of which were in the
keeping of the Nymphs, the place of whose abode was known only to the
Grææ. Perseus started on his expedition, and, guided by Hermes and Pallas-
Athene, arrived, after a long journey, in the far-off region, on the borders of
Oceanus, where dwelt the Grææ, daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. He at once
applied to them for the necessary information, and on their refusing to grant
it he deprived them of their single eye and tooth, which he only restored to
them when they gave him full directions with regard to his route. He then

proceeded to the abode of the Nymphs, from whom he obtained the objects
indispensable for his purpose.
Equipped with the magic helmet and wallet, and armed with a sickle, the
gift of Hermes, he attached to his feet the winged sandals, and flew to the
abode of the Gorgons, whom he found fast asleep. Now as Perseus had been
warned by his celestial guides that whoever looked upon these weird sisters
would be transformed into stone, he stood with averted face before the
sleepers, and caught on his bright metal shield their triple image. Then,
guided by Pallas-Athene, he cut off the head of the Medusa, which he
placed in his wallet. No sooner had he done so than from the headless trunk
there sprang forth the winged steed Pegasus, and Chrysaor, the father of the
winged giant Geryon. He now hastened to elude the pursuit of the two
surviving sisters, who, aroused from their slumbers, eagerly rushed to
avenge the death of their sister.
His invisible helmet and winged sandals here stood him in good stead; for
the former concealed him from the view of the Gorgons, whilst the latter
bore him swiftly over land and sea, far beyond the reach of pursuit. In
passing over the burning plains of Libya the drops of blood from the head
of the Medusa oozed through the wallet, and falling on the hot sands below
produced a brood of many-coloured snakes, which spread all over the
country.
Perseus continued his flight until he reached the kingdom of Atlas, of whom
he begged rest and shelter. But as this king possessed a valuable orchard, in
which every tree bore golden fruit, he was fearful lest the slayer of the
Medusa might destroy the dragon which guarded it, and then rob him of his
treasures. He therefore refused to grant the hospitality which the hero
demanded, whereupon Perseus, exasperated at the churlish repulse,
produced from his wallet the head of the Medusa, and holding it towards
the king, transformed him into a stony mountain. Beard and hair erected
themselves into forests; shoulders, hands, and limbs became huge rocks,
and the head grew up into a craggy peak which reached into the clouds.
Perseus then resumed his travels. His winged sandals bore him over deserts
and mountains, until he arrived at Æthiopia, the kingdom of King Cepheus.
Here he found the country inundated with disastrous floods, towns and

villages destroyed, and everywhere signs of desolation and ruin. On a
projecting cliff close to the shore he beheld a lovely maiden chained to a
rock. This was Andromeda, the king's daughter. Her mother Cassiopea,
having boasted that her beauty surpassed that of the Nereides, the angry
sea-nymphs appealed to Poseidon to avenge their wrongs, whereupon the
sea-god devastated the country with a terrible inundation, which brought
with it a huge monster who devoured all that came in his way.
In their distress the unfortunate Æthiopians applied to the oracle of Jupiter-
Ammon, in the Libyan desert, and obtained the response, that only by the
sacrifice of the king's daughter to the monster could the country and people
be saved.
Cepheus, who was tenderly attached to his child, at first refused to listen to
this dreadful proposal; but overcome at length by the prayers and
solicitations of his unhappy subjects, the heart-broken father gave up his
child for the welfare of his country. Andromeda was accordingly chained to
a rock on the sea-shore to serve as a prey to the monster, whilst her unhappy
parents bewailed her sad fate on the beach below.
On being informed of the meaning of this tragic scene, Perseus proposed to
Cepheus to slay the dragon, on condition that the lovely victim should
become his bride. Overjoyed at the prospect of Andromeda's release, the
king gladly acceded to the stipulation, and Perseus hastened to the rock, to
breathe words of hope and comfort to the trembling maiden. Then assuming
once more the helmet of Aïdes, he mounted into the air, and awaited the
approach of the monster.
Presently the sea opened, and the shark's head of the gigantic beast of the
deep raised itself above the waves. Lashing his tail furiously from side to
side, he leaped forward to seize his victim; but the gallant hero, watching
his opportunity, suddenly darted down, and producing the head of the
Medusa from his wallet, held it before the eyes of the dragon, whose
hideous body became gradually transformed into a huge black rock, which
remained for ever a silent witness of the miraculous deliverance of
Andromeda. Perseus then led the maiden to her now happy parents, who,
anxious to evince their gratitude to her deliverer ordered immediate
preparations to be made for the nuptial feast. But the young hero was not to

bear away his lovely bride uncontested; for in the midst of the banquet,
Phineus, the king's brother, to whom Andromeda had previously been
betrothed, returned to claim his bride. Followed by a band of armed
warriors he forced his way into the hall, and a desperate encounter took
place between the rivals, which might have terminated fatally for Perseus,
had he not suddenly bethought himself of the Medusa's head. Calling to his
friends to avert their faces, he drew it from his wallet, and held it before
Phineus and his formidable body-guard, whereupon they all stiffened into
stone.

Perseus now took leave of the Æthiopian king, and,
accompanied by his beautiful bride, returned to Seriphus,
where a joyful meeting took place between Danaë and
her son. He then sent a messenger to his grandfather,
informing him that he intended returning to Argos; but
Acrisius, fearing the fulfilment of the oracular
prediction, fled for protection to his friend Teutemias,
king of Larissa. Anxious to induce the aged monarch to
return to Argos, Perseus followed him thither. But here a
strange fatality occurred. Whilst taking part in some
funereal games, celebrated in honour of the king's father, Perseus, by an
unfortunate throw of the discus, accidentally struck his grandfather, and
thereby was the innocent cause of his death.
After celebrating the funereal rites of Acrisius with due solemnity, Perseus
returned to Argos; but feeling loath to occupy the throne of one whose death
he had caused, he exchanged kingdoms with Megapenthes, king of Tiryns,
and in course of time founded the cities of Mycenæ and Midea.
The head of the Medusa he presented to his divine patroness, Pallas-Athene,
who placed it in the centre of her shield.
Many great heroes were descended from Perseus and Andromeda, foremost
among whom was Heracles, whose mother, Alcmene, was their
granddaughter.
Heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only throughout Argos, but also at
Athens and in the island of Seriphus.

ION.

Ion was the son of Crëusa (the beauteous daughter of Erechtheus, king of
Athens) and the sun-god Phœbus-Apollo, to whom she was united without
the knowledge of her father.
Fearing the anger of Erechtheus, Crëusa placed her new-born babe in a little
wicker basket, and hanging some golden charms round his neck, invoked
for him the protection of the gods, and concealed him in a lonely cave.

Apollo, pitying his deserted child, sent Hermes to convey him to Delphi,
where he deposited his charge on the steps of the temple. Next morning the
Delphic priestess discovered the infant, and was so charmed by his
engaging appearance that she adopted him as her own son. The young child
was carefully tended and reared by his kind foster-mother, and was brought
up in the service of the temple, where he was intrusted with some of the
minor duties of the holy edifice.
And now to return to Crëusa. During a war with the Eubœans, in which the
latter were signally defeated, Xuthus, son of Æolus, greatly distinguished
himself on the side of the Athenians, and as a reward for his valuable
services, the hand of Crëusa, the king's daughter, was bestowed upon him in
marriage. Their union, however, was not blest with children, and as this was
a source of great grief to both of them, they repaired to Delphi in order to
consult the oracle. The response was, that Xuthus should regard the first
person who met him on leaving the sanctuary as his son. Now it happened
that Ion, the young guardian of the temple, was the first to greet his view,
and when Xuthus beheld the beautiful youth, he gladly welcomed him as
his son, declaring that the gods had sent him to be a blessing and comfort to
his old age. Crëusa, however, who concluded that the youth was the
offspring of a secret marriage on the part of her husband, was filled with
suspicion and jealousy; when an old servant, observing her grief, begged
her to be comforted, assuring her that the cause of her distress should be
speedily removed.
When, upon the occasion of the public adoption of his son, Xuthus gave a
grand banquet, the old servant of Crëusa contrived to mix a strong poison in
the wine of the unsuspecting Ion. But the youth—according to the pious
custom of the ancients, of offering a libation to the gods before partaking of
any repast—poured upon the ground a portion of the wine before putting it
to his lips, when suddenly, as if by a miracle, a dove flew into the banquet-
hall, and sipped of the wine of the libation; whereupon the poor little
creature began to quiver in every limb, and in a few moments expired.
Ion's suspicions at once fell upon the obsequious servant of Crëusa, who
with such officious attention had filled his cup. He violently seized the old
man, and accused him of his murderous intentions. Unprepared for this
sudden attack he admitted his guilt, but pointed to the wife of Xuthus as the

instigator of the crime. Ion was about to avenge himself upon Crëusa, when,
by means of the divine intervention of Apollo, his foster-mother, the
Delphic priestess appeared on the scene, and explained the true relationship
which existed between Crëusa and Ion. In order to set all doubts at rest, she
produced the charms which she had found round the neck of the infant, and
also the wicker basket in which he had been conveyed to Delphi.
Mother and son now became reconciled to each other, and Crëusa revealed
to Ion the secret of his divine origin. The priestess of Delphi foretold that he
would become the father of a great nation, called after him the Ionians, and
also that Xuthus and Crëusa would have a son called Dorus, who would be
the progenitor of the Dorian people, both of which predictions were in due
time verified.

DÆDALUS and ICARUS.

Dædalus, a descendant of Erechtheus, was an Athenian architect, sculptor,
and mechanician. He was the first to introduce the art of sculpture in its
higher development, for before his time statues were merely rude
representations, having the limbs altogether undefined.
But great as was his genius, still greater was his vanity, and he could brook
no rival. Now his nephew and pupil, Talus, exhibited great talent, having
invented both the saw and the compass, and Dædalus, fearing lest he might
overshadow his own fame, secretly killed him by throwing him down from
the citadel of Pallas-Athene. The murder being discovered, Dædalus was
summoned before the court of the Areopagus and condemned to death; but
he made his escape to the island of Crete, where he was received by king
Minos in a manner worthy of his great reputation.
Dædalus constructed for the king the world-renowned labyrinth, which was
an immense building, full of intricate passages, intersecting each other in
such a manner, that even Dædalus himself is said, upon one occasion, to
have nearly lost his way in it; and it was in this building the king placed the
Minotaur, a monster with the head and shoulders of a bull and the body of a
man.

In the course of time the great artist became weary of his long exile, more
especially as the king, under the guise of friendship, kept him almost a
prisoner. He therefore resolved to make his escape, and for this purpose
ingeniously contrived wings for himself and his young son Icarus, whom he
diligently trained how to use them. Having awaited a favourable
opportunity, father and son commenced their flight, and were well on their
way when Icarus, pleased with the novel sensation, forgot altogether his
father's oft-repeated injunction not to approach too near the sun. The
consequence was that the wax, by means of which his wings were attached,
melted, and he fell into the sea and was drowned. The body of the
unfortunate Icarus was washed up by the tide, and was buried by the
bereaved father on an island which he called after his son, Icaria.
After this sad event, Dædalus winged his flight to the island of Sicily, where
he met with a kind welcome from king Cocalus, for whom he constructed
several important public works. But no sooner did Minos receive the
intelligence that his great architect had found an asylum with Cocalus than
he sailed over to Sicily with a large army, and sent messengers to the
Sicilian king demanding the surrender of his guest. Cocalus feigned
compliance and invited Minos to his palace, where he was treacherously put
to death in a warm bath. The body of their king was brought to Agrigent by
the Cretans, where it was buried with great pomp, and over his tomb a
temple to Aphrodite was erected.
Dædalus passed the remainder of his life tranquilly in the island of Sicily,
where he occupied himself in the construction of various beautiful works of
art.

THE ARGONAUTS.

Aeson, king of Iolcus, was forced to fly from his dominions, which had
been usurped by his younger brother, Pelias, and with difficulty succeeded
in saving the life of his young son, Jason, who was at that time only ten
years of age. He intrusted him to the care of the Centaur Chiron, by whom
he was carefully trained in company with other noble youths, who, like
himself, afterwards signalized themselves by their bravery and heroic
exploits. For ten years Jason remained in the cave of the Centaur, by whom
he was instructed in all useful and warlike arts. But as he approached

manhood he became filled with an unconquerable desire to regain his
paternal inheritance. He therefore took leave of his kind friend and
preceptor, and set out for Iolcus to demand from his uncle Pelias the
kingdom which he had so unjustly usurped.
In the course of his journey he came to a broad and foaming river, on the
banks of which he perceived an old woman, who implored him to help her
across. At first he hesitated, knowing that even alone he would find some
difficulty in stemming the fierce torrent; but, pitying her forlorn condition,
he raised her in his arms, and succeeded, with a great effort, in reaching the
opposite shore. But as soon as her feet had touched the earth she became
transformed into a beautiful woman, who, looking kindly at the bewildered
youth, informed him that she was the goddess Hera, and that she would
henceforth guide and protect him throughout his career. She then
disappeared, and, full of hope and courage at this divine manifestation,
Jason pursued his journey. He now perceived that in crossing the river he
had lost one of his sandals, but as it could not be recovered he was obliged
to proceed without it.
On his arrival at Iolcus he found his uncle in the market-place, offering up a
public sacrifice to Poseidon. When the king had concluded his offering, his
eye fell upon the distinguished stranger, whose manly beauty and heroic
bearing had already attracted the attention of his people. Observing that one
foot was unshod, he was reminded of an oracular prediction which foretold
to him the loss of his kingdom by a man wearing only one sandal. He,
however, disguised his fears, conversed kindly with the youth, and drew
from him his name and errand. Then pretending to be highly pleased with
his nephew, Pelias entertained him sumptuously for five days, during which
time all was festivity and rejoicing. On the sixth, Jason appeared before his
uncle, and with manly firmness demanded from him the throne and
kingdom which were his by right. Pelias, dissembling his true feelings,
smilingly consented to grant his request, provided that, in return, Jason
would undertake an expedition for him, which his advanced age prevented
him from accomplishing himself. He informed his nephew that the shade of
Phryxus had appeared to him in his dreams, and entreated him to bring back
from Colchis his mortal remains and the Golden Fleece; and added that if
Jason succeeded in obtaining for him these sacred relics, throne, kingdom,
and sceptre should be his.

STORY OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE.

Athamas, king of Bœotia, had married Nephele, a cloud-nymph, and their
children were Helle and Phryxus. The restless and wandering nature of
Nephele, however, soon wearied her husband, who, being a mortal, had
little sympathy with his ethereal consort; so he divorced her, and married
the beautiful but wicked Ino (sister of Semele), who hated her step-children,
and even planned their destruction. But the watchful Nephele contrived to
circumvent her cruel designs, and succeeded in getting the children out of
the palace. She then placed them both on the back of a winged ram, with a
fleece of pure gold, which had been given to her by Hermes; and on this
wonderful animal brother and sister rode through the air over land and sea;
but on the way Helle, becoming seized with giddiness, fell into the sea
(called after her the Hellespont) and was drowned.
Phryxus arrived safely at Colchis, where he was hospitably received by
king Aëtes, who gave him one of his daughters in marriage. In gratitude to
Zeus for the protection accorded him during his flight, Phryxus sacrificed to
him the golden ram, whilst the fleece he presented to Aëtes, who nailed it
up in the Grove of Ares, and dedicated it to the god of War. An oracle
having declared that the life of Aëtes depended on the safe-keeping of the
fleece, he carefully guarded the entrance to the grove by placing before it an
immense dragon, which never slept.
Building and Launch of the Argo.—We will now return to Jason, who
eagerly undertook the perilous expedition proposed to him by his uncle,
who, well aware of the dangers attending such an enterprise, hoped by this
means to rid himself for ever of the unwelcome intruder.
Jason accordingly began to arrange his plans without delay, and invited the
young heroes whose friendship he had formed whilst under the care of
Chiron, to join him in the perilous expedition. None refused the invitation,
all feeling honoured at being allowed the privilege of taking part in so noble
and heroic an undertaking.
Jason now applied to Argos, one of the cleverest ship-builders of his time,
who, under the guidance of Pallas-Athene, built for him a splendid fifty-
oared galley, which was called the Argo, after the builder. In the upper deck

of the vessel the goddess had imbedded a board from the speaking oak of
the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, which ever retained its powers of prophecy.
The exterior of the ship was ornamented with magnificent carvings, and the
whole vessel was so strongly built that it defied the power of the winds and
waves, and was, nevertheless, so light that the heroes, when necessary, were
able to carry it on their shoulders. When the vessel was completed, the
Argonauts (so called after their ship) assembled, and their places were
distributed by lot.
Jason was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition, Tiphys acted as
steersman, Lynceus as pilot. In the bow of the vessel sat the renowned hero
Heracles; in the stern, Peleus (father of Achilles) and Telamon (the father of
Ajax the Great). In the inner space were Castor and Pollux, Neleus (the
father of Nestor), Admetus (the husband of Alcestes), Meleager (the slayer
of the Calydonian boar), Orpheus (the renowned singer), Menoctius (the
father of Patroclus), Theseus (afterwards king of Athens) and his friend
Pirithöus (the son of Ixion), Hylas (the adopted son of Heracles), Euphemus
(the son of Poseidon), Oileus (father of Ajax the Lesser), Zetes and Calais
(the winged sons of Boreas), Idmon the Seer (the son of Apollo), Mopsus
(the Thessalian prophet), &c. &c.
Before their departure Jason offered a solemn sacrifice to Poseidon and all
the other sea-deities; he also invoked the protection of Zeus and the Fates,
and then, Mopsus having taken the auguries, and found them auspicious,
the heroes stepped on board. And now a favourable breeze having sprung
up, they take their allotted places, the anchor is weighed, and the ship glides
like a bird out of the harbour into the waters of the great sea.
Arrival at Lemnos.—The Argo, with her brave crew of fifty heroes, was
soon out of sight, and the sea-breeze only wafted to the shore a faint echo of
the sweet strains of Orpheus.
For a time all went smoothly, but the vessel was soon driven, by stress of
weather, to take refuge in a harbour in the island of Lemnos. This island
was inhabited by women only, who, the year before, in a fit of mad
jealousy, had killed all the male population of the island, with the exception
of the father of their queen, Hypsipyle. As the protection of their island now
devolved upon themselves they were always on the look-out for danger.

When, therefore, they sighted the Argo from afar they armed themselves
and rushed to the shore, determined to repel any invasion of their territory.
On arriving in port the Argonauts, astonished at beholding an armed crowd
of women, despatched a herald in one of their boats, bearing the staff of
peace and friendship. Hypsipyle, the queen, proposed that food and presents
should be sent to the strangers, in order to prevent their landing; but her old
nurse, who stood beside her, suggested that this would be a good
opportunity to provide themselves with noble husbands, who would act as
their defenders, and thus put an end to their constant fears. Hypsipyle
listened attentively to the advice of her nurse, and after some consultation,
decided to invite the strangers into the city. Robed in his purple mantle, the
gift of Pallas-Athene, Jason, accompanied by some of his companions,
stepped on shore, where he was met by a deputation consisting of the most
beautiful of the Lemnian women, and, as commander of the expedition, was
invited into the palace of the queen.
When he appeared before Hypsipyle, she was so struck with his godlike and
heroic presence that she presented him with her father's sceptre, and invited
him to seat himself on the throne beside her. Jason thereupon took up his
residence in the royal castle, whilst his companions scattered themselves
through the town, spending their time in feasting and pleasure. Heracles,
with a few chosen comrades, alone remained on board.
From day to day their departure was delayed, and the Argonauts, in their
new life of dissipation, had almost forgotten the object of the expedition,
when Heracles suddenly appeared amongst them, and at last recalled them
to a sense of their duty.
Giants and Doliones.—The Argonauts now pursued their voyage, till
contrary winds drove them towards an island, inhabited by the Doliones,
whose king Cyzicus received them with great kindness and hospitality. The
Doliones were descendants of Poseidon, who protected them against the
frequent attacks of their fierce and formidable neighbours, the earth-born
Giants—monsters with six arms.
Whilst his companions were attending a banquet given by king Cyzicus,
Heracles, who, as usual, had remained behind to guard the ship, observed
that these Giants were busy blocking up the harbour with huge rocks. He at

once realized the danger, and, attacking them with his arrows, succeeded in
considerably thinning their numbers; then, assisted by the heroes, who at
length came to his aid, he effectually destroyed the remainder.
The Argo now steered out of the harbour and set sail; but in consequence of
a severe storm which arose at night, was driven back once more to the
shores of the kindly Doliones. Unfortunately, however, owing to the
darkness of the night, the inhabitants failed to recognize their former guests,
and, mistaking them for enemies, commenced to attack them. Those who
had so recently parted as friends were now engaged in mortal combat, and
in the battle which ensued, Jason himself pierced to the heart his friend king
Cyzicus; whereupon the Doliones, being deprived of their leader, fled to
their city and closed the gates. When morning dawned, and both sides
perceived their error, they were filled with the deepest sorrow and remorse;
and for three days the heroes remained with the Doliones, celebrating the
funereal rites of the slain, with every demonstration of mourning and
solemnity.
Heracles left behind.—The Argonauts once more set sail, and after a
stormy voyage arrived at Mysia, where they were hospitably received by
the inhabitants, who spread before them plentiful banquets and sumptuously
regaled them.
While his friends were feasting, Heracles, who had declined to join them,
went into the forest to seek a fir-tree which he required for an oar, and was
missed by his adopted son Hylas, who set out to seek him. When the youth
arrived at a spring, in the most secluded part of the forest, the nymph of the
fountain was so struck by his beauty that she drew him down beneath the
waters, and he was seen no more. Polyphemus, one of the heroes, who
happened to be also in the forest, heard his cry for help, and on meeting
Heracles informed him of the circumstance. They at once set out in search
of the missing youth, no traces of whom were to be found, and whilst they
were engaged looking for him, the Argo set sail and left them behind.
The ship had proceeded some distance before the absence of Heracles was
observed. Some of the heroes were in favour of returning for him, others
wished to proceed on their journey, when, in the midst of the dispute, the
sea-god Glaucus arose from the waves, and informed them that it was the

will of Zeus that Heracles, having another mission to perform, should
remain behind. The Argonauts continued their voyage without their
companions; Heracles returned to Argos, whilst Polyphemus remained with
the Mysians, where he founded a city and became its king.
Contest with Amycus.—Next morning the Argo touched at the country of
the Bebrycians, whose king Amycus was a famous pugilist, and permitted
no strangers to leave his shores without matching their strength with his.
When the heroes, therefore, demanded permission to land, they were
informed that they could only do so provided that one of their number
should engage in a boxing-match with the king. Pollux, who was the best
pugilist in Greece, was selected as their champion, and a contest took place,
which, after a tremendous struggle, proved fatal to Amycus, who had
hitherto been victorious in all similar encounters.
Phineus and the Harpies.—They now proceeded towards Bithynia, where
reigned the blind old prophet-king Phineus, son of Agenor. Phineus had
been punished by the gods with premature old age and blindness for having
abused the gift of prophecy. He was also tormented by the Harpies, who
swooped down upon his food, which they either devoured or so defiled as
to render it unfit to be eaten. This poor old man, trembling with the
weakness of age, and faint with hunger, appeared before the Argonauts, and
implored their assistance against his fiendish tormentors, whereupon Zetes
and Calais, the winged sons of Boreas, recognizing in him the husband of
their sister Cleopatra, affectionately embraced him, and promised to rescue
him from his painful position.
The heroes prepared a banquet on the sea-shore, to which they invited
Phineus; but no sooner had he taken his place, than the Harpies appeared
and devoured all the viands. Zetes and Calais now rose up into the air,
drove the Harpies away, and were pursuing them with drawn swords, when
Iris, the swift-footed messenger of the gods, appeared, and desired them to
desist from their work of vengeance, promising that Phineus should be no
longer molested.
Freed at length from his tormentors the old man sat down and enjoyed a
plentiful repast with his kind friends the Argonauts, who now informed him
of the object of their voyage. In gratitude for his deliverance Phineus gave

them much useful information concerning their journey, and not only
warned them of the manifold dangers awaiting them, but also instructed
them how they might be overcome.
Passage of the Symplegades.—After a fortnight's sojourn in Bithynia the
Argonauts once more set sail, but had not proceeded far on their course,
when they heard a fearful and tremendous crash. This was caused by the
meeting of two great rocky islands, called the Symplegades, which floated
about in the sea, and constantly met and separated.
Before leaving Bithynia, the blind old seer, Phineus, had informed them that
they would be compelled to pass between these terrible rocks, and he
instructed them how to do so with safety. As they now approached the scene
of danger they remembered his advice, and acted upon it. Typhus, the
steersman, stood at the helm, whilst Euphemus held in his hand a dove
ready to be let loose; for Phineus had told them that if the dove ventured to
fly through, they might safely follow. Euphemus now despatched the bird,
which passed swiftly through the islands, yet not without losing some of the
feathers of her tail, so speedily did they reunite. Seizing the moment when
the rocks once more separated, the Argonauts worked at their oars with all
their might, and achieved the perilous passage in safety.
After the miraculous passage of the Argo, the Symplegades became
permanently united, and attached to the bottom of the sea.
The Stymphalides.—The Argo pursued her course along the southern coast
of the Pontus, and arrived at the island of Aretias, which was inhabited by
birds, who, as they flew through the air, discharged from their wings
feathers sharp as arrows.
As the ship was gliding along, Oileus was wounded by one of these birds,
whereupon the Argonauts held a council, and by the advice of Amphidamas,
an experienced hero, all put on their helmets, and held up their glittering
shields, uttering, at the same time, such fearful cries that the birds flew
away in terror, and the Argonauts were enabled to land with safety on the
island.
Here they found four shipwrecked youths, who proved to be the sons of
Phryxus, and were greeted by Jason as his cousins. On ascertaining the

object of the expedition they volunteered to accompany the Argo, and to
show the heroes the way to Colchis. They also informed them that the
Golden Fleece was guarded by a fearful dragon, that king Aëtes was
extremely cruel, and, as the son of Apollo, was possessed of superhuman
strength.
Arrival at Colchis.—Taking with them the four new-comers they
journeyed on, and soon came in sight of the snow-capped peaks of the
Caucasus, when, towards evening, the loud flapping of wings was heard
overhead. It was the giant eagle of Prometheus on his way to torture the
noble and long-suffering Titan, whose fearful groans soon afterwards fell
upon their ears. That night they reached their journey's end, and anchored in
the smooth waters of the river Phases. On the left bank of this river they
beheld Ceuta, the capital of Colchis; and on their right a wide field, and the
sacred grove of Ares, where the Golden Fleece, suspended from a
magnificent oak-tree, was glittering in the sun. Jason now filled a golden
cup with wine, and offered a libation to mother-earth, the gods of the
country, and the shades of those of the heroes who had died on the voyage.
Next morning a council was held, in which it was decided, that before
resorting to forcible measures kind and conciliatory overtures should first
be made to king Aëtes in order to induce him to resign the Golden Fleece. It
was arranged that Jason, with a few chosen companions, should proceed to
the royal castle, leaving the remainder of the crew to guard the Argo.
Accompanied, therefore, by Telamon and Augeas, and the four sons of
Phryxus, he set out for the palace.
When they arrived in sight of the castle they were struck by the vastness
and massiveness of the building, at the entrance to which sparkling
fountains played in the midst of luxuriant and park-like gardens. Here the
king's daughters, Chalciope and Medea, who were walking in the grounds
of the palace, met them. The former, to her great joy, recognized in the
youths who accompanied the hero her own long-lost sons, whom she had
mourned as dead, whilst the young and lovely Medea was struck with the
noble and manly form of Jason.
The news of the return of the sons of Phryxus soon spread through the
palace, and brought Aëtes himself to the scene, whereupon the strangers

were presented to him, and were invited to a banquet which the king
ordered to be prepared in their honour. All the most beautiful ladies of the
court were present at this entertainment; but in the eyes of Jason none could
compare with the king's daughter, the young and lovely Medea.
When the banquet was ended, Jason related to the king his various
adventures, and also the object of his expedition, with the circumstances
which had led to his undertaking it. Aëtes listened, in silent indignation, to
this recital, and then burst out into a torrent of invectives against the
Argonauts and his grand-children, declaring that the Fleece was his rightful
property, and that on no consideration would he consent to relinquish it.
Jason, however, with mild and persuasive words, contrived so far to
conciliate him, that he was induced to promise that if the heroes could
succeed in demonstrating their divine origin by the performance of some
task requiring superhuman power, the Fleece should be theirs.
The task proposed by Aëtes to Jason was that he should yoke the two
brazen-footed, fire-breathing oxen of the king (which had been made for
him by Hephæstus) to his ponderous iron plough. Having done this he must
till with them the stony field of Ares, and then sow in the furrows the
poisonous teeth of a dragon, from which armed men would arise. These he
must destroy to a man, or he himself would perish at their hands.
When Jason heard what was expected of him, his heart for a moment sank
within him; but he determined, nevertheless, not to flinch from his task, but
to trust to the assistance of the gods, and to his own courage and energy.
Jason ploughs the Field of Ares.—Accompanied by his two friends,
Telamon and Augeas, and also by Argus, the son of Chalciope, Jason
returned to the vessel for the purpose of holding a consultation as to the best
means of accomplishing these perilous feats.
Argus explained to Jason all the difficulties of the superhuman task which
lay before him, and pronounced it as his opinion that the only means by
which success was possible was to enlist the assistance of the Princess
Medea, who was a priestess of Hecate, and a great enchantress. His
suggestion meeting with approval, he returned to the palace, and by the aid
of his mother an interview was arranged between Jason and Medea, which
took place, at an early hour next morning, in the temple of Hecate.

A confession of mutual attachment took place, and Medea, trembling for
her lover's safety, presented him with a magic salve, which possessed the
property of rendering any person anointed with it invulnerable for the space
of one day against fire and steel, and invincible against any adversary
however powerful. With this salve she instructed him to anoint his spear
and shield on the day of his great undertaking. She further added that when,
after having ploughed the field and sown the teeth, armed men should arise
from the furrows, he must on no account lose heart, but remember to throw
among them a huge rock, over the possession of which they would fight
among themselves, and their attention being thus diverted he would find it
an easy task to destroy them. Overwhelmed with gratitude, Jason thanked
her, in the most earnest manner, for her wise counsel and timely aid; at the
same time he offered her his hand, and promised her he would not return to
Greece without taking her with him as his wife.
Next morning Aëtes, in all the pomp of state, surrounded by his family and
the members of his court, repaired to a spot whence a full view of the
approaching spectacle could be obtained. Soon Jason appeared in the field
of Ares, looking as noble and majestic as the god of war himself. In a
distant part of the field the brazen yokes and the massive plough met his
view, but as yet the dread animals themselves were nowhere to be seen. He
was about to go in quest of them, when they suddenly rushed out from a
subterranean cave, breathing flames of fire, and enveloped in a thick smoke.
The friends of Jason trembled; but the undaunted hero, relying on the magic
powers with which he was imbued by Medea, seized the oxen, one after the
other, by the horns, and forced them to the yoke. Near the plough was a
helmet full of dragon's teeth, which he sowed as he ploughed the field,
whilst with sharp pricks from his lance he compelled the monstrous
creatures to draw the plough over the stony ground, which was thus
speedily tilled.
While Jason was engaged sowing the dragon's teeth in the deep furrows of
the field, he kept a cautious look-out lest the germinating giant brood might
grow too quickly for him, and as soon as the four acres of land had been
tilled he unyoked the oxen, and succeeded in frightening them so effectually
with his weapons, that they rushed back in terror to their subterranean
stables. Meanwhile armed men had sprung up out of the furrows, and the

whole field now bristled with lances; but Jason, remembering the
instructions of Medea, seized an immense rock and hurled it into the midst
of these earth-born warriors, who immediately began to attack each other.
Jason then rushed furiously upon them, and after a terrible struggle not one
of the giants remained alive.
Furious at seeing his murderous schemes thus defeated, Aëtes not only
perfidiously refused to give Jason the Fleece which he had so bravely
earned, but, in his anger, determined to destroy all the Argonauts, and to
burn their vessel.
Jason secures the Golden Fleece.—Becoming aware of the treacherous
designs of her father, Medea at once took measures to baffle them. In the
darkness of night she went on board the Argo, and warned the heroes of
their approaching danger. She then advised Jason to accompany her without
loss of time to the sacred grove, in order to possess himself of the long-
coveted treasure. They set out together, and Medea, followed by Jason, led
the way, and advanced boldly into the grove. The tall oak-tree was soon
discovered, from the topmost boughs of which hung the beautiful Golden
Fleece. At the foot of this tree, keeping his ever-wakeful watch, lay the
dreadful, sleepless dragon, who at sight of them bounded forward, opening
his huge jaws.
Medea now called into play her magic powers, and quietly approaching the
monster, threw over him a few drops of a potion, which soon took effect,
and sent him into a deep sleep; whereupon Jason, seizing the opportunity,
climbed the tree and secured the Fleece. Their perilous task being now
accomplished, Jason and Medea quitted the grove, and hastened on board
the Argo, which immediately put to sea.
Murder of Absyrtus.—Meanwhile Aëtes, having discovered the loss of his
daughter and the Golden Fleece, despatched a large fleet, under the
command of his son Absyrtus, in pursuit of the fugitives. After some days'
sail they arrived at an island at the mouth of the river Ister, where they
found the Argo at anchor, and surrounded her with their numerous ships.
They then despatched a herald on board of her, demanding the surrender of
Medea and the Fleece.

Medea now consulted Jason, and, with his consent, carried out the
following stratagem. She sent a message to her brother Absyrtus, to the
effect that she had been carried off against her will, and promised that if he
would meet her, in the darkness of night, in the temple of Artemis, she
would assist him in regaining possession of the Golden Fleece. Relying on
the good faith of his sister, Absyrtus fell into the snare, and duly appeared at
the appointed trysting-place; and whilst Medea kept her brother engaged in
conversation, Jason rushed forward and slew him. Then, according to a
preconcerted signal, he held aloft a lighted torch, whereupon the Argonauts
attacked the Colchians, put them to flight, and entirely defeated them.
The Argonauts now returned to their ship, when the prophetic board from
the Dodonean oak thus addressed them: "The cruel murder of Absyrtus was
witnessed by the Erinyes, and you will not escape the wrath of Zeus until
the goddess Circe has purified you from your crime. Let Castor and Pollux
pray to the gods that you may be enabled to find the abode of the
sorceress." In obedience to the voice, the twin-brothers invoked divine
assistance, and the heroes set out in search of the isle of Circe.
They arrive at the Island of Circe.—The good ship Argo sped on her way,
and, after passing safely through the foaming waters of the river Eridanus,
at length arrived in the harbour of the island of Circe, where she cast
anchor.
Commanding his companions to remain on board, Jason landed with
Medea, and conducted her to the palace of the sorceress. The goddess of
charms and magic arts received them kindly, and invited them to be seated;
but instead of doing so they assumed a supplicating attitude, and humbly
besought her protection. They then informed her of the dreadful crime
which they had committed, and implored her to purify them from it. This
Circe promised to do. She forthwith commanded her attendant Naiads to
kindle the fire on the altar, and to prepare everything necessary for the
performance of the mystic rites, after which a dog was sacrificed, and the
sacred cakes were burned. Having thus duly purified the criminals, she
severely reprimanded them for the horrible murder of which they had been
guilty; whereupon Medea, with veiled head, and weeping bitterly, was
reconducted by Jason to the Argo.

Further Adventures of the Argonauts.—Having left the island of Circe
they were wafted by gentle zephyrs towards the abode of the Sirens, whose
enticing strains soon fell upon their ears. The Argonauts, powerfully
affected by the melody, were making ready to land, when Orpheus
perceived the danger, and, to the accompaniment of his magic lyre,
commenced one of his enchanting songs, which so completely absorbed his
listeners that they passed the island in safety; but not before Butes, one of
their number, lured by the seductive music of the Sirens, had sprung from
the vessel into the waves below. Aphrodite, however, in pity for his youth,
landed him gently on the island of Libibaon before the Sirens could reach
him, and there he remained for many years.
And now the Argonauts approached new dangers, for on one side of them
seethed and foamed the whirlpool of Charybdis, whilst on the other towered
the mighty rock whence the monster Scylla swooped down upon
unfortunate mariners; but here the goddess Hera came to their assistance,
and sent to them the sea-nymph Thetis, who guided them safely through
these dangerous straits.
The Argo next arrived at the island of the Phæaces, where they were
hospitably entertained by King Alcinous and his queen Arete. But the
banquet prepared for them by their kind host was unexpectedly interrupted
by the appearance of a large army of Colchians, sent by Aëtes to demand
the restoration of his daughter.
Medea threw herself at the feet of the queen, and implored her to save her
from the anger of her father, and Arete, in her kindness of heart, promised
her her protection. Next morning, in an assembly of the people at which the
Colchians were invited to be present, the latter were informed that as Medea
was the lawful wife of Jason they could not consent to deliver her up;
whereupon the Colchians, seeing that the resolution of the king was not to
be shaken, and fearing to face the anger of Aëtes should they return to
Colchis without her, sought permission of Alcinous to settle in his kingdom,
which request was accorded them.
After these events the Argonauts once more set sail, and steered for Iolcus;
but, in the course of a terrible and fearful night, a mighty storm arose, and
in the morning they found themselves stranded on the treacherous

quicksands of Syrtes, on the shores of Libya. Here all was a waste and
barren desert, untenanted by any living creature, save the venomous snakes
which had sprung from the blood of the Medusa when borne by Perseus
over these arid plains.
They had already passed several days in this abode of desolation, beneath
the rays of the scorching sun, and had abandoned themselves to the deepest
despair, when the Libyan queen, who was a prophetess of divine origin,
appeared to Jason, and informed him that a sea-horse would be sent by the
gods to act as his guide.
Scarcely had she departed when a gigantic hippocamp was seen in the
distance, making its way towards the Argo. Jason now related to his
companions the particulars of his interview with the Libyan prophetess, and
after some deliberation it was decided to carry the Argo on their shoulders,
and to follow wherever the sea-horse should lead them. They then
commenced a long and weary journey through the desert, and at last, after
twelve days of severe toil and terrible suffering, the welcome sight of the
sea greeted their view. In gratitude for having been saved from their
manifold dangers they offered up sacrifices to the gods, and launched their
ship once more into the deep waters of the ocean.
Arrival at Crete.—With heartfelt joy and gladness they proceeded on their
homeward voyage, and after some days arrived at the island of Crete, where
they purposed to furnish themselves with fresh provisions and water. Their
landing, however, was opposed by a terrible giant who guarded the island
against all intruders. This giant, whose name was Talus, was the last of the
Brazen race, and being formed of brass, was invulnerable, except in his
right ankle, where there was a sinew of flesh and a vein of blood. As he saw
the Argo nearing the coast, he hurled huge rocks at her, which would
inevitably have sunk the vessel had not the crew beat a hasty retreat.
Although sadly in want of food and water, the Argonauts had decided to
proceed on their journey rather than face so powerful an opponent, when
Medea came forward and assured them that if they would trust to her she
would destroy the giant.
Enveloped in the folds of a rich purple mantle, she stepped on deck, and
after invoking the aid of the Fates, uttered a magic incantation, which had

the effect of throwing Talus into a deep sleep. He stretched himself at full
length upon the ground, and in doing so grazed his vulnerable ankle against
the point of a sharp rock, whereupon a mighty stream of blood gushed forth
from the wound. Awakened by the pain, he tried to rise, but in vain, and
with a mighty groan of anguish the giant fell dead, and his enormous body
rolled heavily over into the deep. The heroes being now able to land,
provisioned their vessel, after which they resumed their homeward voyage.
Arrival at Iolcus.—After a terrible night of storm and darkness they passed
the island of Ægina, and at length reached in safety the port of Iolcus,
where the recital of their numerous adventures and hair-breadth escapes was
listened to with wondering admiration by their fellow-countrymen.
The Argo was consecrated to Poseidon, and was carefully preserved for
many generations till no vestige of it remained, when it was placed in the
heavens as a brilliant constellation.
On his arrival at Iolcus, Jason conducted his beautiful bride to the palace of
his uncle Pelias, taking with him the Golden Fleece, for the sake of which
this perilous expedition had been undertaken. But the old king, who had
never expected that Jason would return alive, basely refused to fulfil his
part of the compact, and declined to abdicate the throne.
Indignant at the wrongs of her husband, Medea avenged them in a most
shocking manner. She made friends with the daughters of the king, and
feigned great interest in all their concerns. Having gained their confidence,
she informed them, that among her numerous magic arts, she possessed the
power of restoring to the aged all the vigour and strength of youth, and in
order to give them a convincing proof of the truth of her assertion, she cut
up an old ram, which she boiled in a cauldron, whereupon, after uttering
various mystic incantations, there came forth from the vessel a beautiful
young lamb. She then assured them, that in a similar manner they could
restore to their old father his former youthful frame and vigour. The fond
and credulous daughters of Pelias lent an all too willing ear to the wicked
sorceress, and thus the old king perished at the hands of his innocent
children.
Death of Jason.—Medea and Jason now fled to Corinth, where at length
they found, for a time, peace and tranquillity, their happiness being

completed by the birth of three children.
As time passed on, however, and Medea began to lose the beauty which had
won the love of her husband, he grew weary of her, and became attracted by
the youthful charms of Glauce, the beautiful daughter of Creon, king of
Corinth. Jason had obtained her father's consent to their union, and the
wedding-day was already fixed, before he disclosed to Medea the treachery
which he meditated against her. He used all his persuasive powers in order
to induce her to consent to his union with Glauce, assuring her that his
affection had in no way diminished, but that for the sake of the advantages
which would thereby accrue to their children, he had decided on forming
this alliance with the royal house. Though justly enraged at his deceitful
conduct, Medea dissembled her wrath, and, feigning to be satisfied with this
explanation, sent, as a wedding-gift to her rival, a magnificent robe of cloth-
of-gold. This robe was imbued with a deadly poison which penetrated to the
flesh and bone of the wearer, and burned them as though with a consuming
fire. Pleased with the beauty and costliness of the garment, the unsuspecting
Glauce lost no time in donning it; but no sooner had she done so than the
fell poison began to take effect. In vain she tried to tear the robe away; it
defied all efforts to be removed, and after horrible and protracted sufferings,
she expired.
Maddened at the loss of her husband's love Medea next put to death her
three sons, and when Jason, thirsting for revenge, left the chamber of his
dead bride, and flew to his own house in search of Medea, the ghastly
spectacle of his murdered children met his view. He rushed frantically to
seek the murderess, but nowhere could she be found. At length, hearing a
sound above his head, he looked up, and beheld Medea gliding through the
air in a golden chariot drawn by dragons.
In a fit of despair Jason threw himself on his own sword, and perished on
the threshold of his desolate and deserted home.

PELOPS.

Pelops, the son of the cruel Tantalus, was a pious and virtuous prince. After
his father was banished into Tartarus, a war ensued between Pelops and the
king of Troy, in which the former was vanquished and forced to fly from his

dominions in Phrygia. He emigrated into Greece, where, at the court of
Œnomaus, king of Elis, he beheld Hippodamia, the king's daughter, whose
beauty won his heart. But an oracle having foretold to Œnomaus that he
would die on the day of his daughter's marriage, he threw every obstacle in
the way of her suitors, and declared that he would only give her to him who
succeeded in vanquishing him in a chariot race, but that all unsuccessful
competitors should suffer death at his hands.
The conditions of the contest were as follows:—The race was to be run
from a given point at Pisa to the altar of Poseidon at Corinth; the suitor was
allowed to start on his course whilst Œnomaus performed his sacrifice to
Zeus, and only on its completion did the king mount his chariot, guided by
the skilful Myrtilus, and drawn by his two famous horses, Phylla and
Harpinna, who surpassed in swiftness the winds themselves. In this manner
many a gallant young prince had perished; for although a considerable start
was given to all competitors, still Œnomaus, with his swift team, always
overtook them before they reached the goal, and killed them with his spear.
But the love of Pelops for Hippodamia overcame all fears, and, undeterred
by the terrible fate of his predecessors, he announced himself to Œnomaus
as a suitor for the hand of his daughter.
On the eve of the race, Pelops repaired to the sea-shore and earnestly
implored Poseidon to assist him in his perilous undertaking. The sea-god
heard his prayer, and sent him out of the deep a chariot drawn by two
winged horses.
When Pelops appeared on the course, the king at once recognized the horses
of Poseidon; but, nothing daunted, he relied on his own supernatural team,
and the contest was allowed to proceed.
Whilst the king was offering his sacrifice to Zeus Pelops set out on the race,
and had nearly reached the goal, when, turning round, he beheld Œnomaus,
spear in hand, who, with his magic steeds, had nearly overtaken him. But in
this emergency Poseidon came to the aid of the son of Tantalus. He caused
the wheels of the royal chariot to fly off, whereupon the king was thrown
out violently, and killed on the spot, just as Pelops arrived at the altar of
Poseidon.

As the hero was about to return to Pisa to claim his bride, he beheld, in the
distance, flames issuing from the royal castle, which at that instant had been
struck by lightning. With his winged horses he flew to rescue his lovely
bride, and succeeded in extricating her uninjured from the burning building.
They soon afterwards became united, and Pelops reigned in Pisa for many
years in great splendour.

HERACLES (Hercules).

Heracles, the most renowned hero of antiquity, was the son of Zeus and
Alcmene, and the great grandson of Perseus.
At the time of his birth Alcmene was living at Thebes with her husband
Amphitryon, and thus the infant Heracles was born in the palace of his
stepfather.
Aware of the animosity with which Hera persecuted all those who rivalled
her in the affections of Zeus, Alcmene, fearful lest this hatred should be
visited on her innocent child, intrusted him, soon after his birth, to the care
of a faithful servant, with instructions to expose him in a certain field, and
there leave him, feeling assured that the divine offspring of Zeus would not
long remain without the protection of the gods.
Soon after the child had been thus abandoned, Hera and Pallas-Athene
happened to pass by the field, and were attracted by its cries. Athene
pityingly took up the infant in her arms, and prevailed upon the queen of
heaven to put it to her breast; but no sooner had she done so, than the child,
causing her pain, she angrily threw him to the ground, and left the spot.
Athene, moved with compassion, carried him to Alcmene, and entreated her
kind offices on behalf of the poor little foundling. Alcmene at once
recognized her child, and joyfully accepted the charge.
Soon afterwards Hera, to her extreme annoyance, discovered whom she had
nursed, and became filled with jealous rage. She now sent two venomous
snakes into the chamber of Alcmene, which crept, unperceived by the
nurses, to the cradle of the sleeping child. He awoke with a cry, and
grasping a snake in each hand, strangled them both. Alcmene and her
attendants, whom the cry of the child had awakened, rushed to the cradle,

where, to their astonishment and terror, they beheld the two reptiles dead in
the hands of the infant Heracles. Amphitryon was also attracted to the
chamber by the commotion, and when he beheld this astounding proof of
supernatural strength, he declared that the child must have been sent to him
as a special gift from Zeus. He accordingly consulted the famous seer
Tiresias, who now informed him of the divine origin of his stepson, and
prognosticated for him a great and distinguished future.
When Amphitryon heard the noble destiny which awaited the child
intrusted to his care, he resolved to educate him in a manner worthy of his
future career. At a suitable age he himself taught him how to guide a
chariot; Eurytus, how to handle the bow; Autolycus, dexterity in wrestling
and boxing; and Castor, the art of armed warfare; whilst Linus, the son of
Apollo, instructed him in music and letters.
Heracles was an apt pupil; but undue harshness was intolerable to his high
spirit, and old Linus, who was not the gentlest of teachers, one day
corrected him with blows, whereupon the boy angrily took up his lyre, and,
with one stroke of his powerful arm, killed his tutor on the spot.
Apprehensive lest the ungovernable temper of the youth might again
involve him in similar acts of violence, Amphitryon sent him into the
country, where he placed him under the charge of one of his most trusted
herdsmen. Here, as he grew up to manhood, his extraordinary stature and
strength became the wonder and admiration of all beholders. His aim,
whether with spear, lance, or bow, was unerring, and at the age of eighteen
he was considered to be the strongest as well as the most beautiful youth in
all Greece.
The Choice of Heracles.—Heracles felt that the time had now arrived
when it became necessary to decide for himself how to make use of the
extraordinary powers with which he had been endowed by the gods; and in
order to meditate in solitude on this all-important subject, he repaired to a
lonely and secluded spot in the heart of the forest.
Here two females of great beauty appeared to him. One was Vice, the other
Virtue. The former was full of artificial wiles and fascinating arts, her face
painted and her dress gaudy and attractive; whilst the latter was of noble
bearing and modest mien, her robes of spotless purity.

Vice stepped forward and thus addressed him: "If you will walk in my
paths, and make me your friend, your life shall be one round of pleasure
and enjoyment. You shall taste of every delight which can be procured on
earth; the choicest viands, the most delicious wines, the most luxuriant of
couches shall be ever at your disposal; and all this without any exertion on
your part, either physical or mental."
Virtue now spoke in her turn: "If you will follow me and be my friend, I
promise you the reward of a good conscience, and the love and respect of
your fellowmen. I cannot undertake to smooth your path with roses, or to
give you a life of idleness and pleasure; for you must know that the gods
grant no good and desirable thing that is not earned by labour; and as you
sow, so must you reap."
Heracles listened patiently and attentively to both speakers, and then, after
mature deliberation, decided to follow in the paths of virtue, and henceforth
to honour the gods, and to devote his life to the service of his country.
Full of these noble resolves he sought once more his rural home, where he
was informed that on Mount Cithæron, at the foot of which the herds of
Amphitryon were grazing, a ferocious lion had fixed his lair, and was
committing such frightful ravages among the flocks and herds that he had
become the scourge and terror of the whole neighbourhood. Heracles at
once armed himself and ascended the mountain, where he soon caught sight
of the lion, and rushing at him with his sword succeeded in killing him. The
hide of the animal he wore ever afterwards over his shoulders, and the head
served him as a helmet.
As he was returning from this, his first exploit, he met the heralds of
Erginus, king of the Minyans, who were proceeding to Thebes to demand
their annual tribute of 100 oxen. Indignant at this humiliation of his native
city, Heracles mutilated the heralds, and sent them back, with ropes round
their necks, to their royal master.
Erginus was so incensed at the ill-treatment of his messengers that he
collected an army and appeared before the gates of Thebes, demanding the
surrender of Heracles. Creon, who was at this time king of Thebes, fearing
the consequences of a refusal, was about to yield, when the hero, with the

assistance of Amphitryon and a band of brave youths, advanced against the
Minyans.
Heracles took possession of a narrow defile through which the enemy were
compelled to pass, and as they entered the pass the Thebans fell upon them,
killed their king Erginus, and completely routed them. In this engagement
Amphitryon, the kind friend and foster-father of Heracles, lost his life. The
hero now advanced upon Orchomenus, the capital of the Minyans, where he
burned the royal castle and sacked the town.
After this signal victory all Greece rang with the fame of the young hero,
and Creon, in gratitude for his great services, bestowed upon him his
daughter Megara in marriage. The Olympian gods testified their
appreciation of his valour by sending him presents; Hermes gave him a
sword, Phœbus-Apollo a bundle of arrows, Hephæstus a golden quiver, and
Athene a coat of leather.
Heracles and Eurystheus.—And now it will be necessary to retrace our
steps. Just before the birth of Heracles, Zeus, in an assembly of the gods,
exultingly declared that the child who should be born on that day to the
house of Perseus should rule over all his race. When Hera heard her lord's
boastful announcement she knew well that it was for the child of the hated
Alcmene that this brilliant destiny was designed; and in order to rob the son
of her rival of his rights, she called to her aid the goddess Eilithyia, who
retarded the birth of Heracles, and caused his cousin Eurystheus (another
grandson of Perseus) to precede him into the world. And thus, as the word
of the mighty Zeus was irrevocable, Heracles became the subject and
servant of his cousin Eurystheus.
When, after his splendid victory over Erginus, the fame of Heracles spread
throughout Greece, Eurystheus (who had become king of Mycenæ), jealous
of the reputation of the young hero, asserted his rights, and commanded him
to undertake for him various difficult tasks. But the proud spirit of the hero
rebelled against this humiliation, and he was about to refuse compliance,
when Zeus appeared to him and desired him not to rebel against the Fates.
Heracles now repaired to Delphi in order to consult the oracle, and received
the answer that after performing ten tasks for his cousin Eurystheus his
servitude would be at an end.

Soon afterwards Heracles fell into a state of the deepest melancholy, and
through the influence of his inveterate enemy, the goddess Hera, this
despondency developed into raving madness, in which condition he killed
his own children. When he at length regained his reason he was so horrified
and grieved at what he had done, that he shut himself up in his chamber and
avoided all intercourse with men. But in his loneliness and seclusion the
conviction that work would be the best means of procuring oblivion of the
past decided him to enter, without delay, upon the tasks appointed him by
Eurystheus.
1. The Nemean Lion.—His first task was to bring to Eurystheus the skin of
the much-dreaded Nemean lion, which ravaged the territory between
Cleone and Nemea, and whose hide was invulnerable against any mortal
weapon.
Heracles proceeded to the forest of Nemea, where, having discovered the
lion's lair, he attempted to pierce him with his arrows; but finding these of
no avail he felled him to the ground with his club, and before the animal
had time to recover from the terrible blow, Heracles seized him by the neck
and, with a mighty effort, succeeded in strangling him. He then made
himself a coat of mail of the skin, and a new helmet of the head of the
animal. Thus attired, he so alarmed Eurystheus by appearing suddenly
before him, that the king concealed himself in his palace, and henceforth
forbade Heracles to enter his presence, but commanded him to receive his
behests, for the future, through his messenger Copreus.
2. The Hydra.—His second task was to slay the Hydra, a monster serpent
(the offspring of Typhon and Echidna), bristling with nine heads, one of
which was immortal. This monster infested the neighbourhood of Lerna,
where she committed great depredations among the herds.
Heracles, accompanied by his nephew Iolaus, set out in a
chariot for the marsh of Lerna, in the slimy waters of
which he found her. He commenced the attack by
assailing her with his fierce arrows, in order to force her
to leave her lair, from which she at length emerged, and
sought refuge in a wood on a neighbouring hill. Heracles
now rushed forward and endeavoured to crush her heads

by means of well-directed blows from his tremendous club; but no sooner
was one head destroyed than it was immediately replaced by two others. He
next seized the monster in his powerful grasp; but at this juncture a giant
crab came to the assistance of the Hydra and commenced biting the feet of
her assailant. Heracles destroyed this new adversary with his club, and now
called upon his nephew to come to his aid. At his command Iolaus set fire
to the neighbouring trees, and, with a burning branch, seared the necks of
the monster as Heracles cut them off, thus effectually preventing the growth
of more. Heracles next struck off the immortal head, which he buried by the
road-side, and placed over it a heavy stone. Into the poisonous blood of the
monster he then dipped his arrows, which ever afterwards rendered wounds
inflicted by them incurable.
3. The Horned Hind.—The third labour of Heracles was to bring the
horned hind Cerunitis alive to Mycenæ. This animal, which was sacred to
Artemis, had golden antlers and hoofs of brass.
Not wishing to wound the hind Heracles patiently pursued her through
many countries for a whole year, and overtook her at last on the banks of
the river Ladon; but even there he was compelled, in order to secure her, to
wound her with one of his arrows, after which he lifted her on his shoulders
and carried her through Arcadia. On his way he met Artemis with her
brother Phœbus-Apollo, when the goddess angrily reproved him for
wounding her favourite hind; but Heracles succeeded in appeasing her
displeasure, whereupon she permitted him to take the animal alive to
Mycenæ.
4. The Erymantian Boar.—The fourth task imposed
upon Heracles by Eurystheus was to bring alive to
Mycenæ the Erymantian boar, which had laid waste the
region of Erymantia, and was the scourge of the
surrounding neighbourhood.
On his way thither he craved food and shelter of a
Centaur named Pholus, who received him with generous
hospitality, setting before him a good and plentiful
repast. When Heracles expressed his surprise that at such
a well-furnished board wine should be wanting, his host

explained that the wine-cellar was the common property of all the Centaurs,
and that it was against the rules for a cask to be broached, except all were
present to partake of it. By dint of persuasion, however, Heracles prevailed
on his kind host to make an exception in his favour; but the powerful,
luscious odour of the good old wine soon spread over the mountains, and
brought large numbers of Centaurs to the spot, all armed with huge rocks
and fir-trees. Heracles drove them back with fire-brands, and then,
following up his victory, pursued them with his arrows as far as Malea,
where they took refuge in the cave of the kind old Centaur Chiron.
Unfortunately, however, as Heracles was shooting at them with his
poisoned darts, one of these pierced the knee of Chiron. When Heracles
discovered that it was the friend of his early days that he had wounded, he
was overcome with sorrow and regret. He at once extracted the arrow, and
anointed the wound with a salve, the virtue of which had been taught him
by Chiron himself. But all his efforts were unavailing. The wound, imbued
with the deadly poison of the Hydra, was incurable, and so great was the
agony of Chiron that, at the intercession of Heracles, death was sent him by
the gods; for otherwise, being immortal, he would have been doomed to
endless suffering.
Pholus, who had so kindly entertained Heracles, also perished by means of
one of these arrows, which he had extracted from the body of a dead
Centaur. While he was quietly examining it, astonished that so small and
insignificant an object should be productive of such serious results, the
arrow fell upon his foot and fatally wounded him. Full of grief at this
untoward event, Heracles buried him with due honours, and then set out to
chase the boar.
With loud shouts and terrible cries he first drove him out of the thickets into
the deep snow-drifts which covered the summit of the mountain, and then,
having at length wearied him with his incessant pursuit, he captured the
exhausted animal, bound him with a rope, and brought him alive to
Mycenæ.
5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas.—After slaying the Erymantian boar
Eurystheus commanded Heracles to cleanse in one day the stables of
Augeas.

Augeas was a king of Elis who was very rich in herds. Three thousand of
his cattle he kept near the royal palace in an inclosure where the refuse had
accumulated for many years. When Heracles presented himself before the
king, and offered to cleanse his stables in one day, provided he should
receive in return a tenth part of the herds, Augeas, thinking the feat
impossible, accepted his offer in the presence of his son Phyleus.
Near the palace were the two rivers Peneus and Alpheus, the streams of
which Heracles conducted into the stables by means of a trench which he
dug for this purpose, and as the waters rushed through the shed, they swept
away with them the whole mass of accumulated filth.
But when Augeas heard that this was one of the labours imposed by
Eurystheus, he refused the promised guerdon. Heracles brought the matter
before a court, and called Phyleus as a witness to the justice of his claim,
whereupon Augeas, without waiting for the delivery of the verdict, angrily
banished Heracles and his son from his dominions.
6. The Stymphalides.—The sixth task was to chase away the
Stymphalides, which were immense birds of prey who, as we have seen (in
the legend of the Argonauts), shot from their wings feathers sharp as
arrows. The home of these birds was on the shore of the lake Stymphalis, in
Arcadia (after which they were called), where they caused great destruction
among men and cattle.
On approaching the lake, Heracles observed great numbers of them; and,
while hesitating how to commence the attack, he suddenly felt a hand on his
shoulder. Looking round he beheld the majestic form of Pallas-Athene, who
held in her hand a gigantic pair of brazen clappers made by Hephæstus,
with which she presented him; whereupon he ascended to the summit of a
neighbouring hill, and commenced to rattle them violently. The shrill noise
of these instruments was so intolerable to the birds that they rose into the air
in terror, upon which he aimed at them with his arrows, destroying them in
great numbers, whilst such as escaped his darts flew away, never to return.
7. The Cretan Bull.—The seventh labour of Heracles was to capture the
Cretan bull.

Minos, king of Crete, having vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon any animal
which should first appear out of the sea, the god caused a magnificent bull
to emerge from the waves in order to test the sincerity of the Cretan king,
who, in making this vow, had alleged that he possessed no animal, among
his own herds, worthy the acceptance of the mighty sea-god. Charmed with
the splendid animal sent by Poseidon, and eager to possess it, Minos placed
it among his herds, and substituted as a sacrifice one of his own bulls.
Hereupon Poseidon, in order to punish the cupidity of Minos, caused the
animal to become mad, and commit such great havoc in the island as to
endanger the safety of the inhabitants. When Heracles, therefore, arrived in
Crete for the purpose of capturing the bull, Minos, far from opposing his
design, gladly gave him permission to do so.
The hero not only succeeded in securing the animal, but tamed him so
effectually that he rode on his back right across the sea as far as the
Peloponnesus. He now delivered him up to Eurystheus, who at once set him
at liberty, after which he became as ferocious and wild as before, roamed all
over Greece into Arcadia, and was eventually killed by Theseus on the
plains of Marathon.
8. The Mares of Diomedes.—The eighth labour of Heracles was to bring to
Eurystheus the mares of Diomedes, a son of Ares, and king of the
Bistonians, a warlike Thracian tribe. This king possessed a breed of wild
horses of tremendous size and strength, whose food consisted of human
flesh, and all strangers who had the misfortune to enter the country were
made prisoners and flung before the horses, who devoured them.
When Heracles arrived he first captured the cruel Diomedes himself, and
then threw him before his own mares, who, after devouring their master,
became perfectly tame and tractable. They were then led by Heracles to the
sea-shore, when the Bistonians, enraged at the loss of their king, rushed
after the hero and attacked him. He now gave the animals in charge of his
friend Abderus, and made such a furious onslaught on his assailants that
they turned and fled.
But on his return from this encounter he found, to his great grief, that the
mares had torn his friend in pieces and devoured him. After celebrating due
funereal rites to the unfortunate Abderus, Heracles built a city in his honour,

which he named after him. He then returned to Tiryns, where he delivered
up the mares to Eurystheus, who set them loose on Mount Olympus, where
they became the prey of wild beasts.
It was after the performance of this task that Heracles joined the Argonauts
in their expedition to gain possession of the Golden Fleece, and was left
behind at Chios, as already narrated. During his wanderings he undertook
his ninth labour, which was to bring to Eurystheus the girdle of Hippolyte,
queen of the Amazons.
9. The Girdle of Hippolyte.—The Amazons, who dwelt on the shores of
the Black Sea, near the river Thermodon, were a nation of warlike women,
renowned for their strength, courage, and great skill in horsemanship. Their
queen, Hippolyte, had received from her father, Ares, a beautiful girdle,
which she always wore as a sign of her royal power and authority, and it
was this girdle which Heracles was required to place in the hands of
Eurystheus, who designed it as a gift for his daughter Admete.
Foreseeing that this would be a task of no ordinary difficulty the hero called
to his aid a select band of brave companions, with whom he embarked for
the Amazonian town Themiscyra. Here they were met by queen Hippolyte,
who was so impressed by the extraordinary stature and noble bearing of
Heracles that, on learning his errand, she at once consented to present him
with the coveted girdle. But Hera, his implacable enemy, assuming the form
of an Amazon, spread the report in the town that a stranger was about to
carry off their queen. The Amazons at once flew to arms and mounted their
horses, whereupon a battle ensued, in which many of their bravest warriors
were killed or wounded. Among the latter was their most skilful leader,
Melanippe, whom Heracles afterwards restored to Hippolyte, receiving the
girdle in exchange.
On his voyage home the hero stopped at Troy, where a new adventure
awaited him.
During the time that Apollo and Poseidon were condemned by Zeus to a
temporary servitude on earth, they built for king Laomedon the famous
walls of Troy, afterwards so renowned in history; but when their work was
completed the king treacherously refused to give them the reward due to
them. The incensed deities now combined to punish the offender. Apollo

sent a pestilence which decimated the people, and Poseidon a flood, which
bore with it a marine monster, who swallowed in his huge jaws all that
came within his reach.
In his distress Laomedon consulted an oracle, and was informed that only
by the sacrifice of his own daughter Hesione could the anger of the gods be
appeased. Yielding at length to the urgent appeals of his people he
consented to make the sacrifice, and on the arrival of Heracles the maiden
was already chained to a rock in readiness to be devoured by the monster.
When Laomedon beheld the renowned hero, whose marvellous feats of
strength and courage had become the wonder and admiration of all
mankind, he earnestly implored him to save his daughter from her
impending fate, and to rid the country of the monster, holding out to him as
a reward the horses which Zeus had presented to his grandfather Tros in
compensation for robbing him of his son Ganymede.
Heracles unhesitatingly accepted the offer, and when the monster appeared,
opening his terrible jaws to receive his prey, the hero, sword in hand,
attacked and slew him. But the perfidious monarch once more broke faith,
and Heracles, vowing future vengeance, departed for Mycenæ, where he
presented the girdle to Eurystheus.
10. The Oxen of Geryones.—The tenth labour of Heracles was the capture
of the magnificent oxen belonging to the giant Geryon or Geryones, who
dwelt on the island of Erythia in the bay of Gadria (Cadiz). This giant, who
was the son of Chrysaor, had three bodies with three heads, six hands, and
six feet. He possessed a herd of splendid cattle, which were famous for their
size, beauty, and rich red colour. They were guarded by another giant
named Eurytion, and a two-headed dog called Orthrus, the offspring of
Typhon and Echidna.
In choosing for him a task so replete with danger, Eurystheus was in hopes
that he might rid himself for ever of his hated cousin. But the indomitable
courage of the hero rose with the prospect of this difficult and dangerous
undertaking.
After a long and wearisome journey he at last arrived at the western coast of
Africa, where, as a monument of his perilous expedition, he erected the

famous "Pillars of Hercules," one of which he placed on each side of the
Straits of Gibraltar. Here he found the intense heat so insufferable that he
angrily raised his bow towards heaven, and threatened to shoot the sun-god.
But Helios, far from being incensed at his audacity, was so struck with
admiration at his daring that he lent to him the golden boat with which he
accomplished his nocturnal transit from West to East, and thus Heracles
crossed over safely to the island of Erythia.
No sooner had he landed than Eurytion, accompanied by his savage dog
Orthrus, fiercely attacked him; but Heracles, with a superhuman effort, slew
the dog and then his master. Hereupon he collected the herd, and was
proceeding to the sea-shore when Geryones himself met him, and a
desperate encounter took place, in which the giant perished.
Heracles then drove the cattle into the sea, and seizing one of the oxen by
the horns, swam with them over to the opposite coast of Iberia (Spain).
Then driving his magnificent prize before him through Gaul, Italy, Illyria,
and Thrace, he at length arrived, after many perilous adventures and hair-
breadth escapes, at Mycenæ, where he delivered them up to Eurystheus,
who sacrificed them to Hera.
Heracles had now executed his ten tasks, which had been accomplished in
the space of eight years; but Eurystheus refused to include the slaying of the
Hydra and the cleansing of the stables of Augeas among the number,
alleging as a reason that the one had been performed by the assistance of
Iolaus, and that the other had been executed for hire. He therefore insisted
on Heracles substituting two more labours in their place.
11. The Apples of the Hesperides.—The eleventh task imposed by
Eurystheus was to bring him the golden apples of the Hesperides, which
grew on a tree presented by Gæa to Hera, on the occasion of her marriage
with Zeus. This sacred tree was guarded by four maidens, daughters of
Night, called the Hesperides, who were assisted in their task by a terrible
hundred-headed dragon. This dragon never slept, and out of its hundred
throats came a constant hissing sound, which effectually warned off all
intruders. But what rendered the undertaking still more difficult was the
complete ignorance of the hero as to the locality of the garden, and he was

forced, in consequence, to make many fruitless journeys and to undergo
many trials before he could find it.
He first travelled through Thessaly and arrived at the river Echedorus,
where he met the giant Cycnus, the son of Ares and Pyrene, who challenged
him to single combat. In this encounter Heracles completely vanquished his
opponent, who was killed in the contest; but now a mightier adversary
appeared on the scene, for the war-god himself came to avenge his son. A
terrible struggle ensued, which had lasted some time, when Zeus interfered
between the brothers, and put an end to the strife by hurling a thunderbolt
between them. Heracles proceeded on his journey, and reached the banks of
the river Eridanus, where dwelt the Nymphs, daughters of Zeus and Themis.
On seeking advice from them as to his route, they directed him to the old
sea-god Nereus, who alone knew the way to the Garden of the Hesperides.
Heracles found him asleep, and seizing the opportunity, held him so firmly
in his powerful grasp that he could not possibly escape, so that
notwithstanding his various metamorphoses he was at last compelled to
give the information required. The hero then crossed over to Libya, where
he engaged in a wrestling-match with king Anteos, son of Poseidon and
Gæa, which terminated fatally for his antagonist.
From thence he proceeded to Egypt, where reigned Busiris, another son of
Poseidon, who (acting on the advice given by an oracle during a time of
great scarcity) sacrificed all strangers to Zeus. When Heracles arrived he
was seized and dragged to the altar; but the powerful demi-god burst
asunder his bonds, and then slew Busiris and his son.
Resuming his journey he now wandered on through Arabia until he arrived
at Mount Caucasus, where Prometheus groaned in unceasing agony. It was
at this time that Heracles (as already related) shot the eagle which had so
long tortured the noble and devoted friend of mankind. Full of gratitude for
his deliverance, Prometheus instructed him how to find his way to that
remote region in the far West where Atlas supported the heavens on his
shoulders, near which lay the Garden of the Hesperides. He also warned
Heracles not to attempt to secure the precious fruit himself, but to assume
for a time the duties of Atlas, and to despatch him for the apples.

On arriving at his destination Heracles followed the advice of Prometheus.
Atlas, who willingly entered into the arrangement, contrived to put the
dragon to sleep, and then, having cunningly outwitted the Hesperides,
carried off three of the golden apples, which he now brought to Heracles.
But when the latter was prepared to relinquish his burden, Atlas, having
once tasted the delights of freedom, declined to resume his post, and
announced his intention of being himself the bearer of the apples to
Eurystheus, leaving Heracles to fill his place. To this proposal the hero
feigned assent, merely begging that Atlas would be kind enough to support
the heavens for a few moments whilst he contrived a pad for his head. Atlas
good-naturedly threw down the apples and once more resumed his load,
upon which Heracles bade him adieu, and departed.
When Heracles conveyed the golden apples to Eurystheus the latter
presented them to the hero, whereupon Heracles placed the sacred fruit on
the altar of Pallas-Athene, who restored them to the garden of the
Hesperides.
12. Cerberus.—The twelfth and last labour which Eurystheus imposed on
Heracles was to bring up Cerberus from the lower world, believing that all
his heroic powers would be unavailing in the Realm of Shades, and that in
this, his last and most perilous undertaking, the hero must at length
succumb and perish.
Cerberus was a monster dog with three heads, out of
whose awful jaws dripped poison; the hair of his head
and back was formed of venomous snakes, and his body
terminated in the tail of a dragon.
After being initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, and
obtaining from the priests certain information necessary
for the accomplishment of his task, Heracles set out for
Tænarum in Lacolia, where there was an opening which
led to the under-world. Conducted by Hermes, he
commenced his descent into the awful gulf, where
myriads of shades soon began to appear, all of whom
fled in terror at his approach, Meleager and Medusa alone excepted. About
to strike the latter with his sword, Hermes interfered and stayed his hand,

reminding him that she was but a shadow, and that consequently no weapon
could avail against her.
Arrived before the gates of Hades he found Theseus and Pirithöus, who had
been fixed to an enchanted rock by Aïdes for their presumption in
endeavouring to carry off Persephone. When they saw Heracles they
implored him to set them free. The hero succeeded in delivering Theseus,
but when he endeavoured to liberate Pirithöus, the earth shook so violently
beneath him that he was compelled to relinquish his task.
Proceeding further Heracles recognized Ascalaphus, who, as we have seen
in the history of Demeter, had revealed the fact that Persephone had
swallowed the seeds of a pomegranate offered to her by her husband, which
bound her to Aïdes for ever. Ascalaphus was groaning beneath a huge rock
which Demeter in her anger had hurled upon him, and which Heracles now
removed, releasing the sufferer.
Before the gates of his palace stood Aïdes the mighty ruler of the lower
world, and barred his entrance; but Heracles, aiming at him with one of his
unerring darts, shot him in the shoulder, so that for the first time the god
experienced the agony of mortal suffering. Heracles then demanded of him
permission to take Cerberus to the upper-world, and to this Aïdes consented
on condition that he should secure him unarmed. Protected by his
breastplate and lion's skin Heracles went in search of the monster, whom he
found at the mouth of the river Acheron. Undismayed by the hideous
barking which proceeded from his three heads, he seized the throat with one
hand and the legs with the other, and although the dragon which served him
as a tail bit him severely, he did not relinquish his grasp. In this manner he
conducted him to the upper-world, through an opening near Troezen in
Argolia.
When Eurystheus beheld Cerberus he stood aghast, and despairing of ever
getting rid of his hated rival, he returned the hell-hound to the hero, who
restored him to Aïdes, and with this last task the subjection of Heracles to
Eurystheus terminated.
Murder of Iphitus.—Free at last Heracles now returned to Thebes; and it
being impossible for him to live happily with Megara in consequence of his
having murdered her children he, with her own consent, gave her in

marriage to his nephew Iolaus. Heracles himself sought the hand of Iole,
daughter of Eurytus, king of Œchalia, who had instructed him when a boy
in the use of the bow. Hearing that this king had promised to give his
daughter to him who could surpass himself and his three sons in shooting
with the bow, Heracles lost no time in presenting himself as a competitor.
He soon proved that he was no unworthy pupil of Eurytus, for he signally
defeated all his opponents. But although the king treated him with marked
respect and honour he refused, nevertheless, to give him the hand of his
daughter, fearing for her a similar fate to that which had befallen Megara.
Iphitus, the eldest son of Eurytus, alone espoused the cause of Heracles, and
essayed to induce his father to give his consent to the marriage; but all to no
purpose, and at length, stung to the quick at his rejection, the hero angrily
took his departure.
Soon afterwards the oxen of the king were stolen by the notorious thief
Autolycus, and Heracles was suspected by Eurytus of having committed the
theft. But Iphitus loyally defended his absent friend, and proposed to seek
out Heracles, and with his assistance to go in search of the missing cattle.
The hero warmly welcomed his staunch young friend, and entered cordially
into his plan. They at once set out on their expedition; but their search
proved altogether unsuccessful. When they approached the city of Tiryns
they mounted a tower in hopes of discovering the missing herd in the
surrounding country; but as they stood on the topmost summit of the
building, Heracles became suddenly seized with one of his former attacks
of madness, and mistaking his friend Iphitus for an enemy, hurled him
down into the plain below, and he was killed on the spot.
Heracles now set forth on a weary pilgrimage, begging in vain that some
one would purify him from the murder of Iphitus. It was during these
wanderings that he arrived at the palace of his friend Admetus, whose
beautiful and heroic wife (Alcestes) he restored to her husband after a
terrible struggle with Death, as already related.
Soon after this event Heracles was struck with a fearful disease, and betook
himself to the temple of Delphi, hoping to obtain from the oracle the means
of relief. The priestess, however, refused him a response on the ground of
his having murdered Iphitus, whereupon the angry hero seized upon the

tripod, which he carried off, declaring that he would construct an oracle for
himself. Apollo, who witnessed the sacrilege, came down to defend his
sanctuary, and a violent struggle ensued. Zeus once more interfered, and,
flashing his lightnings between his two favourite sons, ended the combat.
The Pythia now vouchsafed an answer to the prayer of the hero, and
commanded him, in expiation of his crime, to allow himself to be sold by
Hermes for three years as a slave, the purchase-money to be given to
Eurytus in compensation for the loss of his son.
Heracles becomes the Slave of Omphale.—Heracles bowed in submission
to the divine will, and was conducted by Hermes to Omphale, queen of
Lydia. The three talents which she paid for him were given to Eurytus, who,
however, declined to accept the money, which was handed over to the
children of Iphitus.
Heracles now regained his former vigour. He rid the territory of Omphale of
the robbers which infested it and performed for her various other services
requiring strength and courage. It was about this time that he took part in
the Calydonian boar-hunt, details of which have already been given.
When Omphale learned that her slave was none other than the renowned
Heracles himself she at once gave him his liberty, and offered him her hand
and kingdom. In her palace Heracles abandoned himself to all the
enervating luxuries of an oriental life, and so completely was the great hero
enthralled by the fascination which his mistress exercised over him, that
whilst she playfully donned his lion's skin and helmet, he, attired in female
garments, sat at her feet spinning wool, and beguiling the time by the
relation of his past adventures.
But when at length, his term of bondage having expired, he became master
of his own actions, the manly and energetic spirit of the hero reasserted
itself, and tearing himself away from the palace of the Mæonian queen, he
determined to carry out the revenge he had so long meditated against the
treacherous Laomedon and the faithless Augeas.
Heracles executes vengeance on Laomedon and Augeas.—Gathering
round him some of his old brave companions-in-arms, Heracles collected a
fleet of vessels and set sail for Troy, where he landed, took the city by

storm, and killed Laomedon, who thus met at length the retribution he had
so richly deserved.
To Telamon, one of his bravest followers, he gave Hesione, the daughter of
the king, in marriage. When Heracles gave her permission to release one of
the prisoners of war she chose her own brother Podarces, whereupon she
was informed that as he was already a prisoner of war she would be
compelled to ransom him. On hearing this Hesione took off her golden
diadem, which she joyfully handed to the hero. Owing to this circumstance
Podarces henceforth bore the name of Priamus (or Priam), which signifies
the "ransomed one."
Heracles now marched against Augeas to execute his vengeance on him
also for his perfidious conduct. He stormed the city of Elis and put to death
Augeas and his sons, sparing only his brave advocate and staunch defender
Phyleus, on whom he bestowed the vacant throne of his father.
Heracles and Deianeira.—Heracles now proceeded to Calydon, where he
wooed the beautiful Deianeira, daughter of Œneus, king of Ætolia; but he
encountered a formidable rival in Achelous, the river-god, and it was agreed
that their claims should be decided by single combat. Trusting to his power
of assuming various forms at will, Achelous felt confident of success; but
this availed him nothing, for having at last transformed himself into a bull,
his mighty adversary broke off one of his horns, and compelled him to
acknowledge himself defeated.
After passing three happy years with Deianeira an unfortunate accident
occurred, which for a time marred their felicity. Heracles was one day
present at a banquet given by Œneus, when, by a sudden swing of his hand,
he had the misfortune to strike on the head a youth of noble birth, who,
according to the custom of the ancients, was serving the guests at table, and
so violent was the blow that it caused his death. The father of the
unfortunate youth, who had witnessed the occurrence, saw that it was the
result of accident, and therefore absolved the hero from blame. But
Heracles resolved to act according to the law of the land, banished himself
from the country, and bidding farewell to his father-in-law, set out for
Trachin to visit his friend King Ceyx, taking with him his wife Deianeira,
and his young son Hyllus.

In the course of their journey they arrived at the river Evenus, over which
the Centaur Nessus was in the habit of carrying travellers for hire. Heracles,
with his little son in his arms, forded the stream unaided, intrusting his wife
to the care of the Centaur, who, charmed with the beauty of his fair burden,
attempted to carry her off. But her cries were heard by her husband, who
without hesitation shot Nessus through the heart with one of his poisoned
arrows. Now the dying Centaur was thirsting for revenge. He called
Deianeira to his side, and directed her to secure some of the blood which
flowed from his wound, assuring her that if, when in danger of losing her
husband's affection, she used it in the manner indicated by him, it would act
as a charm, and prevent her from being supplanted by a rival. Heracles and
Deianeira now pursued their journey, and after several adventures at length
arrived at their destination.
Death of Heracles.—The last expedition undertaken by the great hero was
against Eurytus, king of Œchalia, to revenge himself upon this king and his
sons for having refused to bestow upon him the hand of Iole, after having
fairly won the maiden. Having collected a large army Heracles set out for
Eubœa in order to besiege Œchalia, its capital. Success crowned his arms.
He stormed the citadel, slew the king and his three sons, reduced the town
to ashes, and carried away captive the young and beautiful Iole.
Returning from his victorious expedition, Heracles halted at Cenœus in
order to offer a sacrifice to Zeus, and sent to Deianeira to Trachin for a
sacrificial robe. Deianeira having been informed that the fair Iole was in the
train of Heracles was fearful lest her youthful charms might supplant her in
the affection of her husband, and calling to mind the advice of the dying
Centaur, she determined to test the efficacy of the love-charm which he had
given to her. Taking out the phial which she had carefully preserved, she
imbued the robe with a portion of the liquid which it contained, and then
sent it to Heracles.
The victorious hero clothed himself with the garment, and was about to
perform the sacrifice, when the hot flames rising from the altar heated the
poison with which it was imbued, and soon every fibre of his body was
penetrated by the deadly venom. The unfortunate hero, suffering the most
fearful tortures, endeavoured to tear off the robe, but it adhered so closely to
the skin that all his efforts to remove it only increased his agonies.

In this pitiable condition he was conveyed to Trachin, where Deianeira, on
beholding the terrible suffering of which she was the innocent cause, was
overcome with grief and remorse, and hanged herself in despair. The dying
hero called his son Hyllus to his side, and desired him to make Iole his wife,
and then ordering his followers to erect a funeral pyre, he mounted it and
implored the by-standers to set fire to it, and thus in mercy to terminate his
insufferable torments. But no one had the courage to obey him, until at last
his friend and companion Philoctetes, yielding to his piteous appeal, lighted
the pile, and received in return the bow and arrows of the hero.
Soon flames on flames ascended, and amidst vivid flashes of lightning,
accompanied by awful peals of thunder, Pallas-Athene descended in a
cloud, and bore her favourite hero in a chariot to Olympus.
Heracles became admitted among the immortals; and Hera, in token of her
reconciliation, bestowed upon him the hand of her beautiful daughter Hebe,
the goddess of eternal youth.

BELLEROPHON.

Bellerophon, or Bellerophontes, was the son of Glaucus, king of Corinth,
and grandson of Sisyphus. In consequence of an unpremeditated murder
Bellerophon fled to Tiryns, where he was kindly received by King Prœtus,
who purified him from his crime. Antea, the wife of Prœtus, was so
charmed with the comely youth that she fell in love with him; but
Bellerophon did not return her affection, and she, in revenge, slandered him
to the king by a gross misrepresentation of the facts.
The first impulse of Prœtus, when informed of the conduct of Bellerophon,
was to kill him; but the youth, with his gentle and winning manners, had so
endeared himself to his host that he felt it impossible to take his life with his
own hands. He therefore sent him to his father-in-law, Iobates, king of
Lycia, with a kind of letter or tablet which contained mysterious signs,
indicating his desire that the bearer of the missive should be put to death.
But the gods watched over the true and loyal youth, and inclined the heart
of Iobates, who was an amiable prince, towards his guest. Judging by his
appearance that he was of noble birth, he entertained him, according to the

hospitable custom of the Greeks, in the most princely manner for nine days,
and not until the morning of the tenth did he inquire his name and errand.
Bellerophon now presented to him the letter intrusted to him by Prœtus.
Iobates, who had become greatly attached to the youth, was horror-struck at
its contents. Nevertheless he concluded that Prœtus must have good reasons
for his conduct, and that probably Bellerophon had committed a crime
which deserved death. But as he could not make up his mind to murder the
guest he had grown to esteem, he decided to despatch him upon dangerous
enterprises, in which he would in all probability lose his life.
He first sent him to kill the Chimæra, a monster
which was at this time devastating the country.
The fore part of its body was that of a lion, the
centre of a goat, and the hind part of a dragon;
whilst out of its jaws issued flames of fire.
Before starting on this difficult task Bellerophon invoked the protection of
the gods, and in answer to his prayer they despatched to his aid the
immortal-winged horse Pegasus, the offspring of Poseidon and Medusa. But
the divine animal would not suffer himself to be caught, and at last, worn
out with his fruitless exertions, Bellerophon fell into a deep sleep beside the
sacred spring Pirene. Here Pallas-Athene appeared to him in a dream, and
presented him with a magic bridle for the purpose of capturing the divine
steed. On awaking Bellerophon instinctively put out his hand to grasp it,
when, to his amazement, there lay beside him the bridle of his dream, whilst
Pegasus was quietly drinking at the fountain close by. Seizing him by the
mane Bellerophon threw the bridle over his head, and succeeded in
mounting him without further difficulty; then rising with him into the air he
slew the Chimæra with his arrows.
Iobates next sent him on an expedition against the
Solymans, a fierce neighbouring tribe with whom he
was at enmity. Bellerophon succeeded in
vanquishing them, and was then despatched against
the much-dreaded Amazons; but greatly to the
astonishment of Iobates the hero again returned
victorious.

Finally, Iobates placed a number of the bravest Lycians in ambush for the
purpose of destroying him, but not one returned alive, for Bellerophon
bravely defended himself and slew them all. Convinced at length that
Bellerophon, far from deserving death, was the special favourite of the
gods, who had evidently protected him throughout his perilous exploits, the
king now ceased his persecutions.
Iobates admitted him to a share in the government, and gave him his
daughter in marriage. But Bellerophon having attained the summit of
earthly prosperity became intoxicated with pride and vanity, and incurred
the displeasure of the gods by endeavouring to mount to heaven on his
winged horse, for the purpose of gratifying his idle curiosity. Zeus punished
him for his impiety by sending a gadfly to sting the horse, who became so
restive that he threw his rider, who was precipitated to the earth. Filled with
remorse at having offended the gods Bellerophon fell a prey to the deepest
melancholy, and wandered about for the remainder of his life in the
loneliest and most desolate places.
After death he was honoured in Corinth as a hero, and an altar was erected
to him in the grove of Poseidon.

THESEUS.

Aegeus, king of Athens, being twice married, and having no children, was
so desirous of an heir to his throne that he made a pilgrimage to Delphi in
order to consult the oracle. But the response being ambiguous, he repaired
to Troezen to consult his wise friend Pittheus, who reigned over that city, by
whose advice he contracted a secret marriage with his friend's daughter
Aethra.
After passing some time with his bride, Aegeus prepared to take his
departure for his own dominions; but before doing so he led Aethra to the
sea-shore, where, after depositing his sword and sandals under a huge rock,
he thus addressed her: "Should the gods bless our union with a son, do not
reveal to him the name and rank of his father until he is old enough to
possess the strength requisite for moving this stone. Then send him to my
palace at Athens bearing these tokens of his identity."

A son was born to Aethra, whom she called Theseus, and who was carefully
trained and educated by his grandfather Pittheus. When he had developed
into a strong and manly youth his mother conducted him to the spot where
the rock had been placed by Aegeus, and at her command he rolled away
the stone, and took possession of the sword and sandals which had lain
there for sixteen years, and which she now desired him to convey to his
father Aegeus, king of Athens.
His mother and grandfather were anxious that the youth should travel by the
safe sea route, the road between Troezen and Athens being at this time
infested with robbers of great ferocity and enormous strength. But feeling
within himself the spirit of a hero, Theseus resolved to emulate the deeds of
Heracles, with whose fame all Greece resounded, and therefore chose the
more dangerous journey by land, as calculated to afford him an opportunity
of distinguishing himself by feats of valour.
His first adventure occurred at Epidaurus, where he met Periphetes, a son of
Hephæstus, who was armed with an iron club, with which he killed all
travellers. Having received from his grandfather a full description of this
savage, Theseus at once recognized him, and rushing upon him with his
sword, succeeded after a desperate encounter in killing him. He
appropriated the club as a trophy of his victory, and proceeded on his
journey without hinderance until he arrived at the Isthmus of Corinth.
Here the people warned him to beware of Sinnis the robber, who forced all
travellers to bend with him one of the branches of a tall pine-tree. Having
dragged it to the ground, the cruel Sinnis suddenly released his hold,
whereupon the bough rebounding high up into the air, the unfortunate
victim was dashed to the ground and killed. When Theseus beheld Sinnis
advancing towards him he steadily awaited his approach; then seizing his
powerful club, he killed the inhuman wretch with one blow.
Passing through the woody district of Crommyon Theseus next slew a wild
and dangerous sow which had long ravaged the country.
He then continued his journey and approached the borders of Megara,
where, on a narrow path overhanging the sea, dwelt the wicked Scyron,
another terror to travellers. It was his custom to compel all strangers who
passed his abode to wash his feet, during which operation he kicked them

over the rock into the sea. Theseus boldly attacked the giant, overcame him,
and then flung his body over the cliff where so many of his victims had
perished.
Theseus now journeyed on to Eleusis, where he found another adversary in
the person of King Cercyon, who forced all comers to wrestle with him, and
killed those whom he vanquished; but Theseus overcame the mighty
wrestler and slew him.
Near Eleusis, on the banks of the river Cephissus, Theseus met with a new
adventure. Here lived the giant Damastes, called Procrustes or the Stretcher,
who had two iron beds, one being long and the other short, into which he
forced all strangers; In the short one he placed the tall men, whose limbs he
cut to the size of the bed, whilst to the short ones he assigned the large bed,
stretching them out to fit it; and thus he left his victims to expire in the most
cruel torments. Theseus freed the country from this inhuman monster by
serving him as he had done his unfortunate victims.
The hero now continued his journey, and at length reached Athens without
meeting with any further adventures. When he arrived at his destination he
found his father a helpless tool in the hands of the sorceress Medea, whom
he had married after her departure from Corinth. Knowing, by means of her
supernatural powers, that Theseus was the king's son, and fearing that her
influence might be weakened by his presence, she poisoned the mind of the
old king against the stranger, whom she represented as being a spy. It was
accordingly arranged that Theseus should be invited to a banquet, and a
strong poison mixed with his wine.
Now Theseus had resolved to reveal himself at this feast to the father whom
he yearned to embrace. Before tasting the wine he put his plan into
execution, and drew out his sword so that the eyes of the king might rest
upon it. When Aegeus beheld once more the well-known weapon which he
had so often wielded, he knew that it was his son who stood before him. He
warmly embraced him, presented him as his heir to his courtiers and
subjects, and then, no longer able to endure the sight of Medea, he banished
her for ever from his dominions.
When Theseus was acknowledged as the rightful heir to the throne he was
opposed by the fifty sons of Pallas, the king's brother, who had confidently

expected that on the demise of the old king the government of the country
would devolve upon them. They therefore resolved to put Theseus to death;
but their plans becoming known to him, he surprised them as they lay in
ambush awaiting his approach, and destroyed them all.
Fearing, however, lest the Athenians might entertain a prejudice against him
on account of his extermination of their fellow-citizens, the Pallantids,
Theseus resolved to perform some signal service for the state, which should
gain for him the hearts of the people. He accordingly decided to rid the
country of the famous bull of Marathon, which had become a terror to the
cultivators of the land. He captured the animal and brought him in chains to
Athens, where, after publicly exhibiting him to the astonished multitude, he
solemnly sacrificed him to Apollo.
The next enterprise undertaken by Theseus far surpassed all his other feats
of heroic daring, and secured to him the universal admiration and gratitude
of his fellow-citizens. This was the slaying of the Minotaur, which put an
end for ever to the shameful tribute of seven youths and seven maidens
which was exacted from the Athenians every nine years.
The origin of this barbarous tribute was as follows: Androgeos, the youthful
son of Minos, king of Crete, having been treacherously murdered by the
Athenians, his father, anxious to avenge the death of his son, declared war
against their king Aegeus, and conquered Athens and the villages in its
vicinity. The conqueror henceforth compelled the Athenians to send to him
every nine years a tribute of seven youths and seven maidens of the noblest
families of the land, who became the prey of the Minotaur, a monster, half-
man, half-bull, whose lair was in the wonderful labyrinth, constructed by
Dædalus for the Cretan king.
When Theseus informed his father of his heroic determination, he was
overwhelmed with grief, and endeavoured, by every means in his power, to
shake his son's resolution, but, confident of success, Theseus assured his
father that he would slay the Minotaur and return home victorious.
It was customary for the vessel bearing its unhappy freight of human
victims to use on this voyage black sails only; but Theseus promised his
father that, should he return in safety, he would hoist white ones in their
place.