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Title: The Haciendas of Mexico: An Artist's Record

Author: Paul Alexander Bartlett

Author of introduction, etc.: James A. Michener

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Front dust jacket cover

The Haciendas of Mexico

Hacienda de Mediñero. Jalisco: residence. One-room school was located
in right wing of residence.

The Haciendas of Mexico
An Artist's Record
PAUL ALEXANDER BARTLETT

Foreword by James A. Michener
Introduction by Gisela von Wobeser

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF COLORADO

Copyright © 1990 by the University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO 80544

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

First Edition

The University Press of Colorado is a cooperative publishing enterprise
supported, in part, by Adams State College, Colorado State University, Fort
Lewis College, Mesa State College, Metropolitan State College, University
of Colorado, University of Northern Colorado, University of Southern
Colorado, and Western State College.

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the
American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials.

ANSI Z39.48-1984

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bartlett, Paul Alexander.

The haciendas of Mexico: an artist's record/Paul Alexander Bartlett;
foreword by James A. Michener, Introduction by Gisela von Wobeser.—1st
ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 0-807801-205-x (alk. paper)

1. Bartlett, Paul Alexander. 2. Haciendas in art. 3. Haciendas—Mexico—
Pictorial works. I. Title.

N6537.B2264A4 1989 728.8'0972—dc20 89-24922

Manufactured in the United States of America

* * * * * *
* * *

2015 PROJECT GUTENBERG EDITION

The Haciendas of Mexico: An Artist's Record, a copyrighted work, originally
published by the University Press of Colorado, is now out-of-print. The
University Press of Colorado has released all rights to the book to the
author's literary executor, Steven James Bartlett, who has decided to make
the book available as an open access publication, freely available to readers

through Project Gutenberg under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivs license, which allows anyone to
distribute this work without changes to its content, provided that both the
author and the original URL from which this work was obtained are
mentioned, that the contents of this work are not used for commercial
purposes or profit, and that this work will not be used without the copyright
holder's written permission in derivative works (i.e., you may not alter,
transform, or build upon this work without such permission). The full legal
statement of this license may be found at:

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode

Dedicated to my son, Steven,
who was my compañero on many hacienda trips.
This book would not exist without his help.

Hacienda de Colonia Campo. Chihuahua: residence.

Contents

List of Illustrations

List of Photographs

Foreword
by James A. Michener

Preface

Introduction
by Gisela von Wobeser

Map

I. The Hacienda System

II. Through the Eyes of Hacienda Visitors

III. Hacienda Life

IV. Fiestas

V. Education

VI. The Revolution

VII. Mexico Since the Revolution

Bibliography

Illustrations

Hacienda de Mediñero, Jalisco: residence. One-room school was located in
right wing of residence.

Hacienda de Colonia Campo, Chihuahua: residence.

Hacienda de Buena Vista, Jalisco: well-preserved residence and patio.

Hacienda de San Felipe, Oaxaca: 19th-century residence, patio fountain.

Hacienda de Encero, Veracruz: church, 1799.

Hacienda de Bledos, San Luis Potosí: map of the hacienda.

Hacienda de Cedra, Jalisco: ornamental entry to 18th-century chapel; door
and gate of mesquite. Orange trees shade patio.

Hacienda de Endo, Sonora: residence, stable below.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: patio fountain.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: figure on 1788 church wall.

Hacienda de Holactún, Yucatán: chapel and residence.

Hacienda de San José, D.F.: churrigueresque-style residence and chapel with
blue and white tiled dome.

Hacienda El Pópulo, Puebla: residence with tiled façade.

Hacienda de Santana, Hildago: residence and chapel.

Hacienda de Teya, Yucatán: residence, 1700.

Hacienda de Leoncito, Guanajuato: 16th-century chapel.

Hacienda de San José, D.F.: rococo façade of residence.

Hacienda de Bledos, San Luis Potosí: coat-of-arms.

Hacienda de Calderón, Guanajuato: bronze bell on residence, 1838.

Hacienda de Ciénega de Mata, Jalisco: 16th-century church

Hacienda de Cabezón, Jalisco: chapel Virgin; her elaborate wardrobe valued
at $50,000.

Hacienda de Cabezón, Jalisco: capital, front of residence, 1800; building
designed by architect Eduardo Tresguerras.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: late 17th-century church in rose stucco. A
famous Jesuit hacienda.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: floor plan of residence.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: handpainted wall fresco in bedroom of ruined
residence.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: mural, one of fourteen panels on veranda
wall of residence.

Hacienda de Xcanatún, Yucatán: one of a series of gold wall motifs around
chapel walls.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: florentine armor in residence.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: pistol and brand of hacienda.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: 16th-century stone bas relief, 3
feet x 5 feet, unearthed in garden.

Hacienda de San Francisco, Jalisco: residence.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: narrow-gauge railway passenger car drawn by
mule or horse.

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: century-old carriage.

Hacienda cattle brands, state of Jalisco.

Hacienda de Cedra, Jalisco: stone cross to one side of hacienda chapel, 8 feet
tall.

Hacienda de Tabi, Yucatán: early 18th-century church.

Hacienda de Altillo, Coyoacán, D.F.: pastel of St. Andrew.

Hacienda de Zapotitán, Jalisco: remains of 1750 residence and mirador,
white stuccoed masonry.

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: polychrome wood statue, 16th
century, 5 feet tall.

Hacienda San Ignacio, Yucatán: 18th century brass sacristy implements—
handbell and Bible holder.

Hacienda San Ignacio, Yucatán: brass ecclesiastical candle holder.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: cepo (stocks), made of mahogany.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: chapel stairway.

Hacienda Corralitos, Corralitos, Chihuahua: one-million-acre cattle and
mining hacienda, 1750. Adobe residence, 1886, surrounded by cottonwoods.

Hacienda de Bellavista, Jalisco: sugar refinery silo.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: bronze weathervane on residence.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: stone residence and chapel.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: gate.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: church.

Hacienda de Aurora, Jalisco: commemorative bridge column dated 1750.

Hacienda de los Morales, D.F.: patio fountain, 1643.

Hacienda de Xala, Hidalgo: residence and chapel, 1785.

Hacienda Pixoy, Yucatán: brick-adobe residence and storage rooms. 18th
century, eleven rooms.

Hacienda de los Ricos, Guanajuato: residence.

Hacienda de los Ricos, Guanajuato: bullring entry door.

Hacienda de Yaxche, Yucatán: Virgin, 14 inches high, 17th century.

Hacienda de San Antonio, Colima: 17th-century chapel and terminus of
aqueduct.

Hacienda de Jajalpa, D.F.: pink stucco sixteen-room, red-tiled 19th-century
residence and chapel.

Hacienda San Cayetano, Nayarit: one of a pair of pink ceramic lions at entry
to residence.

Hacienda de Guarache, Michoacán: residence and chapel. Now a
government school.

Hacienda de Petaca, Guanajuato: residence.

Hacienda de Juana Guerra, Amado Nervo, Durango: millstone.

Hacienda San Cayetano de Valencia, Guanajuato: church, 1788.

Hacienda de Juana Guerra, Amado Nervo, Durango: baroque church.

Hacienda de la Venta del Astillero, Jalisco: 18th-century stone and brick
residence and chapel, 220 feet long.

Hacienda la Gavia, Estado de México: wood figure, 5 feet tall.

Hacienda de Cocoyoc, Morelos: 16th-century chapel.

Hacienda de Tikuch, Yucatán: rear view, stairway to second floor residential
area

Hacienda de Chinameca, Morelos: residence and chapel. Emiliano Zapata
assassinated here, 1919.

Hacienda de Canutillo, Durango: Pancho Villa buried here July 23, 1923.

Hacienda de la Erre, Guanajuato: 1673. Father Miguel Hidalgo began his
march from this church.

Hacienda de Pueblilla, Zempoala, Hidalgo: chapel tower, 1860.

Hacienda de Tepa-Chica, Hidalgo: chapel, 1864.

Hacienda la Gavia, Estado de México: carved figure on library door.

Hacienda de Arenillas, Puebla: chapel gateway.

Hacienda Manga de Clavo, Veracruz: owned by Santa Anna. Rendering from
an 1868 bank bond; hacienda destroyed.

Hacienda de Esperanza, D.F.: residence. Cattle stalls on ground floor.

Hacienda de Águilar, Oaxaca: bas relief, 3 feet x 5 feet, front wall of
residence.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: 19th-century residence.

Hacienda de los Molinos, Tlaxcala: 16th-century chapel. Cholula pyramid in
the distance.

Hacienda Quinta Carolina, Chihuahua: residence of more than fifty rooms,
1892. Abandoned as of 1981.

Hacienda de Caleturia, Puebla: silver door knocker.

Hacienda de Chichén Itza, Yucatán: church.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: residence.

Hacienda cattle brands from various states in Mexico appear at the
beginning of each chapter.

Photographs

Hacienda Castillo, Jalisco: 18th-century landscape view typical of many
haciendas.

Hacienda de Buena Vista, Jalisco: well-preserved residence and patio.

Hacienda de San Felipe, Oaxaca: 19th-century residence, patio fountain.

Hacienda Uxmal, Yucatán: main gate.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato.

Hacienda Petaca, Guanajuato: patio side of main residence.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: 17th-century defense tower. Note
bullet holes.

Hacienda de Barrera, Guanajuato: residence.

Hacienda de Cañedo, Jalisco: 19th-century church.

Hacienda Yaxcopoíl, Yucatán: residence. Note narrow-gauge rail-road car.

Hacienda de los Morales, D.F.: spinning wheel in residence patio.

Hacienda de Blanca, Oaxaca: patio.

Hacienda de Xotla, Puebla: residence patio and oven.

Hacienda Zapotitán, Jalisco: map on veranda of residence.

Hacienda de Buena Vista, Jalisco: 18th-century aqueduct.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: 18th-century church

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: saddle belonging to former
President Ávila Camacho decorated with silver.

Hacienda de Yocotepec, Hidalgo: church and stone cross.

Hacienda de Tenache, Oaxaca: twin bells on roof of residence.

Hacienda la Calera, Jalisco: second residence on the property, 1890.

Hacienda de Tamanche, Yucatán: 17th-century colonial residence and
remains of sugar refinery chimney.

Hacienda de San Antonio, Guanajuato: 18th-century chapel ruin.

Hacienda Aguilera, Oaxaca: former 19th-century hacienda residence, now
university building.

Hacienda de Matanzas, Jalisco: chapel and residence, chapel date 1750.

Hacienda los Molinos, Puebla: fortified wall and stairway to tower of 16th-
century residence.

Hacienda de Matanzas, Jalisco: 18th-century chapel, residence,

Hacienda Quinta Carolina, Chihuahua: main residence.

Hacienda Mendocina, Puebla: 18th-century guest home on island in small
man-made lake.

Foreword

James A. Michener

Distinguished Visiting Professor, University of Miami

I first became aware of the high artistic merit of Paul Bartlett's work on the
classic haciendas of Old Mexico when I came upon an exhibition in Texas in
1968. His drawings, sketches, and photographs evoked so effectively the
historic buildings I had known when working in Mexico that I wrote to the
architect-artist to inform him of my pleasure.

Subsequently, I saw examples of his devotion to the great haciendas with
their strong Mexican-Spanish coloration, and always I enjoyed his reminders
of what life in colonial Mexico must have been like for the favored classes.

It is rewarding to renew my acquaintance with this remarkable body of
work, for it is a reassuring example of what a lifetime of scholarship can
accomplish.

Preface

The haciendas of Mexico have a special appeal for me. They represent a way
of life that is now gone—some would say fortunately, since it was often a
burdensome and cruel way of life for the peasant workers, a way of life that
eventually motivated a revolution and the dissolution of the majority of
hacienda landholdings.

Many haciendas can be reached only with difficulty by horse or by foot, by
boat or motorcycle or jeep. Their isolation from the culture of Europe, three
hundred years ago, impresses the mind with its severity. In their isolation,
these estates recall the brave attempts of hacienda families to re-establish
cultivated patterns of living in the New World, with fine china and crystal,
grand pianos and chapel organs, ornate furnishings, paintings, and tapestries.

For my project, I received no financial rewards. Hence, I made repeated trips
to Mexico, each funded by the modest savings accumulated in the United
States between visits, with the hacienda project ever in mind.

My wife, Elizabeth encouraged my efforts. She was my mainstay, my
constant friend and faithful companion. Our son, Steven, was born in
Mexico and was raised in a world punctuated by hacienda visits; he was my
compañero on many hacienda trips. The three of us usually returned to
Mexico to stay for a year or two at a time.

To find out where haciendas were located in a particular area, I turned to
local government officials, owners of village stores, the postman, or the
peasant who delivered charcoal on his burro. Mostly, I found the haciendas
on random trips, when their archways and rooftops appeared in the distance.

In 1941, when I began this project, few studies of the Mexican hacienda had
been made. Only a handful of scholars had visited individual haciendas, and
had gained first-hand familiarity with a limited number of them. To this day,
with the possible exception of my own work, this is still true. And it is

certain to remain true, since many of the haciendas I visited no longer exist.
My own interest in that heritage was to re-create the special aura that my
visits to more than three hundred haciendas had created. As an artist I felt an
enduring affinity with a time that is no more, a heritage and tradition that
may be recaptured only, I think, through the medium of art.

This, then, is an attempt to survey the story of the haciendas. It is not a
treatise about their economic structure, their political influence, or their
historical importance in the establishment of New Spain. Despite the meager
records relating to the many individual haciendas, there are excellent studies
of regional haciendas in Mexico. The reader will find references to them in
the Bibliography.

The text was written to accompany a selection of my hacienda illustrations,
including descriptions of hacienda life based on information received from
personal contacts with hacienda families and caretakers who could still recall
the old days. My impressions and commentary are offered to enable the
reader to leave the twentieth century for a while and return to a period when
the freshly colonized American continent witnessed the birth, the spread, and
eventually the death of a unique way of life.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge my thanks to the many who helped my
hacienda project to develop and grow through its many stages; among them:
historians Frank Tannenbaum of Columbia University and Silvio Zavala of
Mexico City; authors Ralph Roeder, Stuart Chase, and Russell Kirk; artist
Roberto Montenegro; art directors Reginald Poland of the Atlanta Art
Association, Herbert Friedmann of the Los Angeles County Museum,
Donald Goodall of the University of Texas Art Gallery in Austin, the
Reverend J. Pociask, S.J. of the DeSaisset Gallery at the University of Santa
Clara, and Stella Benson of the Latin American library collections at the
University of Texas in Austin; and art patron Huntington Hartford. I am
especially grateful to my son, Steven, without whose help this book would
have remained an unfinished project. I am also indebted to Dr. Fae Batten
for her magnanimous effort, patience, and skill in preparing my photos for
this book, and to Lowell Waxman, head librarian of the Claremont Branch of
the San Diego Libraries for his tireless assistance in the department of
references. In addition, I am thankful for the good friends and associates it
has been my fortune to come across on the long journey over the years.

Hacienda Castillo, Jalisco: 18th-century landscape view typical of many
haciendas.

This book contains reproductions of a selected number of illustrations and
photographs, drawn from a collection of more than 300 original pen-and-ink
illustrations and several hundred photographs, which now form part of the
Benson Latin American Collection of the University of Texas in Austin. A
collection of hacienda photographs, illustrations, and other materials is also
maintained by the Western History Research Center of the University of
Wyoming in Laramie.

Hacienda de Buena Vista, Jalisco: well-preserved residence and patio.

Introduction

Gisela von Wobeser

Professor of History, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F.

Translated from the Spanish by
Steven J. Bartlett
Senior Research Professor, Oregon State University

The lifework of artist Paul Alexander Bartlett to retrieve the past of the
Mexican hacienda has made this book possible. This volume contains a

selection of his original pen-and-ink illustrations and photographs, realized
over a period of some forty years, of more than three hundred haciendas.

Bartlett began his record during the 1940s. He made a series of visits to
Mexico to sketch and photograph the hacienda buildings that had survived
the Agrarian Reform. Many haciendas were inaccessibly located, at
considerable distances from population centers. He traveled hundreds of
miles on foot, on muleback, by train and by boat, climbed hills, and
descended into canyons to find them.

The record that Bartlett has made represents an important chapter in
Mexican history. Because the majority of hacienda structures have been
subjected to severe and progressive deterioration, his study, in many cases, is
the only trace that remains of the physical appearance of individual
haciendas. His collection of illustrations and photographs is now in the
custody of two institutions, the University of Texas at Austin, in the Benson
Latin American Collection, and the University of Wyoming in Laramie, in
the Western History Research Center [Now the American Heritage Center].
These two archives will be useful to scholars interested in the physical
structure of the haciendas, their evolution and history, their economy, as well
as in comparative studies. At the same time, this collection of materials
makes it possible to study the characteristics of different types of haciendas.
Above all, the contents of the two archives form an extremely valuable
resource for the history of art and architecture.

Hacienda de San Felipe, Oaxaca: 19th-century residence, patio fountain.

Hacienda de Encero, Veracruz: church, 1799.

When Bartlett began his travels through the Mexican backcountry, the
producing haciendas had largely disappeared. What he found were often
remnants of an earlier existence during the Porfiriato, the period between
1877 and 1911. Many of the buildings he saw dated from this epoch, along
with their interior decorations, water and irrigation systems, machinery, and
farming tools. In addition to these haciendas, he also found vestiges of the
first half of the nineteenth century and of the colonial era. These were
mainly hacienda buildings, some of which had been rebuilt during the
Porfiriato.

The disintegration of the haciendas began as a result of the Mexican
Revolution, and it ended with the redistribution of their land during the
Agrarian Reform. During the 1930s and 1940s, huge rural estates were
fragmented and converted into ejidos or minifundios. Ejidos are tracts of
land that are granted as communal property to rural towns. They are worked
by members of the community, who benefit from the land's yield. Ejidal
properties cannot be sold or transferred. The minifundios are small private
pieces of property, amounting on the average to 100 hectares but varying
according to the region of the country and type of soil. Between 1934 and
1940, approximately 17,900,000 hectares (44,230,900 acres) were
redistributed, representing close to half of all tillable land. This
repartitioning of the land has continued into the present, though its pace has
been much slower.

As hacienda property was broken up, the hacienda owners, the hacendados,
were left in possession of the hacienda buildings and the immediate land
around them, the size of which was restricted by the limits that were set for
these small properties. This meant that immense haciendas were reduced to
very tiny ranches. Along with their land, the hacendados lost access to water,
they lost their means of irrigation, machinery, and livestock.

Because of these measures, the hacienda system was annihilated. For the
majority of the hacendados, the few acres left them turned out to be
unproductive land, and their hardships were magnified by the instability and
the violence that prevailed in the country. As a result, many hacienda
buildings were abandoned or were destined for new purposes.

Only a few of the ex-haciendas remained in production. Some landowners
took advantage of the limited property left to them to plant lucrative, high-
yielding crops, while others augmented the size of their cultivated land by
leasing adjoining land or by purchasing it under assumed names.

Hacienda de Bledos, San Luis Potosí: map of the hacienda.

When Bartlett began his hacienda visits in the 1940s, he found many of the
hacienda buildings in ruins, exposed to the ravages of time and vandalism.
Buildings had been converted into chicken coops, pigsties, public
apartments, and machine shops. Others served as sources for construction
materials, from which were scavenged rocks, bricks, beams, and tiles for the
habitations of the local population. In some cases the destruction was total:
All the hacienda's structures were removed, and only the name of the place
alluded to the fact that an hacienda had ever existed there.

At other haciendas, buildings were adapted to new uses. They were
transformed into hotels, resorts, government buildings, barracks, hospitals,
restaurants, and schools. The exterior of the buildings were generally left
intact; interiors were completely changed.

Hacienda de Cedra, Jalisco: ornamental entry to 18th-century chapel;
door and gate of mesquite.
Orange trees shade patio.

Hacienda de Endo, Sonora: residence, stable below.

The best-preserved hacienda buildings were those that continued to function
as country properties or vacation homes. In these, Bartlett often found
furnishings and utensils from the epoch of Don Porfirio, surrounded by the
old traditions of Mexican country life.

As an artist, Bartlett's attention was drawn foremost to the hacienda
buildings themselves and to the works of art that they housed. The majority
of his illustrations and photographs therefore depict the main group of
hacienda buildings or certain buildings—for example, the main residence,
the church, the patios, and work buildings. However, among his rich
materials, one can also find a testimony to hacienda work and life:
machinery, irrigation devices and structures, farm implements, mining
equipment, warehouses, barns, corrals, and carriages, among others.

The history of the hacienda spans three centuries. The first haciendas
appeared in New Spain toward the beginning of the seventeenth century,
when demand for agricultural products increased and the prehispanic supply
system crumbled. Farming received an impetus at the hands of Spaniards,
and the small farms and livestock ranches, which dated from the sixteenth

century, expanded their landholdings. Many new sources of water were
tapped, and a resident labor force was developed. These steps encouraged
production and supplied the regional as well as the continually growing
metropolitan markets.

The increase in hacienda production and in the number of hacienda workers
made it necessary to expand the sixteenth-century facilities, which, with the
exception of those of the sugar plantations, had been very modest. In this
way, a large number of buildings were constructed, buildings that were to be
preserved as the core of many haciendas until the Porfiriato.

There were three principal types of haciendas. Grain haciendas were the
most important because they were dedicated to the cultivation of the
subsistence crops corn and wheat. In addition, beans, barley, lima beans,
chiles, and other crops were planted. Grain haciendas were established
mainly in the vicinity of the urban centers, which they supplied. The
important areas of grain cultivation were Puebla, Atlixco, Toluca,
Guadalajara, Oaxaca, and Michoacán. Livestock haciendas occupied a
second level of importance. They raised cattle and horses, as well as goats
and sheep. This type of hacienda tended to be located in more remote areas,
in an attempt to prevent the livestock from invading cultivated fields. Sugar
haciendas were located in tropical regions, where they could count on
sufficient water for the cultivation of sugarcane. The most important sugar
regions were Veracruz, Cuernavaca, Cuautla, and Michoacán.

Throughout the seventeenth century the haciendas grew in significance.
They held much of the land and water resources, expanded their labor force,
intensified their control over the market, and consolidated their territorial
rights in accordance with composiciones de tierras. (The phrase
composiciones de tierras belongs to the legal terminology of the time. It
relates to a legal mechanism that was instituted by the Spanish Crown during
the first half of the sixteenth century but which was applied mainly during
the seventeenth century. It made it possible to legalize properties whose titles
were not in order.) They sought to make improvements by constructing, for
example, buildings, irrigation systems, roads, granaries, and shelters for
livestock. Together, these made it possible to increase agricultural yields
substantially. It was not an easy process, often involving transfers of

hacienda property, severe indebtedness of their owners, and great difficulties
in production.

Hacienda expansion proceeded throughout the following two centuries.
Huge tracts of uncultivated land were transformed into farmland and
impressive water distribution systems opened up new areas to irrigation. The
population, constantly growing, demanded an ever greater quantity of food.
Much land that had been devoted to the raising of livestock was turned over
to cultivation, and the stock were gradually displaced until livestock
haciendas came to be located mainly in the north of the country. However,
this was not a period of unimpeded progress: there were severe periods of
crisis, sharp fluctuations in production, a lack of continuity in the
transmission of property, and frequent bankruptcies. Hacienda properties
tended to be deeply mortgaged to ecclesiastical institutions and to individual
lenders.

Hacienda Uxmal, Yucatán: main gate.

When dictator Porfirio Díaz assumed power in 1877, a boom period for the
hacienda began. Historical circumstances were favorable, and the
government offered all manner of facilities to the livestock and farm
impresarios. The substantial increase in the country's population, as well as
the strengthening international economy, created a great demand for farm
and livestock products. The consumption of goods from the tropics, such as
coffee, cacao, sugar, tobacco, and vanilla, grew considerably during this time
both in Europe and in the United States. The same thing happened with
certain basic materials, among them henequén, rubber, chicle, and ixtle.
(Ixtle or istle is the name given to the hard fibers that are extracted from
different plants of the genus agave, of which the most important are the
maguey and the lechuguilla. They are raised mainly in northern Mexico.)

As a result of laws that secularized communal land and set aside fallow land,
huge areas of cultivation and land suitable for farming were placed at the
disposition of commercial agriculture. Supporting capital for the most part
came from foreign sources—from the United States, France, and England.
Labor came from the impoverished peasants, from town workers, and from
indigenous groups, among them the Mayas and the Tarahumaras.

Large landed estates appeared and a powerful class of hacienda owners
arose. It was during this period that it was possible to overcome some of the
endemic problems that had beset the hacienda since its birth: instability,
indebtedness, lack of capital, and scarce revenues. During the Porfiriato, the
majority of the haciendas were highly productive and provided their owners
with plentiful earnings. Yet, at the same time there were haciendas that had
to face financial problems and fluctuations in production.

Frequently, hacendados participated in other areas of business, such as
finance, commerce, and mining. Their privileged economic position
permitted them to furnish their rural properties with great luxury and to
sustain a life of affluence. Bartlett found hacienda residences with twenty
bedrooms, salons for dancing, Japanese gardens, billiard rooms and music
rooms, swimming pools, bullrings, and palisades. Bearing witness to the
interior splendor of these mansions, there was fine furniture from Europe,
carpeting from Persia, velvet draperies, chandeliers of cut crystal, and
valuable oil paintings. There were haciendas that possessed chapels that
rivaled the provincial churches in size, architecture, and decor. Of course not
all haciendas were this elegant: most had much more rustic appointments;
many were in decline, poorly maintained, furnished with the very barest
minimum.

Bartlett captured and transmits to us today through his art the grand cultural
richness that enfolds the hacienda, its diversity according to its moment in
time, its location, and its type of production, and he accompanies these with
a portrayal of hacienda life, customs, and its inherent style of thought. He is
one of the pioneers in his field of study.

Map of Mexico and its states

Sonora
1. Hacienda de Endo

Chihuahua
2. Hacienda de Colonia Campo
3. Hacienda Corralitos
4. Hacienda Quinta Carolina

Durango
5. Hacienda de Juana Guerra
6. Hacienda de Canutillo

Nayarit
7. Hacienda San Cayetano

San Luis Potosí
8. Hacienda de Castamay

Guanajuato
9. Hacienda de Valenciana
10. Hacienda de Leoncito
11. Hacienda de Calderón
12. Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto
13. Hacienda de los Ricos
14. Hacienda San Cayetano de Valencia
15. Hacienda de Petaca
16. Hacienda de la Erre

Jalisco
17. Hacienda de Medinero
18. Hacienda de Cedra
19. Hacienda de Ciénega de Mata
20. Hacienda de Cabezón
21. Hacienda de Cuisillos
22. Hacienda de Zapotitán
23. Hacienda de Bellavista
24. Hacienda de Aurora
25. Hacienda de la Venta del Astillero

Hidalgo
26. Hacienda de Santana
27. Hacienda de Xala
28. Hacienda de Pueblilla
29. Hacienda de Tepa-Chica

Michoacán
30. Hacienda de Guarache

Colima
31. Hacienda de San Antonio

State of México
32. Hacienda de San José

33. Hacienda de Altillo
34. Hacienda de los Morales
35. Hacienda de Jajalpa
36. Hacienda la Gavia
37. Hacienda de Esperanza

Morelos
38. Hacienda de Cocoyoc
39. Hacienda de Chinameca

Tlaxcala
40. Hacienda de los Molinos

Puebla
41. Hacienda de Pópulo
42. Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo
43. Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco
44. Hacienda de Arenillas
45. Hacienda de Caleturia

Veracruz
46. Hacienda de Encero
47. Hacienda Manga de Clavo

Oaxaca
48. Hacienda de Águilar

Campeche
49. Hacienda de Castamay

Yucatán
50. Hacienda de Holactún
51. Hacienda de Teya
52. Hacienda de Xcanatun
53. Hacienda de Sodzil
54. Hacienda de Tabi
55. Hacienda San Ignacio
56. Hacienda Pixoy

57. Hacienda Yaxche
58. Hacienda de Tikuch
59. Hacienda de Chichén Itza

I. The Hacienda System

Hacienda cattle brand

Forty years ago, traveling by train in Mexico, I saw, in remote areas, what
appeared to be miniature villages. I made sketches of them from the train
and later visited some of the sites and learned they were ancient haciendas.
Over the years since then, I have visited 330 haciendas and made the first art
record of these estates. I traveled on horseback, on foot, by bus, train, car,
truck, motorbike, and mule-drawn, narrow-gauge railway. I saw that
haciendas had become mere place-names as they disintegrated or were
bulldozed.

Walk into a handsome mansion and you find twenty or thirty empty rooms.
To escape the revolution, the owner fled years earlier. Earthquakes, weather,
and abandonment have riddled walls and floors. The residence stands
roofless, windowless, doorless—constructed of stone, brick and adobe, or a
combination of these. Church and chapel exist at every hacienda and they
are still used by neighbors and peasants who may occupy the manor house.
There are dates on bell skirts, on walls or beams of a storage bodega, on

escutcheons, on archways; often they are carved in the mesquite floor of a
chapel or church.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: patio fountain.

In the tropics, flame trees, bougainvillea, red-orange galeanas, lavender
jacaranda, and yellow primavera flower among ruins. In northern areas, pine,
tall eucalypti, mesquite, cedar, pepper, and chinaberry remain.

I sketched under the tropic sun, in corrals, in a bullring, under an Indian
laurel; I poked through empty rooms.

As I sketched, burro trains passed, their sacks loaded with charcoal or corn;
goat bells tapped as a herd grazed; ox teams hauled carts with wooden
wheels; blackbirds crowded a treetop; a cowboy tipped his hat.

There was always courtesy. I drank pulque from a communal gourd; I shared
pineapple grown in Tecomán; I was entertained at town houses of
hacendados. On the estates there was silence from the days of the viceroys,
the silence of padres, the silence of abandonment.

Hacienda cattle brand

In the sixteenth century, following the Spanish invasion of Mexico between
the years 1519 and 1521, the Spanish Crown granted enormous land areas to
the conquerors and adventurers who came to the New World. Since this
property belonged to the natives, the grants amounted to usurpation.
Scattered throughout Mexico, from Yucatán to Sonora, the extensive
holdings frequently included towns and villages. These grants of land were
the origin of the haciendas, the rural estates.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spanish immigrants
sometimes passed themselves off as noblemen—camouflaging criminal or
poverty-stricken backgrounds. Others, with a sack of cash or a pair of
brawny shoulders, used the invasion as an opportunity to bluff their way and
claim land and lives through the power of the sword. They remembered that
dropping quicksilver into a mule's ear made the animal trot faster. Wealthy
immigrants were able to purchase titles, and this arrangement was
encouraged by the Crown since it benefited the treasury.

The hacendado (or his representative) employed or coerced native workers
to build a residence, church or chapel, storage buildings, mills, dams,
aqueducts, fences, and roads. He paid lip service to the Crown and whenever
possible circumvented legalities. It was advantageous to sidestep the Crown
since a letter or document took half a year to reach Spain. The employer was
unable to communicate with the people who spoke Otomi, Coro, or
Chichiméc. He was thwarted by new diseases, strange customs, tropical

climate, and crop problems. Unlike the countries of Europe, Mexico was a
corn culture, not a wheat culture. During his first years he learned that grain
did better when planted in the most primitive manner, by stick and foot.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: figure on 1788 church wall.

Hacienda de Holactún, Yucatán: chapel and residence

Hacienda de San José, D.F.: churrigueresque-style residence and chapel
with blue and white tiled dome.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato.

Hacienda Petaca. Guanajuato: patio side of main residence.

Hacienda El Pópulo, Puebla: residence with tiled façade.

Hacienda de Santana. Hildago: residence and chapel.

Hacienda de Teya, Yucatán: residence. 1700.

Hacienda de Leoncito, Guanajuato: 16th-century chapel.

Hacienda de San José, D.F.: rococo façade of residence.

As rapidly as possible, the landowner, the hacendado, added to his holdings,
buying or usurping acreage. An hacienda might consist of several thousand
or several million acres. The terrain might be mountainous, semi-desert,
coastal strips, forest or jungle, or a combination of topographical zones.
There were cattle haciendas, sheep haciendas, mining haciendas,
pulque/tequila haciendas; others produced henequén, grew coffee,
sugarcane, corn, wheat. A few bred bulls for the bullring.

During the first century of the occupation, Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas,
friend of the Indians, objected to the atrocities committed by the Spanish.
Alfonso de Zorita, writing his "Brevíssima Relación," exposed Indian
mistreatment. Burnouf, French agronomist, wrote Emperor Maximilian that
the whip of the mayordomo (the hacendado's administrator) was destroying
many lives. Regardless of objections through the years, the hacienda system
prospered.

Counts, countesses, dukes and duchesses, crude invasionists, wealthy men,
and religious orders owned estates. Some of the famous hacendados were
Hernán Cortéz, Porfirio Díaz, Martín Ruiz de Zavala, General Santa Anna,
and Pancho Villa (who was given his hacienda as a political bribe). Famous
families owned estates: Terrazas, Rosa, Amor, Jaral, Ibarra, Echeverría, and
Regla.

From the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, hacienda architecture varied:
Where generation after generation owned the hacienda, in families of great
wealth, façades were gothic, churrigueresque, plateresque, Islamic, baroque,
rococo. The most widespread architectural style derived from the Roman.
Most residences had their living quarters around an atrium, or patio. Grilled
windows and massive wooden doors and shutters were common. Thousands
of work-hours went into the carvings and embellishments—in gray, pink, or
yellowish limestone. Hornacinas (niches) peppered a church or chapel
façade.

Hacienda de Bledos, San Luis Potosí: coat-of-arms.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: 17th-century defense tower.
Note bullet holes.

Each niche contained a saint or religious figure: It was tapestry in stone.

In the states of Puebla and Oaxaca, tiled façades ornamented the hacienda
residences and lofty walls surrounded them. Church and chapel domes were
also tiled. In the Sierras, haciendas were often built of logs and planed wood
—rustic, two-story buildings with outside stairways. In the tropics, the usual
residence was one story with ample verandas and deep-set doors and
windows. Most buildings were roofed in cone-shaped, interlocking, or flat
tiles.

The majority of hacienda structures were skillfully mortared in stone block
cantera (limestone) by rule-of-thumb. Professional architects like Francisco
Eduardo de Tresguerras were seldom available. Instead, artisans were
employed who used various styles learned from early ecclesiastical
buildings.

Bitter rivalries between estates were part of the scene. Owners were on the
alert for a bankrupt hacienda that could be purchased at a very low price. If
extending landholdings meant violating the rights of a village or of an
individual farmer or rancher, those rights were brushed aside, or contested
legally.

Hacienda de Barrera, Guanajuato: residence.

To bolster his stature, the hacendado placed a baronial device on the façade
of his residence or church: A coat-of-arms elevated his status. He also
respected his skin, and against the threat of la intrusa (the intruder) he
installed gun slots, grilled windows, studded doors, and armed his retainers.
La intrusa was his Old World enemy. Now and then he raised a private army
to repel difficult natives, belligerent hacendados, or revolutionaries. Thick-
walled, ponderous buildings reflected his philosophy. They indicated his
loneliness and his fear of death as well.

As life became less threatening in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
as roads improved and travel became safer and more comfortable, hacienda
owners erected open structures: Residences appeared with multiple arches
across the front, and tiled verandas led to the outdoors. Two-story homes,
with balconies on the second floor became common. Eucalypti, jacaranda,
chirimoya, and columnar cypress shaded a complex of buildings: church,
residence, bodega. In the north country, a line of cottonwoods led to the
gracious house, which was stuccoed pink or pale yellow. Farther south, a
grove of palms graced the setting.

As time passed, viceroys, churchmen, lawyers, and teachers became more
and more aware of the language barriers that existed throughout the country
and that impeded progress. The Catholics, through their colegios
(ecclesiastical schools) attempted to upgrade life. There were no public
schools.

Among the ecclesiastical orders, the Jesuits were major hacienda owners.
Their design-for-living began at 4:00 A.M. and ended at 7:00 P.M. At the
most famous Jesuit hacienda, Santa Lucía, near Mexico City, slaves were
purchased, bred, sold, or retained for work on the estate. There were no
fiestas at Santa Lucía. For almost two hundred years the hacienda functioned
to support the ecclesiastical schools of the order. The Colegio Máximo, in
Mexico City, was the principal beneficiary. Until June 25, 1767, when all
Jesuits were deported from Mexico, the estate prospered, selling wheat, corn,
textiles, cattle, sheep, and slaves. Its economic influence extended as far as
Guadalajara, Zapotlán, and Colima.

Schooling at the hacienda was largely disregarded. There were sixty foreign
dialects to contend with. There were no dictionaries, no language bridges for

the Zapotec, Coro, Méxica, and Nahuatl people. On the estates a priest or
teacher, one who knew a little Latin, gave lessons in Spanish, arithmetic,
Latin, and the catechism. Scholarly priests began linguistic studies of some
tribes; they edited dictionaries, but these were never circulated. Some of
their work has yet to be published.

Machismo was more meaningful to the average estate than education. The
blacksmith from Barcelona, who now owned ninety thousand acres, was
eager for compliant women. Sex life, for the invaders, for the colonist, was
freer than in Europe. Since the men did not speak the Indian dialects, sex
was a body language. Some were promiscuous and guilty of perversion.
Priests and nuns were shocked by their animality and attempted to control
their countrymen. Since most haciendas were remote and few women
accompanied the settlers, isolation and power granted license.

The kindly man, the gentile man, looked for other ways to overcome
loneliness, isolation, homesickness. Some, preferring the familiar life,
returned to their homeland. By 1910, thousands of estates were scattered
across the country. Mansions were located in the midst of maguey and
henequén fields or were situated in lush valleys. Some faced the ocean; some
were lost in acres of corn; miles of range country surrounded others; there
were desert haciendas with the nearest neighbor fifty miles away; there were
rain forest haciendas, mahogany haciendas. Many were regional landmarks.

Hacienda de Calderón, Guanajuato: bronze bell on residence, 1838.

Haciendas became an embodiment of time. They seemed to defy time,
offering the illusion that a family could live there indefinitely.

II. Through the Eyes of Hacienda Visitors

Hacienda cattle brand

Through the years there were notable visitors to the haciendas who have left
us their impressions: Bishop Landa, Father Alonso Ponce, Gemelli Gareri,
Samuel de Champlain, John Chilton, Mora y Escobar, Sieur Bully, Fathers
Balalenque and Acosta, Thomas Gage ("clerical spy"), Don Ernesto de Icaza,
Emperor Iturbide, Emperor Maximilian I, Baron von Humboldt, Madame
Calderón de la Barca, James Stephens, and Frederick Catherwood, among
others.

Hacienda cattle brand

One of the most famous haciendas, in the state of Jalisco, is Ciénega de
Mata, legalized by the Crown in 1697. Owned by the Rincón Gallardo
family, it was a tract of eighty-seven estancias (ranches). According to
Alfonso Rincón Gallardo, reminiscing about his father's estate, the residence
was built during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. It is a
two-story building with twenty rooms and spans or arches across the front.
The church is gray limestone, like the residence, with a baroque façade. An
elaborate coat-of-arms embellishes the entry. Sculptured pink stone cantera
saints and angels fill various niches. The octagonal dome and tower are
richly carved.

Hacienda de Ciénega de Mata, Jalisco: 16th-century church.

Gallardo appreciated the life at Ciénega, the brandings, the roundups, sheep
pasturing, shearings, and weanings. "I liked to ride with the cowboys," he
wrote, "those extraordinary horsemen, pleasant companions, tanned by sun
and wind, simple in tastes, frank, never tiring—the classic men of the great
haciendas."

Recalling his life he tells us:

Every morning after breakfast, all of us—my father dressed
in his charro outfit; my mother attired English style—would
set out on horseback, riding about the hacienda's vast fields
of corn and barley. After the midday meal, back at the house,
we walked about the stables, the granaries, and over a small
hill that lay nearby; and sometimes we played fronton or
went out riding again. At night, after supper, we read or
played games. In this tranquil, pleasant manner, life went on,
broken only by the annual festival, an event celebrated on a
grand scale with parades, banquets, horse races, cockfights,
boxing matches, and, in the evening, a fantastic display of
fireworks.

Hacienda cattle brand

Brantz Mayer, secretary of the United States Legation in Mexico during
1841 and 1842, enjoyed a horseback visit to the Hacienda de San Nicolás,
near Tetécala, in the state of Mexico. He admired the white buildings and the
neatness of the estate: "The sugarcane fields were in capital order, the roads
smooth, the fences maintained; cattle were under the care of herdsmen."

Hacienda de Cabezón, Jalisco: chapel Virgin; her elaborate wardrobe
valued at $50,000.

The mayordomo was hospitable and accommodated Mayer and his party
with comfortable rooms. Following dinner, Mayer walked among the
hacienda's fields of sugarcane. He inspected the tienda de raya (the general
store), and the hacienda's offices, kitchens, parlors, bedrooms, and an
"immense corridor of arches filled with caged birds, hung with hammocks,
where the family pass most of the long warm days of summer."

Hacienda de Cabezón, Jalisco: capital, front of residence.
1800: building designed by architect Eduardo Tresguerras.

At sunset the workers gathered under the arches of the
residence and the administrator called the roll and each man
replied with "Alabo a Dios" ("I praise God"). When all were
dismissed they walked away singing a hymn to the Virgin....
That night a group of musicians played in a hut: violin,
clarinet, flute, and drum.

Hacienda cattle brand

In 1833, travelers Emma Undsay Squier and her husband were guests at a
tequila hacienda, Ometusco, about an hour and a half by horseback from
Mexico City. From the railroad station, the complex appeared like a
"salmon-pink birthday cake in the shape of a walled fortress." The buildings
were surrounded by fields of maguey. The Squiers entered the grounds
through a large gateway where soldiers lounged. The walled patio was
enormous and paved with stone. Burros trotted by, bearing casks of freshly
collected agua miel (sap of the maguey).

Ometusco was the size of a village; the hacendado's home was a palace of
many rooms, kitchens, winding stairways, patios, poultry yards, corrals. The
largest patio, centered by a stone fountain, was planted with flowers, trees,
and flowering vines. A tiny school had its own patio. The chapel was
elaborate. Guests enjoyed a billiard room in the main house. Each bedroom
had beds protected by mosquito netting. The dining room could seat seventy
persons at a mahogany table. Inlaid buffets glittered with silver and
glassware, seldom to be seen after the revolutionary period of 1910-1914.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: late 17th-century church in rose stucco.
A famous Jesuit hacienda.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: floor plan of residence. A. Residence. B.
Kitchens. C. Chapel. D-E. Living Quarters. F-G-H. Corrals. I. Granary.
J. Jail. K. General Store (Tienda de Raya). L. Living Quarters. M. Yard.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: handpainted wall fresco in bedroom of
ruined residence.

Hacienda de Cuisillos, Jalisco: mural, one of fourteen panels on veranda
wall of residence.

By 1952, the renowned Hacienda Cabezón had become a mere casco (a
shell). Located about 48 miles from Guadalajara, near Ameca, the residence
was designed in 1780 by the famous architect Francisco Eduardo de
Tresguerras. Now, grunting, shuffling pigs have squatters' rights to the
fifteen rooms. The building is roofless; its handpainted bedroom walls are
open to the weather, all that remains of the handsome structure, once the
focal point of fifteen or twenty sitios (ranches), is the chapel, pewless, clean,
its walls faded red, gold, and yellow. Swallows fly in and out of their nests in
the gold curlicues of the reredos.

Hacienda cattle brand

Cabezón has a single treasure: the Virgin of Candelaria, protected by a plate-
glass case. Her face seems Andalusian. Colored scrolls, garlands, and angels
frame her as she stands on a silver crescent moon, her figure the center of a
gilded reredo. About 18 inches tall, she wears a white satin gown sewn with
gold. A jeweled pearl crown rests on her hair, making her the perfect
madonna. Close by, under the dark mesquite floor, members of the hacienda
family are buried: Ignacio Cañedo de Valdivierlos (1836); Estanislao Cañedo
(1887); Manuel Calixto Cañedo (1905).

According to a chiseled inscription, the floor was laid in 1858 and cost 166
pesos.

Hacienda cattle brand

The land belonging to the famous ecclesiastical hacienda, Santa Lucía, was
purchased by the Jesuits on December 4, 1576. Legally, the estate's area
measured 18.8 square miles, an area populated by Otomi, Tepaneca, and
Chichimeca Indians. At the time of its purchase it had 16,800 sheep, 1,400
goats, 125 brood mares and colts, 1 stallion, 1 saddle horse, 2 donkey mares,
2 donkey stallions, and 8 slaves.

During the 1580s, construction work was carried out on residences, offices,
storage buildings, corrals, sheds, and quarters for the slaves. A chapel was
built in 1592. The hacienda produced barley, oats, beans, wheat, corn,
chickpeas, and livestock: cattle, sheep, goats, mules, and horses, in
increasing numbers each year. Santa Lucía prospered for nearly two
centuries.

Hacienda cattle brand

Cuisillos is another Jalisco hacienda, a place of jacaranda, palms, eucalyptus,
ash, and mesquite, near Cabezón. Horizon hills are often steel blue, and a
low-lying volcano is often misty gray. Cuisillos, deeded in 1620, first
belonged to Juan González de Apodaca, chief constable under Cortéz.
During the sixteenth century it was one of the largest estates in Mexico and
added substantial revenues to the Crown. Neoclassic, its casa principal
(main house) and chapel form an L, and fronting the L is a grove of palms.
The main house has thirty rooms, two tiled patios with a fountain in each; in
the main patio there are fourteen fresco panels painted in 1910 of seascapes,
landscapes, and scenes of women in the eighteenth century.

The grilled patio gate bears the renovation date 1910 and the hacienda brand
and family monogram. All rooms are still roofed and floored. The house is
putting up a valiant struggle. Its primitive kitchen has an igloo-shaped oven
with a charcoal basket dangling from its chimney pipe. A corkscrew
limestone stairway leads to the chapel tower where there are bronze bells
whose skirt dates are 1895, 1895, 1896, and 1896; the fifth bell has no date.
The chapel façade is ornate. The interior is simple: a small coro (choir
gallery), with a small darkwood organ that is badly battered. The walls of the
chapel are white and gold.

Hacienda cattle brand

A neighboring hacienda is architecturally imposing. The Hacienda Cañedo
has a church that would be outstanding in any city. The building, of yellow
limestone, is baroque-Italianate. It towers above the surrounding structures
and is amazing for its spire and its twelve stone apostles in the forecourt—8-
foot carvings of limestone on stone pedestals—native craft at its finest.

The church interior is blue, white, and gold. Sedate. The black mesquite
floor has a carved strip leading to the altar, and the words on the strip
indicate when the floor was laid and what it cost. Altar and decorations are
simple: brass candle holders, vases with paper flowers. There are solid-
backed wooden pews in cedar. The room expresses spaciousness.

The residence, which adjoins the church, is a stone mansion with badly
scaled walls. All rooms are vacant except the kitchen, a charcoal-blackened
room with smudged clay pots and a row of cracked white plates in racks
above a tiled stone stove. Around this casco are other buildings, storage
rooms—all stone, all neglected. At one time, according to a wall sign, there
was a biblioteca rural (rural library) in the complex.

Hacienda cattle brand

In the state of Hidalgo, the Hacienda de San Francisco—a pulque estate—
was refurbished in 1880. The twenty-room mansion stands in a giant field of
maguey ringed by hills. Fifty carriages could park in front. Once there were
twin swimming pools, a bullring, and fifty Japanese gardeners to maintain
the gardens.

The residence has rooms around a flower-weed-garbage patio. The building
is in a pseudo Arabian-Spanish style. On a wall there is a crank-style phone.
There is electricity and a broken television antenna. A large sala (parlor) has
a number of ornate tables, tufted velvet couches, and silk-damask chairs;
imported brocaded drapes are fastened by gold sashes, all from France via
train, ox cart, and tumpline. On the stairway leading to the roof, the hacienda
workers killed the owner in 1910.

Occasionally there are guests, weekenders. Barefooted girls wearing braids
serve among the antiques.

Hacienda cattle brand

Hacienda de Cañedo, Jalisco: 19th-century church.

Far south, in Yucatán, Yaxcopoíl is a working henequén hacienda, a survivor
of two centuries, still semi-successful economically. Located about forty
miles from Mérida, on the Uxmal-Campeche highway, the residence forms a
U. Residence, chapel, offices, and storage space are eighteenth-century
structures. The main house has thirteen arches along its broad veranda and
micro-chapel. This section of the complex is connected by an imposing
pillared breezeway to the dining room, kitchen, and servants' quarters.

Hacienda de Xcanatún, Yucatán: one of a series of gold wall motifs
around chapel walls.

The floor of the extensive patio between these buildings is paved with
flagstone carved with Mayan glyphs and designs, appropriated from nearby
ruins on the property. The residence is furnished in eighteenth and
nineteenth-century styles with marble-topped tables, bronze and brass beds,
dangling chain lamps with handpainted globes and shades, henequén
hammocks, and tanned hides on tile floors. Bathroom fixtures are British and
washbasins with silver faucets bear a porcelainized coat-of-arms.

There are reed chairs in the living room. Mediocre prints and a seventeenth-
century religious canvas decorate the walls. The floor tiles are conventional

in pattern; there are no rugs; the ceiling beams are stenciled in pastel floral
designs. Double doors lead to the veranda. The dining room has a center
table with a Tiffany-type lamp. In the office there are chairs, an oak desk, a
handpress, and a bookcase.

In the micro-chapel, its wall decorated with gold and silver fleur-de-lys and
pink roses, there is a large sixteenth-century canvas by an accomplished,
anonymous artist: the descent from the cross, with eight or ten figures
merging with the background. There are no chairs. The altar is small,
insignificant. A white Seybold organ, a silver crucifix, a pair of silver
candles on a side table complete the furnishings.

Behind the residence stands a theater with simple stone façade and pilaster
figures of women representing spring, summer, autumn, and winter. A
windmill spins behind a carved Mayan head perched on the roof line. The
auditorium accommodates a couple of hundred people for movies and plays.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: florentine armor in
residence.

The henequén production mill consists of a large open shed with a
corrugated roof. There is a machine press for crushing the maguey leaves,
which are hauled in by narrow-gauge flat cars, pulled by mules or Ford-
engine. There are fence-like racks behind the mill for drying thousands of
fibers at one time. Employees here work on salary; today there are no feudal
restrictions.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: pistol and brand of
hacienda

From the rooftop of the residence, Mayan ruins are visible as earthen
mounds in the midst of maguey plantings. The seven mounds are an
unexplored archaeological site.

Hacienda cattle brand

The imposing Hacienda San José Huejotzingo is near the city of Puebla in
the state of Puebla. Its stark one-story red brick, white brick façade faces a
lane of dying elm and willow. The residence measures 170 feet across the
front. At each corner there is an ornamental tower. The house encloses two
patios. Destroyed by revolutionaries, its chapel and storage areas are
roofless, but the residential rooms have been reconditioned. They are filled
with recuerdos (mementos): incunabula, antique firearms, a suit of Italian
armor, oil paintings, Aztec figures, charro spurs, leather chests, colonial
tables and chairs.

In the dining room are tall ecclesiastical wooden candelabra, carved cedar
chairs, monogrammed chests, pre-Columbian objects, colonial pottery, and
old dishes. Modern Tonalá pottery ornaments a nineteenth-century buffet.
Throughout the residence the floors are red tile.

The central patio has a 5-foot limestone statue of St. Joseph, carved in 1624.
It stands near a wall tile that reads: Margarita Barrados, died June 3, 1871.
A stone plaque of a conquistador on horseback, in primitive style, decorates
another wall.

The property—a corn, wheat, and cattle estate dating from Cortesian days—
is owned by Juan Matienzo, who has made a hobby of reconstructing his
ancestral home. Few other haciendas have Popocatépetl's 18,000-foot peak
looming behind.

Hacienda de San José Huejotzingo, Puebla: 16th-century stone bas
relief, 3 feet x 5 feet, unearthed in garden.

Hacienda de San Francisco, Jalisco: residence.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: narrow-gauge railway passenger car
drawn by mule or horse

Hacienda Yaxcopoíl, Yucatán: residence. Note narrow-gauge railroad
car.

Hacienda de los Morales, D.F.: spinning wheel in residence patio.

Hacienda de Bianca, Oaxaca: patio

San Martín Rinconada, a feudal hacienda, is halfway between Puebla and
Jalapa on the Jalapa route. The buildings are enclosed in a compound. The
protective walls, 30 feet high, are in good condition—mellowed by age.
Extensive cornfields surround the compound, which is about one half-block
square.

An intricate grilled gateway opens to a plateresque church. The church clock
keeps time, and the stone sundial by the corral also keeps time, hacienda

time. Behind the church, a windowless chapel, with double doors for light
and air, contains five mauled wooden desks, dusty benches of adzed wood,
and a cracked blackboard. This was once a school.

Outside the compound, facing the church, are adobe huts roofed with straw.
They accommodated the workers, their poultry, pigs, and dogs. Perhaps one
hundred people lived in the twenty huts. A shingle-roofed pozo (well)
supplies water for horses, cattle, and people, spilling it into a 20-foot
wooden trough. Gun slots in the compound walls slant toward the well and
trough. Zapatistas and Carrancistas threatened the hacienda in 1914; they
banged on the residence door and demanded beef and saddle horses but left
the property undamaged.

Now empty, the bedrooms are papered in gold and white and are semi-
frescoed overhead. A minute patio, facing several bedrooms, has a few
shabby cypress. The sala has no furnishings.

Stained-glass windows, humble panes of colored glass, light the auditorium
that seated one hundred people. Behind a plaster life-size Christ on the altar
hangs a dark red velvet drape; nearby, on the same wall, is a tortured
Christus. A pair of prayer wheels stands by the altar. Chandeliers are encased
in white covers, carefully tied. There are stubby oak candelabra with fat
candles that have dripped wax. A foxed, framed letter is dated 1742.

III. Hacienda Life

Hacienda cattle brand

Life on an hacienda was basically agrarian, revolving around the care of
livestock, poultry, planting, harvesting, crop storage, irrigation, and general
maintenance. If the estate was located in an area that included tropical low-
level land, mountainous terrain, and semi-desert, administration was
complex. The thousands of acres had to be supervised on horseback.
Weather was a daily concern. Keeping a competent work force was an ever-
changing problem.

The personnel of an hacienda consisted of a mayordomo (the administrator),
minor supervisors, field workers, cowhands, shepherds, blacksmiths,
masons, saddlers, cobblers, carpenters, woodcutters, weavers, a stable boss
and assistants, errand boys, a barber, a chandler, gardeners, dairymen, maids,
butler, cooks, seamstresses, the manager of the tienda de raya, butchers, a
priest, an organist, a teacher, a governess, and sometimes a doctor. The
bigger the estate, the bigger the staff. All were responsible to the hacendado
who lived on the hacienda or who was an absentee owner-administrator.

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: century-old carriage.

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the haciendas became
increasingly self-sufficient. Isolated as they were, they made every effort to
provide for their own needs: water, food, carriages, wagons, carts, saddles,
shoes, spurs, harnesses, clothing, linen. Equipment like saws, plows, pumps,
pipe, guns, and machetes had to be "imported."

The hacendado, his family, and staff ate an early breakfast. Bells clanged for
a Mass at 6:00 or 7:00 A.M. (before or after breakfast), depending on the
weather. In most tropical regions, work commenced at dawn to escape the
noon heat; during the summer, work was often suspended around midday
and resumed late in the afternoon.

Hacienda cattle brands, state of Jalisco.

Each morning, the hacendado found his clothes laid out by his mozo (valet),
perhaps his charro outfit, a shirt, socks, sombrero, pistol, boots, gloves, and
quirt. His breakfast menu included fruit, eggs, meat dishes, beans, tortillas,
or pan dulces (varied sweet rolls). The chef offered coffee, chocolate, tea,
pulque, or beer. Cuban cigars were favored. Mounted on a well-groomed
thoroughbred, riding western saddle, the hacendado checked crops, cattle,
corrals, granary, irrigation project, and village laborers. He also conferred
with village caciques (chiefs). During a lifetime the hacendado rode some
60,000 miles.

Hacienda de Cedra, Jalisco: stone cross to one side of hacienda chapel. 8
feet tall.

The hacendada looked after her staff, her maids, the governess, the tutor, she
allocated tasks: sheets to be laundered, soap to be made, the purchase of
manta for linen, clothes to be mended, skirts to be hemmed. If guests were
expected, the dinner menu had to be carefully planned. Children, relatives,

friends—they were all important. Supplies had to be brought to the hacienda
from the nearest village or town: kerosene, salt, lamps, matches, drugs.

By 2:00 or 2:30 P.M., it was time to eat. At a kind of makeshift picnic, the
workers shared their clay pots of hot beans or rice, their tortillas, and pulque.
Sometimes there was meat with the rice or beans: chicken, pork, beef, goat.
In season, there were zapotes, mangos, oranges, avocados, bananas,
chirimoyas. Workers wore cast-offs: torn shirts, torn trousers, battered hats;
the women were usually dressed in blue cotton dresses and blue and white
rebozos. They ate in the fields, in the kitchen, in the corral and stables—
sharing their food.

Hacienda de Tabi, Yucatán: early 18th-century church.

At the same hour, inside the big house, the hacendado, his family, and guests
enjoyed a meal at the long table set with imported or hacienda linen, elegant
china, cut glass, and Mexican and European silverware. Barefoot maids
served. Perhaps the maids wore Tehuana or Yucatecan dresses. The butler
may have worn white gloves. In the spacious, beamed, windowed room, cool
in summer, warm in winter, the menu was varied:

Hors d'oeuvres

Soup

Sopa Seca (pasta, rice, etc.)

Beef, chicken, pork, lamb, venison—or
a combination of these (Turkey, rabbit,
quail, fish, when available)
Flan (custard), chongo (a milk and
syrup confection), cajeta (caramelized
goat's milk), cake—or fresh fruit and
cheese

Coffee, tea, wine, liquor, horchata
(a rice drink), jamaica (a tropical drink),
chocolate.

Wine and liquor were both domestic and imported. Both local and imported
cheeses were served, as well as European delicacies like caviar, marmalades,
jellies, mints, nuts, and bon-bons.

After dinner, the siesta called for relaxation, comfortable chairs, hammocks.
A well-earned sense of ease took over. A few guests played pool or billiards,
bridge, rummy, pinochle. At dusk, croquet was a favorite game. Some estates
had a swimming pool or access to a river, lake, or ocean playa.

Hacienda de Altillo, Coyoacán, D.F.: pastel of St. Andrew.

Hacienda de Xotla, Puebla: residence patio and oven.

Hacienda Zapotitán, Jalisco: map on veranda of residence.

Hacienda de Buena Vista, Jalisco: 18th-century aqueduct.

Hacienda de Zapotitán, Jalisco: remains of 1750 residence and mirador;
white stuccoed masonry.

At a Jesuit hacienda, a peasant who failed to attend Mass might be lashed;
but the average hacienda was lenient about attendance. At evening Mass
after a day's labor, the workers were glad to kneel or squat: the hour was a
humble reward. Hymns were sung. Someone played the organ or piano.

Each chapel or church boasted an altar—a lace-covered table with paper
flowers or a rococo gilded carving, with santos (saints) and angels in the
gray niches. The Virgin or saint was the focal point. Stained-glass and onyx
windows appeared in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Marble and
onyx sometimes replaced mesquite or tiled floors. Some chapels and
churches had pews, but in those without furniture the workers knelt. As for
the hacienda family, they sat on cane chairs or worshipped behind a screened
coro. There was a clear distance between them and the "unwashed."

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: polychrome wood statue,
16th-century, 5 feet tall.

Most services were conducted in Latin, a language disliked by the Indians
because they considered it an affront to their integrity. Spanish was a
tribulation and Latin was another. When they memorized songs in Latin or
Spanish, they often mispronounced words intentionally.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: 18th-century church.

Crucifixes were evident in most places of worship. The figure of Christ was
sometimes pornographic in style, sometimes tragic. "Yerma," Federico
Garcia Lorca's tragic evocation, was brought to life again and again.

Young people grew up seeing marriage distorted, warped by superstition and
rigid conventions. They learned to admire martyrs. They learned that the
body was unclean—putrefying. The bloody cross hung in countless minds.
With a cross dangling at her throat, the señorita made confections: sugar
skulls. "A Nun's Cry" was the name of a confection. Hacienda loneliness did
strange things; it summoned duendes (spirits). In this remote place, the
church bred intolerance—deep whispers of death and damnation.

Hacienda de Dolores Noriatenco, Puebla: saddle belonging to former
President Ávila Camacho decorated with silver.

Great art—when it could be found—added to extremism. St. Sebastian and
his arrow-pierced body, Murillo and his forlorn madonnas, Caravaggio and
his rebellious saints—each tilted the mind a little further askew. However,
there was great music at some estates. Freighted by train, retransported in
sections by ox cart, the London Broadway piano brought Bach, Händel, and
Couperin to the señora's sala. Most haciendas had a sala cluttered with
heirlooms: horsehair sofas, tapestry chairs, wicker rockers, a parotta table, an

ormolu screen, an inlaid card table, brass spittoons, and a whatnot of oriental
ivory carvings.

Hacienda San Ignacio, Yucatán: 18th century brass sacristy Implements
—handbell and Bible holder.

Since most work was onerous and the hours long, with most workers
undernourished and small-boned, the haciendas faced labor problems. Most
man-hours went into agricultural jobs; in some areas where the water supply
was critical, wells had to be dug and serviced, pipelines demanded upkeep.
If an aqueduct supplied the estate, the canal, its outlets, and spans had to be
maintained. In the fields—across thousands of acres—there was planting,
weeding, harvesting, and shucking to be done. There were beans, peppers,

and tomatoes to pick. Fences had to be repaired. The cycles continued,
altered by rain or drought, by pests and soil failure.

Hacienda cattle brand

The most capable agronomists were the Jesuits; their haciendas achieved the
best production records. Their workers often were treated with a measure of
consideration. The Jesuit conduct book called for respect. This 200-page
bible of Instrucciónes, written in the sixteenth century, forbade the whip, ball
and chain, and the pillory. Yet even so, Jesuit cruelty was evident. In Santa
Lucía, administrators chained mill workers and left skeletons of men in
chains in subterranean rooms. In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from New
Spain. By 1810, Augustinians, Carmelites, Dominicans, and Franciscans
owned more than half of the nation's real estate.

As for slavery on the haciendas, when is a man a slave? He is a slave if he
works in perpetual debt. If he cannot, under penalty of imprisonment and
death, leave the hacienda and work elsewhere, he is a slave. From the days
of the encomiendas (land grant estates) until 1910, workers were enslaved by
the hacienda. A small hacienda kept ten or twelve black slaves. Since there
were approximately eight thousand haciendas in 1910, the total of black
slaves must have reached many thousands. A large hacienda kept one
hundred to one hundred and fifty slaves, of all ages. There is no accurate
count, but it is clear that black slavery played an important role in the
hacienda system.

Hacienda San Ignacio, Yucatán: brass ecclesiastical candle holder.

Disharmony was common among the ethnic groups: negro, mulatto, mestizo,
Creole, Zapotec, Méxica, Chichimeca, Yaqui. The mores of each group were
affected by Spanish customs and demands. Ethnic problems existed at each
estate to varying degrees. At the mining hacienda, the sugar refining
hacienda, and the vast cattle properties, the worker was less valuable than
the horse. Big jobs and big land grants minimized personalities; anonymity
took over. At the mine holdings, workers grubbed for ore 1,000 feet below.
They worked almost naked, without adequate food, drank contaminated

water, climbed precarious ladders in shafts faintly lit. Men, women, and
children were employed. In principle, they were to work for a few days and
then return home, but they worked until they were ill or until they died.
Overseers were unwilling to spare the workers. There was no medical care.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: cepo (stocks), made of mahogany.

With their mining, sugar refinery, and cattle properties, the hacendados were
proud of their affluence, evident in their elegant mansions, ornate churches,
endowed schools, and hospitals. They lived like Carolingian kings as they
traveled from one hacienda to another, attended by friends, relatives, and

parasites. They were famed for their hospitality, hated for their cruelty,
kowtowed to when they went abroad.

Rincón Gallardo offered his private army to the Spanish Crown should there
be a need. It took the Gallardo family less than a century to create a
principality with its own administration, castle, village, and subordinate
haciendas.

Hacienda de Castamay, Campeche: chapel stairway.

Rincón Gallardo reminisced about his hacienda life:

I spent my vacations with friends at Tlalayote, near Apán, in
the state of Hidalgo. There we rode in the morning; in the
afternoon we hunted for pheasant, quail and rabbit, and, near
Tultengo Lake, for ducks. Since there was no automobile we
went everywhere on horseback.

I can remember returning late from a hunt, the stars our only
guide, since the one we were supposed to use—Evaristo, our
groom—had by then a headful of pulque and was in no shape
to lead us home. But once back at Tlalayote's main house we
handed over our game-bags to Miscaela, the magnificent
cook, who prepared several of the birds and served us
plentifully with great mugs of pulque brought in from the
fermenting shed.

This rural life seemed yet another indication of the land's
undying attraction. As a young man I learned to ride charro
style, to throw a calf by its tail, to lasso on horseback and on
foot, to drive a six-mule team, to break wild colts and calves,
and use firearms of various kinds.

I enjoyed the brandings, the shearings, and the weanings,
which include one of my favorite sports ... separating calves
from their mothers.

Hacienda Corralitos, Corralitos, Chihuahua: one-million-acre cattle and
mining hacienda, 1750. Adobe residence, 1886, surrounded by
cottonwoods.

But there were a few hacendados who disavowed the great estates: One of
them said: "I'd rather have an attic in Paris than an hacienda."

Hacienda de Bellavista, Jalisco: sugar refinery silo.

IV. Fiestas

Hacienda cattle brand

Haciendas were the home of the fiesta. The first fiestas were held shortly
after the Conquest. As the influence of Catholicism spread, fiestas increased
in number—honoring a saint, commemorating a religious event, a holiday, a
wedding. Generally, fiestas were initiated by the peasants and represented a
communal expression. At an hacienda village someone had to collect funds,
arrange for costumes, supervise church or chapel decorations, commission
the fireworks, hire or borrow musicians, and arrange for food and drinks. If
the hacendado hosted a fiesta, he might leave the details to his wife or the
mayordomo. The priest and his assistant also managed fiestas.

People came on foot, by ox cart, palanquin, burro, mule, horse, wagon, and
carriage—from distant haciendas and towns. For some four hundred years
fiestas livened these feudal outposts that existed across the nation. Guests
were often royalty or politically important: a viceroy, a duke, a governor, or
church dignitary. Since travel was usually tedious and fatiguing, everything
was done to make the festival memorable.

Hacienda de Yocotepec, Hidalgo: church and stone cross.

Sixteenth-century fiestas were announced by drums and the chirimía—a
shrill flute from Aztec-Toltec-Mayan days. Dancers performed in front of the
big house or danced in a patio or on the tiles of the church plaza. They wore
harlequin-like costumes, feathered headdresses, conquest clothes, white
trousers sashed with red, giant sombreros, masks; they flaunted wands,
shields, spears, bows, and arrows. Ankle rattles hissed. Gourds thumped and
rustled. Only male dancers participated.

In the far south, at estates in Chiapas, Yucatán, Quintana Roo, and
Campeche, the marimba replaced the flute and drum. Sometimes six or eight
musicians pounded out music simultaneously on four or five instruments.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: bronze weathervane on residence.

In the north, on Sonoran and Chihuahuan haciendas, the violin was the chief
instrument. Fashioned with no other tools than pieces of glass and a knife, it
supplied basic rhythms, one or several instruments wailing for Yaqui and
Tarahumaran dances.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: stone residence and chapel.

Flowers decked every fiesta. Gardenias were tossed into the fountains,
carnations were woven into bell ropes, and rambler roses were spun around
ox cart wheels and wagon wheels. Blossoms filled churches and chapels
with fragrance, they crisscrossed patios on wires, they brightened roadside
shrines.

Food and drink were plentiful: tortillas, beans, beans cooked with beef or
chicken, pots and pots of beans, iron caldrons of soup, meat barbecued on
spits, ox and goat, barrels of punch, buckets of pulque, barrels of beer,
bottles of tequila, and, of course, cognac—for the gente de razón (gentry).

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: gate.

In the big house, dinners were elaborate—the hacendado presiding. The
menu offered Cochinita pibil (pork barbecued in banana leaves), squash
blossom soup, quesadillas (tortilla turnovers stuffed with cheese and
mushrooms), uchepos (corn mush steamed in husks), muk-bil pollo (chicken
and pork tamale pie), tamales Veracruzanos (pork-filled tamales), and ate de
guayaba (guava candy paste). For special guests, the chefs served more
elaborate dishes: pheasant, quail, javelina, venison, dove, rabbit. There were
no government restrictions on wild game. Fishermen contributed gallo
(rooster fish), pardo trucha (trout), huachinango (red snapper), turtle, turtle
eggs, lobster, and crab.

Hacienda de Puerto de Nieto, Guanajuato: church.

The guests gathered for cockfights. If it was summertime, a canopy shaded
the pit. In the highlands a mozo swept aside pine needles and built a green
fire to fight the mosquitoes. In the south, white awnings and striped parasols
furnished shade. The cocks, which were uncaged at a pit, were named: Biba
Manza, Panadero, Porfirio, Tigre, Mi General, and El Rayo. At a signal the
birds flew at each other, their razor blades flashing. Bets were wagered ... a
hundred ... a thousand ... five.

Hacienda de Aurora, Jalisco: commemorative bridge column dated
1750.

Hacienda de los Morales, D.F.: patio fountain, 1643.

Hacienda de Xala, Hidalgo: residence and chapel, 1785.

Hacienda de Tenache, Oaxaca: twin bells on roof of residence.

Hacienda la Calera, Jalisco: second residence on the property, 1890.

Hacienda Pixoy, Yucatán: brick-adobe residence and storage rooms.
18th century, eleven rooms.

Hacienda de los Ricos, Guanajuato: residence.

Hacienda de los Ricos, Guanajuato: bullring entry door.

Every fiesta had popular dances: Cora Paixil, Moro, Tapatío, Jarana. The
gente (people) danced in the sala or on a cool veranda or outside by kerosene
lamps, by torches, by candlelight, under chandeliers in the big house, by
gasoline lamps—the illumination changing with the epoch. Orchestras—
brought by train from the cities—played polkas, waltzes, rustic Bach, "La
Bamba," "Torres de Pueblo," "There is Someone," and other current

favorites. Mariachis, in their sequined black suits and sprawling black hats,
played and sang. They were always the favorites at every fiesta.

Dating from Aztec days, Los Voladores (pole dancers), were the sensation.
Customarily, five men participated, first dancing on the ground, then
climbing a lofty pole where they hurled themselves into space, roped by the
feet. Spinning round and round the pole, they gradually descended,
unwinding.

Fiestas lasted a single day or several days; sometimes they became a feria, a
market where vendors would set up booths and display fabric, produce,
herbs, pottery, machetes, knives. Poultry and livestock were sold or bartered.
Early in the sixteenth century, Spanish bullfighters arrived and performed at
haciendas near the capital.

The elegantly-dressed cowboy, the charro, spent $1,000 on his outfit; his
trousers were skintight and had single or double rows of silver buttons
trimming the outside seams. His shirt was homespun cotton or handsomely
embroidered linen. His jacket was embroidered and sequined. His boots
were made of inlaid leather, expertly fitted. His sombrero was ornamented
with silver and silver banded. His stirrups and spurs were chased silver or
gold, and his saddle was inlaid with silver or gold.

It is not known when the first castillo (bamboo tower) spat fire. When there
was ample gunpowder, someone fashioned a windmill for pinwheels,
rockets, Roman candles, blazing globes of flame, and strings of tangled
lights. It was a windmill of bamboo, a shivering, shaking tower of color, 20
to 30 feet high.

Throughout the fiesta, workers dipped into the pulque casks. They tried to
dance off their intoxication; they did their best to forget their hardships;
sometimes they found themselves in the hacienda jail.

Notables played billiards, pool and cards and tossed dice; until far into the
night they might gamble at the Monte (card game) tables; when the fiesta
came to an end they laid down their cards reluctantly—it might be a long
way home.

July, August, September—the summer calendar rolled on and new fiesta
dates became important: Candlemas, Holy Week, Corpus Christi, Día de Los
Reyes. On the Day of Divine Proficience, candles burned for twenty-four
hours. On carts and on men's shoulders, biblical floats appeared: It was time
for a reappraisal of faith, time to honor the local Virgin.

Hacienda de Yaxche, Yucatán: Virgin, 14 inches high, 17th century.

V. Education

Hacienda cattle brand

In bygone days—two hundred years ago—an hacienda church or chapel bell
signaled school. A youngster or priest or acolyte yanked the bell rope. In the
tropics, if you were lucky, you put on your shirgo (raincoat), and got to
school dry. Your class started at 7:00 A.M. and lasted until noon, when the
heat moved in. You walked to your home for lunch or picked it off the trees
as you went home. If school convened regularly you were fortunate. You
were fortunate if classes freed you from hacienda chores.

In the temperate zone, school began about 9:00 A.M. and reconvened after
the siesta—closing at 4:00 P.M. Again intermittency played havoc with the
sessions. The maestro (teacher) was very informal; if you had a teacher who
was dedicated, your education began to acquire meaning.

Teaching was in Spanish, though the pupils might speak one or more of the
sixty dialects. For centuries the parents objected to Spanish being taught; at
home the children spoke their native tongue. Since Spanish coercion was
continual, it was only normal for the students to rebel. Intuitively, they
sensed the destruction of their way of life. Both school and church were
suspect.

Hacienda de Tamanche, Yucatán: 17th-century colonial residence and
remains of sugar refinery chimney.

Priests, as instructors, read selections from the Bible, religious treatises, and
pamphlets. There were no books for the students. With pencil, paper, and
blackboard or slate, children learned the rudiments of writing, reading, and
arithmetic. Without musical accompaniment, they learned hymns and poetry.
Their centuries were centuries of neglect.

It was exceptional when an hacienda hired a priest-instructor permanently.
Since teachers were either poorly paid or were hacienda guests, they offered
halfhearted service. Haciendas were known to neglect education
intentionally: the peasant was to be kept subordinate—a little reading, a little
writing, but no more.

Hacienda de San Antonio, Guanajuato: 18th-century chapel ruin.

Hacienda de San Antonio, Colima: 17th-century chapel and terminus of
aqueduct.

Hacienda de Jajalpa, D.F.: pink stucco sixteen-room, red-tiled 19th-
century residence and chapel.

Hacienda San Cayetano, Nayarit: one of a pair of pink ceramic lions at
entry to residence.

Hacienda de Guarache, Michoacán: residence and chapel. Now a
government school.

Hacienda de Petaca, Guanajuato: residence.

Usually the main hacienda residence housed the school. One of the twenty or
thirty rooms was designated the classroom. It was small and had few or no
windows; the open door let in light and air. Students in the sixteenth century
sat on the floor. Later, they had benches and sat around a table, the maestro
at one end. Slates came into being in the eighteenth century; and, in the
nineteenth century, blackboards. Engravings of the presidents began to
decorate bare walls. Dirty, foxed maps hid stains. Tiled floors were often
cold and damp. Though there was sunshine most of the year, classes were
never held under the laurel or palm trees.

Girls sat on one side, boys on the other—if the room was large enough.
There were no sanitary facilities, no health precautions, no hygiene
instruction. At recess, the children drank from the patio fountain or cattle
trough.

Hacienda de Juana Guerra, Amado Nervo, Durango: millstone.

On an hacienda employing four hundred workers, about twenty children
attended school. Since the hacienda was on a dawn-to-dark schedule, work
never ran out; the average hacendado felt he could employ those skinny legs
and arms to his advantage. At harvest time there were no classes; during
fiestas there were no classes; if the maestro got drunk there were no classes.
Truancy was a fact of life.

Hacienda Aguilera, Oaxaca: former 19th-century hacienda residence,
now university building.

At school and at home the children played marbles, using clay marbles of
their own baking. They spun tops and played jacks, tag, hide-and-seek, and a
flower game called "Stealing a Soul." In "The Old Saints," the "buyer"
dashed from one saint to another to see if his saint is the one he wants to buy.
If the saint runs off and is caught he is given a "job" to do.

A favorite song was "Golden Bell":

Little golden bell,
Let me pass;

With all my children
Who are behind me.

Singing "La Víbora del Mar," the children divided into two groups; this was
a tug-of-war song and is still remembered:

The serpent,
serpent of the sea,
here it can pass by.
Those in front run fast,
those in back will be left
behind;
a Mexican girl, selling fruit,
plums, apricots, muskmelons,
and watermelons.

Haciendas had no school libraries. The casa principal may have acquired a
collection of history, travel, philosophy, and fiction; but such collections
were rarely shared. For centuries the Inquisition influenced most reading
habits. Pagan and Catholic superstition wreaked havoc with young minds; it
is still evident in rural Mexico where men and women knock on the side of a
coffin—and listen for an answer. Men and women flagellate themselves.
Tarahumaras, in caves of the Barranca del Cobre country, worship stone
idols and pray to rain gods. Lacandones still leave offerings on jungle altars.

Until about 1826, when a national school system was created in the larger
towns and in the cities, textbooks were unknown except at private schools.
Homer, Sappho, Plato, Shakespeare and Kant were all but unrecognized.
Don Quixote, however, was an influence. So were Lope de Vega and Sor
Juana Inés de la Cruz. But they were only literary shadows. No hacienda
maestro explored the thoughts of Voltaire, Rousseau, Hume, or Jefferson.
There were no science labs. There was no art instruction.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries only six or eight Mexican
minds contributed to culture and learning: Ruiz de Alarcón, Carlos de
Sigüenza y Góngora, and Don Bartolomé de Alba were among them. Their
influence was restricted to metropolitan centers. Without books, with limited
transportation, the hacienda remained a lost society.

Hacienda San Cayetano de Valencia, Guanajuato: church, 1788.

In 1910, when there were approximately eight thousand haciendas, between
ten and twenty students attended school each day on a given hacienda: In all,
some 870,000 children and teenagers were enrolled—gaining a rudimentary
education. In towns and cities, where private schools contributed to the
nation's education, schools were small and offered limited opportunities.
With a population in 1910 of 15 million, Mexico's enrollment was among

the world's lowest. Mexico had only 3 million literates. In all hacienda areas
millions could not read or write—or speak Spanish.

Hacienda de Juana Guerra, Amado Nervo, Durango: baroque church.

During the more than ten years of civil war and machete madness that
followed 1910-1914, education of the masses was disrupted throughout the
nation. School attendance dropped in towns and cities; on the hacienda every

hint of learning stopped. When hacienda after hacienda was pillaged or
burned, the skeletal school system disappeared. Books—those there were—
went up in flames. Youth had no chance for scholastic growth. The young
who survived were fortunate. During these years, Mexico's population
declined by one million people.

Hacienda de la Venta del Astillero. Jalisco: 18th-century stone and brick
residence and chapel. 220 feet long.

Years of revolution retarded Mexico to an incalculable degree as guns took
the place of brains. Towns, while occupied by troops or harassed by gunfire,
had to abandon teaching and schooling. Youngsters born on an hacienda
during those years grew up without seeing the inside of a school.

Yet, it is an amazing and stimulating fact that Mexico, after such havoc,
could evolve an educational system of merit and induce the young and the
old to attend classes. The "Each One, Teach One," or "Analfabetismo
Program," was put into effect and successfully carried out. In 1951, thirty-

seven years after the haciendas had been abolished, the government
appropriated 355,680,000 pesos for schools. Prefabs sprang up overnight;
old buildings were renovated; education became compulsory; efforts were
made to attract teachers and to train them.

The wealthy elite sons and daughters of the hacienda studied at institutions
of higher learning abroad. This favored group, though small, contributed to
the nation's maturity. Universities such as Salamanca, Heidelberg, Harvard,
the Sorbonne, Oxford, and Cambridge enriched these students. They
assumed important posts, government positions, and engineering jobs; they
became senators, doctors, lawyers, and educators. The long, bitter struggle to
attain a middle class had begun.

VI. The Revolution

Hacienda cattle brand

John Reed, an American journalist who covered the campaign of Pancho
Villa, described in Insurgent Mexico the revolution at an hacienda in
northern Mexico in 1913-1914:

We crept close to the line and when we were almost upon
them we opened fire. There were three detachments and we
pushed right into their encampment and set fire to their
shelters. Their corn and beans were laid out on blankets to
dry in the sun and we even destroyed that.

The Carrancistas fled from us and we chased them through
very rough country. We believed we were winning, but man!
It wasn't that way at all! We followed them without knowing
where we were going. They stopped on the other side of a
hill, at the entrance to Hacienda San Gregorio, and there a
fourth detachment withstood us so we pulled back and joined
our forces. There were five thousand of us but we were
extended from San Gregorio to Topilejo. Our guides were
local peasants and they sent General Chon and his men
through the mountains. He was from Guerrero and he didn't
know these mountains so they sent him to the worst peaks.
His men were stopped but we weren't. We were sent along
the side of the highway and General Teodor's men went on
the highway because they were all on horseback. The
Carrancistas had artillery but the shots passed over us
because we lay down in the ditches....

But then we entered a little cornfield in a valley where the
fighting was very bad. The Zapatistas were on one hill and
the Carrancistas were on another and we were in the middle,
fighting hand to hand with other Carrancistas. The two
armies got all mixed up, there in San Gregorio. There was a
tremendous hail of bullets and the dead piled up like stones
in a milpa (small plot). The man just next to me fell.... At five
o'clock a bullet got the Captain who had been blaspheming
the day before. In the dark we didn't know who was a
Zapatista, who was a Carrancista.

Hacienda de Matanzas, Jalisco: chapel and residence, chapel date 1750.

The revolution swept from hacienda to hacienda, now the Carrancistas
attacking, now the Colorados, now the Zapatistas, now the Villistas. After
four centuries of constant bludgeoning by the Spaniards the hacienda worker
was settling his score: This was his opportunity to reclaim the land that had
been stolen from him, not once but many times.

Hacienda los Molinos, Puebla: fortified wall and stairway to tower of
16th-century residence.

Hacienda de Matanzas, Jalisco: 18th-century chapel, residence, and
storage rooms.

Reed continues, supplying intimate details:

Tomorrow we'll move in on the Hacienda Casasano. You,
José, will set fire to the stable; turn out the horses and colts
first ... you know where the hayloft is so pour your two cans
of kerosene there. You, Magaña, empty the chicken coop just
before it gets dark, chase the chickens into the gully; we'll be
waiting there. The more noise you make the better. María,
open the front door and then open the kitchen door, just stroll
through the house and open doors.... Give us our signal from
the kitchen. We'll move in just as soon as we see your light ...
pour inside and wreck the place. You can have any goddamn
thing you want, you bastards, but don't hang on too long,
remember the hacienda is going up in flames.

Revolutionist Emiliano Zapata attempted to destroy the haciendas in his
home state of Morelos. Other radical leaders in other states worked to
undermine the hacienda system. At any cost, the Zapatista/Villista wanted no
more of the Díaz policy. In place of Díazism the peasants wanted freedom,
dignity, land, schools, and food; to achieve these goals they would ravage
the nation. Men, women, and children, intent on smashing the hacienda
world, could no longer exist on tortillas and water. Singly and in hordes, they
scavenged and ravaged. Peasants who understood less than ten Spanish
words found themselves trying Spanish if it helped the cause.

Raiders commandeered trains and boarded flat cars and freight cars, perched
on the roofs, clung to the ladders, crowding the cowcatcher of the
locomotive. Soldados (soldiers) sang their cockroach songs as the train
rolled, belts of ammunition across their shoulders and around their waists.

Hacienda la Gavia, Estado de Mexico: wood figure, 5 feet tall.

Hacienda de Cocoyoc, Morelos: 16th-century chapel.

Hacienda de Tikuch, Yucatán: rear view, stairway to second floor
residential area.

Hacienda de Chinameca, Morelos: residence and chapel. Emiliano
Zapata assassinated here, 1919.

Women and children trailed the fighting battalions. Women were determined
to prove themselves as resourceful as the men: They were out to avenge
years of maltreatment. They robbed stores in towns and sacked hacienda
wardrobes. They strutted in Parisian finery, wore silk hosiery, and elegant
shawls. Women became terrorists in some regions.

Thieves' markets cropped up in León, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí,
Guadalajara, Mexico City, and Morelia. Women traded silverware for food, a
blouse, a shirt, cigarettes. They traded Sevreware for ammunition and shoes
for pistols.

The women dynamited bank vaults and shared the money—government and
counterfeit. They rifled safes and destroyed documents at haciendas—land
grants, deeds, notarizations. They roared into a village, waving flimsy flags,
encountering dogs barking and howling. They fired their rifles and pistols;
they caroused and conscripted fighters.

Hacienda de Canutillo, Durango: Pancho Villa buried here July 23,
1923.

Hacienda de la Erre, Guanajuato: 1673. Father Miguel Hidalgo began
his march from this church.

The horde fought, retreated, lost, and fought again, seldom aware of a
victory.

When their dead piled up in cornfields and fields of maguey, too numerous
to bury, they left them to be eaten by coyotes, dogs, buzzards. They learned
to live as much life as possible between sunup and sundown. They copulated
in the fields. They promised one another fidelity, they lost one another, they

found someone else. Children, born in the field, were bundled into rebozos
and lugged to the next encampment

Again and again, they robbed the government troops of ammunition, rifles,
revolvers, and machineguns. It was steal or quit fighting. They perpetrated
more and more dangerous raids: They spied; they used a hot-air balloon;
they filtered through troop concentrations; they passed themselves off as
scouts; faithfully, they followed Pancho Villa and his henchmen and they
vulturized the dead in the barrancas, on the haciendas, in the towns.

Without boots or shoes they continued their barefoot war against the
hacendados. Armed with machetes, men stole into enemy encampments and
returned with guns. Some of the fighters believed the words of Zapata: "It is
better to die on your feet than to live on your knees."

In their bravado, they carved initials and dates on trees, on the leaves of the
maguey, and on the doors of churches and haciendas. "Freedom!" they cried.

Huddled around campfires, in their hideaways, they sang: "If I am to die
tomorrow let them kill me right away."

By now many hacienda mansions had disappeared. Weeds had taken over
farmland, irrigation systems no longer functioned, wells had dried, mills had
been dismantled, and cattle had been driven away or killed and eaten.
Former laborers had fled or had been conscripted, jailed, or killed. Prices
had climbed 300 percent.

Hacienda de Pueblilla, Zempoala, Hidalgo: chapel tower, 1860.

Zapata took "Tierra y Libertad!" ("land and liberty") as his cry, and fighting
every governmental force he demanded "Land for the Landless!," "Land and
Water!," "Freedom for the People!"

Hacienda de Tepa-Chica, Hidalgo: chapel, 1864.

Zapatismo meant business everywhere and at all times. As revolutionist,
Zapata was a lean, moustached young man; without more than rudimentary
schooling, he led his countrymen against the hacienda system. He had
promised his father, whose property was stolen by an hacendado, that he
would recover it for him. When his home village of San Miguel Anonecuilco
was appropriated, Zapata fled to the mountains, hoping for support from the
peasantry. In time he commanded several thousand armed men.

Ideologically, the revolution was American- and European-inspired since it
was focused on freedom and equality. The goal of this conflict was in a
major sense Utopian. But it lacked intellectual leadership: a Napoleon, to
serve as figurehead. Under a single military leadership the revolution might
have been shortened, saving thousands of lives. Following the collapse of
the Porfirio Díaz regime, leaders tottered like dominos, and local revolts
involved years of quixotic terrorism.

Zapata, Villa, Madero, Carranza, Huerta, and Obregón attempted to form a
government or attempted to attain power for the sake of power. Greed and
chicanery took their toll. Almost every community felt the impact as
governments failed. The Church did its best to retain the feudalism of the
hacienda; hacendados, lobbying in the capital, attempted to retain their old
status.

Hacienda la Gavia, Estado de Mexico: carved figure on library door.

Zapata and Villa joined forces briefly, because they sought the same goal.
They met in Mexico City but could not reach an accord or coordinate their
military "hordes." While they held the capital under their control, they
dreamed of power, and yet it is doubtful whether either man thought
constructively of the future of the nine million peasants remaining on the
haciendas, earning from nothing to thirty cents a day. Suspecting betrayal,
both men returned to their native regions.

Hacienda de Arenillas, Puebla: chapel gateway.

Villa raided most of the northern states. His armed forces sometimes had an
international character with a menagerie of professional adventurers: Tom
Mix, Pascual Orozco, Óscar Creighton, Guiseppe Garibaldi, Tracy
Richardson, and Hector Worden, the first American barnstormer to
participate in armed hostilities. Villa, as military governor of Chihuahua,
stripped the fourteen haciendas of the Terrazas family, haciendas totaling 17
million acres. His cronies hanged Terrazas until he revealed where cash was
concealed.

Both Villa and Zapata were known as "horse bandits"—through robbery they
financed their troops or buried their loot for tomorrow. Sonorans and
Chihuahuans winked at the entierros (loot) they concealed in Sierra Madre
caves. Villa and Zapata commanded thousands—killed thousands.

Reed, in his book Insurgent Mexico, describes the fighting at the Hacienda
Santa Clara:

Massed columns of the army halted and began to defile to the
left and right, thin lines of troops jogging out under the
checkered sun and shade of great trees, until six thousand
men were spread in one single front ... Bugles blared faintly
far and near and the army moved forward in a mighty line....
In the center, came the cannon car; beside that Villa rode with
his staff....

From Reed's reports, we learn that haciendas were headquarters for
insurgents. Men were stationed at the Hacienda la Cadena: Maderistas slept
on the tiled floor of the patio, saddles, bridles, sabers, rifles, and ammunition
against the wall, dirty blanket rolls in a corner.

Reed writes:

Sheep were baaing to be let out of the corral; little knots of
peons were gathered in front of the hacienda, pointing. A
little running horse appeared on the rim, headed our way. He
was going at a furious speed, dipping and rising over the
rolling land. As he spurred wildly up the little hill, where we
stood, we saw a horror.

A fan-shaped cascade of blood poured from the front of him.
The lower part of his mouth was shot away. He reined up
beside the Colonel and tried earnestly, terribly, to tell him
something; but nothing intelligible issued from the ruin.
Tears poured down the poor fellow's cheeks. He gave a
hoarse cry and driving spurs deep into his horse, fled.

One after another, haciendas disappeared in flames or were pillaged and left
to rot into windowless, doorless, roofless buildings. Trainloads of
connoisseur furniture and irreplaceable antiques were sold or forsaken. A
squatter, with no home of his own, claimed a room or two, patched the roof,
and blocked a doorway with adobes. Cattle were fed and watered in the
patio. Overnight, abandoned mill and refinery machinery was stripped and
sold. The revolutionaries had stolen the horses, the thoroughbreds, the
mules, donkeys, oxen, and cattle. Phaetons, buggies, wagons, and cars had
vanished. Poverty moved in.

Hacienda Manga de Clavo, Veracruz: owned by Santa Anna.
Rendering from an 1868 bank bond; hacienda destroyed.

Zapata was assassinated while reconnoitering at the Hacienda Chinameca.
He was shot as he entered the patio. Villa was gunned down in his Dodge, on
the road near his Hacienda Canutillo, the estate given him as a political
bribe.

VII. Mexico Since the Revolution

Hacienda cattle brand

In the summer of 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas wrote to his American
friend, William C. Townsend:

We are confident that the people and the government of the
United States will be able to grasp the fact that the breaking
up of the large estates is the main point in our national
program for improving the living conditions of the peasants
of Mexico. The ideal of giving land to the masses was written
into the Constitution at the cost of much bloodshed and my
government is duty-bound to comply with that mandate. All
the holdings that are larger than what the Agrarian Code
permits are subject to distribution if there are peasants nearby
who do not have land to till. Each landowner, however, is
permitted to retain 370 acres, whether he is a foreigner or a
Mexican.

By 1940, approximately 45 million acres of hacienda land had been turned
over to the homeless and the landless by President Cárdenas (1934-1940).

Three hundred haciendas in the country could claim more than 1 million
acres apiece, and then only for a brief period.

Hacienda de Esperanza, D.F.: residence. Cattle stalls on ground floor.

Hacienda de Águilar, Oaxaca: bas relief, 3 feet x 5 feet, front wall of
residence.

Hacienda de Sodzil, Yucatán: 19th-century residence.

Hacienda de los Molinos, Tlaxcala: 16th-century chapel. Cholula
pyramid in the distance.

Hacienda Quinta Carolina, Chihuahua: main residence.

The revolution had achieved an important goal. Men and women were free
to live in a more congenial environment: Rurales (police) would no longer
pursue them. The four-century-old illusion of a patrón (master) had
vanished; in its place the workers found themselves unshackled. They were
hungry but no longer whipped. Mexico began to say goodbye to the culture
of poverty.

President Cárdenas, traveling from village to village, from hacienda to
hacienda, crisscrossing his country throughout his term in office, listened to
the little man, and the little man believed what the presidente said, as he
promised roads, bridges, schools, clinics, water, and land. Millions of
peasants thanked him for a home and independence.

Hacienda Mendocina, Puebla: 18th-century guest home on island in
small man-made lake.

By expropriating multi-billion dollar oil properties from foreign companies,
Cárdenas returned to Mexico some of its lost pride and a hope for the future.
Although agrarian reform came first on the nation's docket, there were other
reforms to help man improve his lot. The ejidal bank aided the farmer by
loaning him money for his plow, seeds, fertilizer, harvesting tools, oxen,
mules, tractors.

Hacienda Quinta Carolina, Chihuahua: residence of more than fifty
rooms, 1892. Abandoned as of 1981.

By 1960, the last of the largest haciendas had been abolished: the Greene
Cananea Ranch and the Hacienda Atotonilco had become agrarian property
—millions of acres had returned to the people.

Mexico had become a Spanish-speaking nation. Out of a population of forty
million people, only two million were now unable to speak Spanish. By
1960, a school teacher earned 36,000 pesos a year, instead of 400 pesos
annually at an hacienda.

Hacienda de Caleturia, Puebla: silver door knocker.

By the 1970s, about 70 percent of the children were attending primary
grades, while at the turn of the century, in pre-revolutionary decades,
scarcely 10 percent acquired an elementary education. By 1980, rural
schools provided at least two grades, and cities offered the primary cycle
through the sixth year. Ideally, a child can now attend school at five years of

age, learn through six years of primary, three years of secondary, two years
of preparatory, followed by three to seven years at the university level.

Hacienda de Chichén Itza, Yucatán: church.

Article 3 of the new constitution prescribes that education, whether in
national, state, or municipal institutions, should develop all the faculties,
encourage patriotism and an awareness of international solidarity, shun
religious dogma, advance science, and oppose fanaticism and slavery.

This progress was based on a past that combined two distinct traditions.
Mexico's pre-Columbian culture had mastered concepts of intellectual and
practical value, had a knowledge of astronomy, a number system,

metropolitan and temple architecture, and made advances in writing, surgery
and medical skills, sculpture and mural art, irrigation, and the construction of
a system of highways.

The other tradition was based on the methods and knowledge that the
sixteenth-century Iberian brought Mexico: the wheel, sophisticated tools,
steel, industrial know-how, marine architecture, navigational skills, and
gunpowder. But the Conquistadors also destroyed much. Although many of
the pre-Columbian societies were warlike, the Monte Albán temples in the
state of Oaxaca appear to represent a local culture that had fostered peace for
some fifteen hundred years. The Iberian invaders were not familiar with such
ancient traditions and often failed to appreciate their values. They destroyed
towns and cities, burned books, disrupted the ecology, spread disease, and
diminished the arts, crafts, and culture of the new world.

It was not until the twentieth century that Mexico came to the forefront
internationally. Respect for the country grew as Mexico undertook to restore
its pre-Columbian sites, assembled comprehensive anthropological
collections, and established a University City and a dynamic, original
metropolitan architecture. Famous artists contributed to this period of
awakened cultural awareness: Roberto Montenegro, Covarrubias, Orozco,
Rivera, O'Higgins, Tamayo, and Siqueiros. A folkloric ballet, a national
symphony, and entertainers like Conchita Cintrón, Dolores del Río, and
Cantinflas broadened the cultural landscape.

Among contemporary writers, Luis Spota, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Galino,
Luisa Hernández, Augustín Yañez, Octavio Paz, and Antonio Haas have
interpreted Mexico for a large public. Leopoldo Zea and Ramón Xirau have
added to Mexico's philosophical thought. Silvio Zavala has contributed to
Mexican history.

The radio and television media are following American footsteps—eager to
keep pace. There is no hacienda nostalgia in Mexico—only frenetic pressure
for industrialization and overall capitalism. Most renowned haciendas are
only memories: they are cascos, recuerdos.

Hacienda de Valenciana, Guanajuato: residence.

The 1529 Hacienda San Gabriel de Las Palmas, in Morelos, has become an
American luxury residence; other mansions house millionaires; still others
have become motels, dairies, factories, schools, posh restaurants,
subdivisions with an hacienda office. But hundreds of hacienda homes have
been totally abandoned. They are piles of rubble—no more than place-
names.

In the struggle to eliminate the hacienda system, more than eight hundred
thousand men, women, and children died.

Forces that held together a dubious past seek to achieve an enlightened
future. Education continues to enrich more and more lives. Mexico's present-
day inflation and political corruption have halted the country's advance, but
these unfortunate conditions cannot last.

Bibliography

General Works

Ajofrín, Francisco de, Diario del Viaje en el Siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1958).

Beals, Carleton, Mexican Maze (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1951).

Brenner, Anita, The Wind that Swept Mexico (New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1943).

Butler, William, Mexico in Transition (New York: Hunt and Eaton, 1892).

Chase, Stuart, Mexico, A Study of Two Americas (New York: Macmillan,
1931).

Chevalier, Francis, Land and Society in Colonial Mexico (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1963).

Cline, Howard F., Mexico, Revolution to Evolution, 1940-1960 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1963).

Crow, John A., The Epic of Latin America (New York: Doubleday and
Company, 1946).

Ewing, Russell, Six Faces of Mexico (Tucson: University of Arizona Press,
1966).

Gage, Thomas, A New Survey of the West Indies (New York: Broadway
Travellers, 1929).

Gruening, Ernest, Mexico and its Heritage (New York: Appleton Century,
1928).

Haring, Clarence H., The Spanish Empire in America (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1947).

Jones, Oakah, Santa Anna (New York: Twayne, 1968).

Kubler, George, Mexican Architecture in the Sixteenth Century (Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972).

Las Casas, Bartolomé de, Brevíssima Relación de la Destruction de las
Indias, trans. H. Briffault (New York: Seabury Press, 1974; originally
published, 1552).

Leonard, Irving A., Colonial Travelers in Latin America (New York: Knopf,
1972).

Lewis, Oscar, Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlán Restudied (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1963).

McHenry, J. Patrick, A Short History of Mexico (New York: Doubleday,
1962).

Madariaga, Salvador de, The Rise of the Spanish American Empire (New
York: Free Press, 1965).

Mansfield, Edward D., The Mexican War (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1849).

Mayer, Brantz, Mexico As It Was and As It Is (Hartford, Conn.: S. Drake,
1853).

Meyer, Michael C., and Sherman, William, The Course of Mexican History
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

Miller, Robert, Mexico: A History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
1989).

Ober, Frederick A., Travels in Mexico (San Francisco, 1884).

Parkes, Henry Banford, A History of Mexico (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1950).

Prescott, W. H., The Conquest of Mexico (New York: Henry Holt, 1922).

Redfield, Robert, Tepotzlán—A Mexican Village (Chicago, 1930).

Reed, John, Insurgent Mexico (New York: International Publishers, 1970).

—— I Saw the World Burn (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976).

Roeder, Ralph, Juárez and His Mexico (New York: Viking, 1947).

Scholes, W. V., The Diego Ramírez Visita (Columbia, Mo., 1946).

Simpson, L. B., The Encomienda in New Spain (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1966).

Stein, Stanley J., and Barbara H., The Colonial Heritage of Latin America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1970).

Strode, Hudson, Timeless Mexico (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1944).

Tannenbaum, Frank, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1929).

—— Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Bread (New York: Knopf, 1951).

Townsend, William C., Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexican Democrat (Ann Arbor,
Mich.: G. Wahr Publishing Co., 1952).

Whetten, Nathan L., Rural Mexico (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1948).

Womach, John, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Knopf,
1969).

Zavala, Silvio, De Encomiendas y Propiedad Territorial en Algunas
Regiones de la América Española (Mexico, 1940).

—— El Mundo Americano en la Época Colonial (Mexico, 1967).

—— New Viewpoints on the Spanish Colonization of America (London,
1943).

Zorita, Alfonso de, Life and Labor in Ancient Mexico (New Brunswick,
1963).

Works on the Haciendas of Mexico

Bartlett, Paul Alexander, "Haciendas," with photographs by the author,
Mexico This Month, Vol. IV, No. 12, December 1958, pp. 16-21.

—— "Haciendas of Mexico," with illustrations by the author, Los Angeles
County Museum Quarterly, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, 1962-1963, pp. 18-23.

—— "The Hacienda Mansion," with illustrations by the author, Mexican
Life, Vol. 4, No. 46, 1970.

—— "La Vida en una Hacienda," with Illustrations by the author, Américas
(Organization of American States), Vol. 34, No. 3, May-June 1982, pp. 12-
17.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Paul Alexander Bartlett (1909-1990) was both a writer and an artist, born in
Moberly, Missouri, and educated at Oberlin College, the University of

Arizona, the Academia de San Carlos in Mexico City, and the Instituto de
Bellas Artes in Guadalajara. His work can be divided into three categories:
He is the author of many novels, short stories, and poems; second, as a fine
artist, his drawings, hacienda illustrations, and paintings have been exhibited
in more than 40 one-man shows in leading galleries, including the Los
Angeles County Museum, the Atlanta Art Museum, the Bancroft Library, the
Richmond Art Institute, the Brooks Museum, the Instituto-Mexicano-
Norteamericano in Mexico City, and other galleries; and, third, he devoted
much of his life to the most comprehensive study of the haciendas of
Mexico.

Three hundred and fifty of his pen-and-ink illustrations of the haciendas and
more than one thousand hacienda photographs make up the Paul Alexander
Bartlett Collection held by the Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection
of the University of Texas, and form part of a second diversified collection
held by the American Heritage Center of the University of Wyoming, which
also includes an extensive archive of Bartlett's literary work, fine art, and
letters. A third archive consisting primarily of Bartlett's literary work is held
by the Department of Special Collections at UCLA. A fourth archive
consisting of 198 hacienda photographs by Bartlett is preserved by the Latin
America Image Library at Tulane University in New Orleans.

Bartlett's book about the history and life on the haciendas, including a
selection of his illustrations and photographs, was originally published by
the University Press of Colorado in 1990 under the title The Haciendas of
Mexico: An Artist's Record.

Paul Alexander Bartlett's fiction has been commended by many authors,
among them Pearl Buck, Ford Madox Ford, John Dos Passos, James
Michener, Upton Sinclair, Evelyn Eaton, and many others. He was the
recipient of numerous grants, awards, and fellowships, from such
organizations such as the Leopold Schepp Foundation, the Edward
MacDowell Association, the New School for Social Research, the
Huntington Hartford Foundation, the Montalvo Foundation, Yaddo, and the
Carnegie Foundation. His novel When the Owl Cries received national
acclaim; his fine art has been exhibited throughout the United States and in
Mexico; his poetry has appeared in numerous literary journals and
anthologies and has been published in individual volumes of his collected

poetry. Bartlett was extremely prolific and left to the archives of his work
many as yet unpublished manuscripts, including poetry, short stories, and
novels, as well as more than a thousand paintings and illustrations.

His wife, Elizabeth Bartlett, a widely published and internationally
recognized poet, is the author of seventeen published books of poetry, more
than one thousand individually published poems, numerous short stories and
essays in leading literary quarterlies and anthologies, and, as the founder of
Literary Olympics, Inc., served as the editor of a series of multi-language
volumes of international poetry to honor the work of outstanding
contemporary poets.

His son, Steven James Bartlett, has published fifteen books and many papers
in philosophy and psychology.

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