The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer_s Handbook H. Percy Boulnois 777 downloads.pdf

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Municipal and Sanitary

Engineer's Handbook

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook

Author: H. Percy Boulnois

Release date: November 11, 2017 [eBook #55935]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55935

Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK ***

Please see the Transcriber’s Notes at the
end of this text.

THE

MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY

ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK.

THE

MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY

ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK.

BY
H. P E RC Y B OU L NO I S, M. Inst. C.E.,
M. San. Inst. Gt. Britain;
BOROUGH ENGINEER, PORTSMOUTH; LATE CITY SURVEYOR, EXETER;
AUTHOR OF “DIRTY DUST-BINS AND SLOPPY STREETS,” “ANNIHILATION OF SEWER GASES,” ETC.

“SALUS POPULI SUPREMA LEX.”

LONDON:

E. & F. N. SPON, 16, CHARING CROSS.
NEW YORK:

35, MURRAY STREET.
1883.

PREFACE.

In carrying out the many duties devolving upon a Borough Surveyor, it has

so often been my wish to turn to a practical book of reference upon the

many subjects connected with these duties, that I have written the following
pages; and I trust that they will form a useful Handbook.

H. PERCY BOULNOIS.

Portsmouth,
May, 1883.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
THE TOWN SURVEYOR.
Office of surveyor first legalised — Clause of Public Health Act 1875,
making appointment — Division of England into districts —
Surveyor to Rural Authority — Clauses of Act referring to
surveyor — Title of “Surveyor” is an erroneous one — List of
subjects on which he has often to advise — Want of Government
protection for surveyor — Mr. Lewis Angell on protection —
Reasons for Government refusal — Time will effect a change
page 1

CHAPTER II.
THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR.
Sub-committee to fix salary and duties — Specimen report and list of
duties — Test of merit necessary — Examination by Sanitary
Institute of Great Britain — Particulars of these examinations —
Syllabus of subjects — Specimens of examination papers —
Authoritative examination, however, still necessary — Methods
to be adopted to obtain appointment of surveyor — Canvassing
10

CHAPTER III.
THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES.
Public Health Act and surveyors of highways — List of duties
devolving upon surveyor in consequence — Meetings of boards
and committees — List of suitable names for committees —
Punctuality — Reports — Methodical habits 20

CHAPTER IV.

TRAFFIC.
Interests involved in construction and maintenance of streets —
Requirements of a good roadway — Wearing effect of traffic —
Mr. Deacon’s standard — Effect of horses’ hoofs on roadways —
Remarks on shoeing — Traction on roads — Tables of resistance
— Forces tending to destroy momentum — Table of tractive
force, etc. — Another table giving inclinations — Proper
gradients of roadways — Table of resistance by Crompton —
Wheel resistance — Mr. Haywood and safety of traffic —
Stopping and starting vehicles — Safe width of roadways —
Vehicles and pedestrians passing each other — Sanctuaries —
Danger of crossings 25

CHAPTER V.
MACADAMISED ROADWAYS.
Laying out new roads — Macadamised roads a luxury — Telford and
Macadam — Specification of roadway, fifty years ago — Modern
specification of roadway — Advantages of Telford’s system —
Hard core — Concrete — Table of depths of materials — Ellice
Clarke’s tables of comparative cost — Further particulars of
comparative cost — Streets of Paris — Cross section of roadway
— Objections to macadamised roadways — Notes on
maintenance — Bituminous roadways 34

CHAPTER VI.
ROAD METAL AND BREAKING.
Test of fitness of stone — Primary investigations — Qualities
necessary — List of stones used as road metal — Variety of
materials used — Table of comparative efficiency of road metal
in France — Hand-broken stone — Gauging the size — Quantity
broken per diem — Machines for breaking stones — Price of
machines — Work effected by machinery — Precautions
necessary — Objections to machinery — Weight of broken stone
— Specification for supply of road metal 48

CHAPTER VII.
ROAD ROLLING.
First introduction of rollers — Mr. Parry on steam rolling — Cost for
repairs — Number of men necessary — Fuel used — Other uses
for engine power — Spikes for chequering — Binding material
— Gradients — Work effected — Description of manner in which

roller should be applied — Method adopted in the United States
— Use of roller for repairs of roads — Method adopted at
Gloucester — Effect of weight of roller on roads — Advantages
of steam rolling — Mr. Paget on rolling — Disadvantages of
steam rolling — Horse rollers 60

CHAPTER VIII.
PITCHED PAVEMENTS.
Economy under heavy traffic — Noise and slipperiness —
Improvements effected — Size of setts — Description of best
class of stones — Mr. Walker and wear of stones — The Euston
pavement — The Guidet paving — Manchester pavement —
Concrete foundations — Grouting — Bituminous mixture —
Stone tram-tracks 73

CHAPTER IX.
WOOD PAVING.
First introduced into metropolis — Improvements since — List and
description of many various modern methods — Sanitary
objections to wood pavement — Power of absorption of wood —
Preserving processes — Wear of wood paving — Different
estimates of life — Woods employed — Advantages of this
description of paving — Objections to it — Cost of wood
pavement — Tables of cost and life — Specification of wood
pavement 81

CHAPTER X.
COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS.
Description of asphalte — Mr. Deland’s test — Percentage of bitumen
necessary — Method of construction of compressed asphalte
roadway — Advantages of this description of pavement —
Objections to it on account of slipperiness — Gradient — Cost of
asphalte pavement — Tables on the subject — Specifications for
a compressed asphalte roadway — Other descriptions of asphalte
roadways — Hints on the success or the reverse of asphalte
roadways 96

CHAPTER XI.
FOOTPATHS.

Foundation — List of materials for footpaths — Mastic asphalte —
Description of manner of laying — Proportions of asphalte,
bitumen, and grit — Yorkshire flagging — Specification for York
flagging — Caithness flagging — Its advantages — Blue lias
flagging — Concrete footpaths — Description of American
concrete path — Artificial stone pavements — Brick footpaths —
Granite slabs — Artificial asphalte paths — Specification of tar
pavement — American tar pavement — Gravel footpaths —
Sections of paths — Tarred paths 106

CHAPTER XII.
KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC.
Necessity for kerb — Section of granite kerb and channel — Setting
kerb — Cost of kerb and channelling — Necessity for gutter or
channel crossings — Gully gratings — Objects to be attained —
Drawing of a gully-pit — Drawing of a buddle-hole — Mr.
Baldwin Latham on the subject 123

CHAPTER XIII.
LIGHTING STREETS.
Gas v. Electricity — Public Health Act on lighting — Different hours
at which public gas lamps are lighted — Hints for a contract with
a gas company — Supply by meter — Objections to meters —
Regulators — Lamp-posts — Lanterns — Burners — Numbering
lamps — Formula for determining distance of lamps — M.
Servier on spreading light uniformly — Tables of different lights
— Points to be considered in public lighting by electricity —
Motive power required — Machinery necessary — Regulations
as regards fire risks — Lamps — Value of electric light —
Difficulty of photometrical measurement — Cost of electric light
— Mr. Shoolbred’s tables — Comparative cost on Thames
embankment — Value of these investigations — Acme of all
lighting 129

CHAPTER XIV.
STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING.
Necessity of naming and numbering streets — Public Health Act on
the subject — Different methods of naming — Minton’s china
letters — Cast iron plates — Painted names — Enamelled iron —
Wooden figures — Enamelled glass tablets — Size of letters —
Association of names — Methods of numbering — Forms of
notice to number 149

CHAPTER XV.
BREAKING-UP STREETS.
The law on the subject — Water Works Clauses Act, 1847 —
Consideration of the clauses — What is meant by “plan” —
Specimen of specification or plan — Damage caused to roads by
opening them — Private individuals breaking-up streets —
Clauses of the Public Health Act — Telegraphs Act, 1863 —
Clauses of this Act — Advantages and disadvantages of subways
— Power of individuals to open streets for drains — Clauses of
the Public Health Act on the subject — Uncertainty on the subject
— Forms of notices necessary — Customs prevailing in different
towns 157

CHAPTER XVI.
OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS.
List of subjects discussed — Improving line of frontages — Assessing
value of compensation — Removing projections of buildings —
What are legal projections? — Doors or gates opening outwards
— Forms of notice necessary — Vaults or cellar coverings —
Forms of notice necessary — Advantages of an “Easement book”
— Rain water from shutes or down pipes — Form of notice
necessary — Blinds or awnings over paths — Trees overhanging
roadways — Form of notice necessary — Surface water from
premises — Hoardings and scaffolds — Dangerous Buildings —
Tall chimney shafts — Dangerous rock — Forms of notice
necessary — Temporary obstructions 174

CHAPTER XVII.
IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS.
The 150th section of the Public Health Act — Criticisms of this
section — Duties of the surveyor in connection with it —
Specimen forms of notices — Carrying out the work — Taking
over private streets — Agreement to take over a road — What is a
“road”? — Legal definition of the term street 193

CHAPTER XVIII.
NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS.
Important duty of surveyor — Clauses of the Public Health Act —
Model bye-laws — What is a new building? — The term “ground
floor” — Alteration of existing buildings — Deposit of plans —

Clauses of the Public Health Act — Clauses necessary in the bye-
laws with regard to deposit — Form of notice in respect of
deposit of plans — Suggestions for town surveyor in connection
with this duty and examination of plans — Supervision of
buildings in course of erection — Stringency of bye-laws —
Protection of life from fire necessary — Party walls through roofs
— Space at back — Fee for inspection 206

CHAPTER XIX.
SCAVENGING.
The Public Health Act on the subject — List of duties involved by the
clauses of the Act — What is house refuse? — Removal of trade
or garden refuse — Position of dust bin — Objections to fixed bin
— Different methods of collection of refuse — Public dust bins
— House to house call — Receptacles brought out into streets —
Carts employed for scavenging — Life and cost of wooden carts
— Improved sanitary carts — Disposal of refuse — Methods
adopted in various towns — Destruction by fire — Cleansing of
streets — Machinery v. hand labour — Durability of brooms —
Scavenging at Liverpool — Quantity of material removed from
roads — Cleansing private courts and alleys — Removal of snow
— Mr. Hayward on the subject — Clarke’s apparatus — Hints on
removal of snow — Street watering — Several methods
described — Brown’s system — Mr. Parry on hand-watering —
Headley’s machine — Street watering in Paris — Bayley’s
Hydrostatic Van — Mr. Scott on watering and stand-pipes —
Advantage of using disinfectant with water — Cost of
scavenging, &c. — Heads for a contract — Administration of
work without intervention of contractor the best 221

CHAPTER XX.
SEWERAGE.
Public Health Act on the subject — Definition of sewer — Definitions
of sewerage and sewage — Requirements of good system of
sewerage — Position of sewers should be at back of houses —
Form of notice to carry sewer through private lands — Hints for
carrying out sewerage — Stamford’s joint — Pipe sewers —
Drawing of various pipes — Causes of breakage — Causes of
chokage — Separate system — Advantages of partial separation
— List of different methods of sewerage — Dry systems 251

CHAPTER XXI.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL.
Magnitude of question — Interception — List of methods of disposal
— Tidal outfalls — Broad irrigation — Crops for sewage —
Intermittent filtration — Action of earth on sewage —
Mechanical subsidence — Artificial filters — Screening —
Precipitation — List of chemical processes — List of chemical
ingredients — Disposal of sludge — Effect of plants on sewage
263

CHAPTER XXII.
VENTILATION OF SEWERS.
Duty of dealing with noxious sewer vapours — Germ theory and open
ventilation — Open shafts and objections to them — Shafts
against dwellings — Use of rainwater pipes — Use of lamp posts
— Charcoal trays — Use of chimney shafts — Lofty shafts —
Failure of furnaces — List of methods tried — Annihilation of
sewer gas — Composition of sewer gas — Direction of flow —
Importance of disconnecting house drains 271

CHAPTER XXIII.
PUBLIC CONVENIENCES.
Clause of Public Health Act empowering their erection — Selection of
site — Construction of Urinals — Why iron is preferable —
Description of urinals — Public w. c. accommodation —
Description of a simple w. c. — Jennings and Macfarlane for
urinals 280

CHAPTER XXIV.
ARTIZANS AND LABOURERS’ DWELLINGS.
The Act of 1868 — Mode of procedure under it — Amendment of Act
in 1879 — Further amendment in 1882 — Importance of this
amendment — Act of 1875 for improvement of dwellings of
working classes — Mode of procedure under it — Amended by
Act of 1879 — Further amended, 1882 — Duties of surveyor
under these acts — Health of model dwellings — Description of
industrial dwellings — Labouring classes’ Lodging Houses Acts
— Copy of bye-laws under them — Table of sizes of rooms 284

CHAPTER XXV.

DEFECTS IN DWELLING-HOUSES, ETC.
Cellar dwellings — Clauses of the Public Health Act on the subject —
Insufficient w. c. accommodation — Clauses on the subject —
Forms of notice to be served — W. C. accommodation for
factories — Houses without a proper supply of water — Clauses
on the subject — Mode of procedure — Disadvantages of cistern
storage 295

CHAPTER XXVI.
HOUSE DRAINAGE.
Definition of drain — Difficulty of always deciding what is a drain —
Duties of surveyor in connection with house drainage —
Inspection of new drains — Form of “regulations” necessary by a
local authority — Difficulty of efficient inspection — Drains of
new buildings — Inspection of defective drains — Several
clauses of the Public Health Act on the subject — Procedure
necessary to carry them out — List of a few requirements of good
house drainage — Necessity of register of all house drains 303

CHAPTER XXVII.
PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS AND STREET TREES.
Law empowering acquisition and maintenance of parks, &c. — Duties
of surveyor in connection therewith — Public playgrounds — A
few hints — List of a few useful shrubs — Trees in gales —
Planting trees at sides of streets — Qualities necessary in trees for
this purpose — List of suitable trees — Precautions necessary —
Grating and grill — Description of Paris planting — Cost of trees
in Paris — Damage to street trees 318

CHAPTER XXVIII.
PUBLIC ABATTOIRS.
Necessity and law for their establishment — Defects of private
slaughter-houses — Legal powers to close private slaughter-
houses — Particulars of London private slaughter-houses — Site
of public abattoir — The Manchester abattoir — Accommodation
necessary — Lairs and pens — The killing-house — Floor,
drainage, rings, pole-axe, lighting, &c. — Machinery for hoisting
— Plans of public abattoir — Condemned meat department —
Pig-killing department — Blood-house — Tripery — Tallow
market — Other accommodation — Dr. Chancellor on slaughter-
houses — Difference between public and private slaughter-houses

328

CHAPTER XXIX.
MARKETS.
Law authorizing their establishment — Site for a cattle market —
Accommodation necessary — Paving — Cattle enclosures —
Sheep pens — Dimensions of pens and lairs — Weighing
machine — Markets for general merchandise — List of
requirements — A few hints on their accommodation 344

CHAPTER XXX.
CEMETERIES.
The surveyor’s duties in connection with these — Some legal points to
be remembered — Selection of site on sanitary grounds — Mr.
Eassie on soils — Dr. Parsons on requirements of cemeteries —
Unsuitability of clay soil — Amount of land necessary — Points
to be considered in laying out a cemetery — Division of cemetery
— Description of sections — Cemetery rules and regulations —
Suitable trees for cemeteries — Regulations by Secretary of State,
1863 — Cremation — Its great advantages over burial — Area of
some existing cemeteries — Necessity for reliable information as
to causes of death 350

CHAPTER XXXI.
MORTUARIES.
Evils arising from keeping corpses — Some clauses of the Public
Health Act on the subject — List of different descriptions of
mortuaries — A German Leichenhaus — Requirements of a
mortuary — The chapel — The dead-house — The post-mortem
room — The coroner’s court — Other accommodation necessary
— Plan of a model mortuary — Disinfection — Apparatus
necessary — Dr. Ransom’s machine — Fetching infected clothing
365

CHAPTER XXXII.
BORROWING UNDER THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD.
Clauses of the Public Health Act — Stimulus to public works — List
of time for which money can be borrowed — Mr. Rawlinson on
procedure and plans, &c., necessary — Responsibility of Local
Government Board — Captain Galton on Government
responsibility 375

CHAPTER XXXIII.
CONTRACTS.
Clauses of Public Health Act — Public contracts different from private
ones — Specifications necessary — Conclusion — A list of
useful books 381

MUNICIPAL
AND

SANITARY ENGINEERS’
HANDBOOK.

CHAPTER I.
THE TOWN SURVEYOR.

The office of town surveyor was first legalised by the Towns Improvement
Clauses Act 1847 (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 7),[1] although for some
considerable period prior to this date similar appointments had been made
in several of the more important English towns, notably in the case of
Liverpool. In the following year the legal office of surveyor was confirmed
by the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vic. c. 63, s. 37), and it is now law
under the Public Health Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55): that comprehensive
statute, under which all Sanitary Acts are now included, and which Act will
be frequently alluded to in the course of this book.
The clause which specially refers to the appointment of the surveyor is as
follows:—
“Every urban authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper
persons to be medical officer of health, surveyor, inspector of nuisances,
clerk, and treasurer: Provided that if any such authority is empowered by
any other Act in force within their district to appoint any such officer, this
enactment shall be deemed to be satisfied by the employment under this Act
of the officer so appointed, with such additional remuneration as they think
fit, and no second appointment shall be made under this Act. Every urban
authority shall also appoint or employ such assistants, collectors, and other
officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the efficient
execution of this Act, and may make regulations with respect to the duties
and conduct of the officers and servants so appointed or employed . . .” (38
& 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 189), and these officers (except the medical officer of
health and the inspector of nuisances, when any portion of their salary is
paid out of moneys voted by Parliament to the powers of the Local
Government Board), may be removed by the urban authority at their
pleasure, which was not the case when the appointment was first made in
1847.

Here it is necessary to state that for sanitary purposes England and Wales
are divided into two divisions—viz. urban sanitary districts and rural
sanitary districts, the former of these divisions being further subdivided into
boroughs, where the urban sanitary authority is the mayor, aldermen, and
burgesses acting by the council, and districts, which are under the authority
of improvement commissioners or local boards; the rural sanitary districts
are the areas of unions not included in urban districts, and they are under
the authority of the guardians of the union.
It is my intention to deal more particularly with the duties of a surveyor
acting under an urban authority, but the following section of the Public
Health Act 1875 relates apparently to the appointment of a surveyor to a
rural authority, although no mention is made in this or any other clause of
the Act directly of such an officer by name, except that amongst the
definitions of the Public Health Act the following appears:—
“‘Surveyor’ includes any person appointed by a rural authority to
perform any of the duties of surveyor under this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s.
4).
The clause I have above referred to is as follows:—
“Every rural authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper
persons to be medical officer or officers of health and inspector or
inspectors of nuisances; they shall also appoint such assistants and other
officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the efficient
execution of this Act . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 190).
The following clauses apply to officers of rural as well as urban
authorities:—
“The same person may be both surveyor and inspector of nuisances . . .”
(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 192).
“Officers or servants appointed or employed under this Act by the local
authority shall not in any wise be concerned or interested in any bargain or
contract made with such authority for any of the purposes of this Act . . .”
(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 193).
“Before any officer or servant of a local authority enters on any office or
employment under this Act by reason whereof he will or may be entrusted
with the custody or control of money, the local authority by whom he is
appointed shall take from him sufficient security for the faithful execution
of such office or employment and for duly accounting for all moneys which
may be entrusted to him by reason thereof” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 194).

In addition to these clauses there are several regulating the receipt of
money by officers, but these should not affect the town surveyor. Although
in many places he has the onerous duty of paying workmen, certifying
tradesmen’s accounts, and other financial transactions, he ought under no
circumstances to have anything to do with the receipt of money.
Unfortunately, in some of the smaller towns the surveyor is also employed
as rate collector; but as this is evidently a very improper proceeding, I shall
not further allude to it in any manner.
It will be observed that in the foregoing clauses of the Public Health Act
the word “surveyor” is always used, and thus this is the legal title of those
holding such appointments. It is obvious, however, that, although this title
may have well suited the office up to the year 1847, when it was made the
legal title, the prodigious growth of municipal work during the last 35 years
has made it necessary that some change should be made, and the title
altered to that of “engineer,” or some other similar suitable name. At the
present time several different meanings and occupations are attached to the
word “surveyor,” as the following list will show:—“land surveyor,”
“district surveyor,” “county surveyor,” “road surveyor,” “surveyor of
taxes,” “surveyor of customs,” “quantity surveyor,” “fire insurance
surveyor,” “Lloyd’s surveyor,” and a still more curious instance where an
urban authority is itself dubbed “surveyor of highways” by the 144th
section of the Public Health Act 1875; and the title of town surveyor as now
applied cannot but lead to confusion and to perfectly erroneous impressions
as to his work and duties.
Dr. Ackland, in a paper read before the Association of Municipal and
Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, at a district meeting held at Oxford,
makes the following remarks on this point:—“In the Public Health Act 1875
(the summary of all health enactments) the name of ‘engineer’ does not
once occur in the 343 clauses. He is still the old ‘surveyor’ we all
remember, the plodding, energetic man of highways and byeways . . . but
then the surveyor of the present day may be called on to advise on anything,
from the form and cost of an earthen syphon trap to the calculation of work
to be done by engines which are to supply half a million of persons with
water; to be responsible for the construction of sanitary mechanisms, from a
housemaid’s sink to an intermittent downward filtration farm.”
There can be but little doubt that it is absolutely necessary for the town
surveyor of the present day to be a competent civil engineer of great

knowledge and varied experience, for he may at any moment be called upon
to advise his corporation upon any of the following subjects, or to act in any
one of the following capacities, in addition to the multifarious ordinary
duties legally devolving upon him as surveyor under the Sanitary Acts:—
(1.) As engineer for sewerage and sewage works.
(2.) As engineer for water and gas works.
(3.) As engineer for canals, docks, harbour improvements, and river
navigation, or for the protection of coasts against the encroachments of the
sea, and the prevention of floods by rivers.
(4.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of roads and
bridges.
(5.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of lines of
tramways.
(6.) As architect for the construction of lunatic asylums, municipal
offices, hospitals, abattoirs, mortuaries, baths and wash-houses, cemetery
chapels, stables, police stations, and other similar works.
(7.) As landscape gardener for the laying out of public recreation
grounds, parks, and cemeteries.
(8.) As quantity surveyor to make estimates of all works, and often (very
improperly) to furnish bills of quantities to intending contractors.
(9.) As surveyor and valuer to advise his employers on the values, &c., of
corporate or other property.
(10.) As land surveyor to make surveys of any size that may be required.
(11.) As accountant to examine and rectify the workmen’s wages sheets,
and all tradesmen’s accounts for work performed or goods supplied.
The foregoing list is no exaggeration of the onerous duties of the town
surveyor, and it seems to be a grievous mistake that this officer, whose
importance in all practical sanitary work cannot be over-stated (as without
him no useful municipal work could go on) has been left unprotected by the
Public Health Act of 1875.
In that Act both the medical officer of health and the inspector of
nuisances have received Government protection, whereas the surveyor, the
very officer of all others who necessarily is more likely to come into
collision and to be unpopular with his employers in the faithful discharge of
his duties, has been afforded no protection whatever, but has been left to the
tender mercies of an annually changing body of municipal governors, “to be
removable at their pleasure” (38 & 39 Vic., c. 55, s. 189).

On this highly important point I cannot do better than quote several
passages from Mr. Lewis Angell’s interesting address to the Association of
Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors on the occasion of their
inauguration in the year 1873:[2]
“The ‘town surveyor,’ according to his opportunities, has done the
country good service, but, surrounded as we have been with obstructions
and difficulties, cramped and restricted by popular prejudices and private
interest, subject to clamour and attack, without protection and without
appeal, it is indeed surprising that we have accomplished so much. Had
such officers been from the first judiciously selected, adequately
remunerated, properly supported, and duly protected, our influence upon
sanitary progress would have been more conspicuous and our office better
appreciated.
“As engineers we do not pretend to a knowledge of medical science, but
it is equally within the knowledge of the average sanitary engineer as of a
medical officer of health that pure air, pure water, properly constructed
houses, and an unpolluted soil are the cardinal conditions of health. These
are mere sanitary axioms. The means by which such conditions are attained
are drainage, ventilation, water-supply, and other matters entirely within the
functions of the engineer. It is the function of the sanitary engineer to
prevent that which the medical officer of health is called upon to detect. . . .
“In many cases the unprotected surveyor may be required to report to a
protected medical officer the negligence of his own employers. No local
surveyor or engineer can be expected to give cordial and active assistance
in compulsory sanitary work when he is conscious that his action would be
opposed to the views or the interests of his employers, the public upon
whom he is dependent. The existence of such a distinction between the
medical officer and surveyor under the same board will produce a want of
harmony in interest, and must lead to a divergence of action between the
two departments. . . .”
And speaking of the multifarious duties of the town surveyor, Mr. Angell
says: “Any one section of his duties would, under commercial
circumstances, command fair pay according to its importance; but where
cumulative duties are included in the same office, they demand constant
attention, special knowledge, professional experience, and administrative
ability; to which is added the anxiety which the responsibilities of public
office always involve. Such a position in a commercial concern would

receive high remuneration in proportion to the extent of the undertaking,
but unfortunately, our work does not pay a dividend: it is all expenditure
from which the town derives no return excepting in health and comfort,
matters which are neither fairly assessed, nor duly appreciated;
consequently, the municipal engineer is paid less for his professional
knowledge than the contractor’s agent whose work he directs.”
Speaking further on the subject of Government protection, Mr. Angell
says: “Surveyors appointed under the Towns Improvement Clauses Act
were protected during the existence of the General Board of Health. Sir C.
Adderley’s Public Health and Local Government Bill of 1872 proposed
similar protection. Officers employed under the Poor Laws are fully
protected as to position, emoluments, and superannuation. The
administration of the Poor Laws and the Public Health Acts is now united in
one department under the newly established Local Government Board: it is
therefore in my opinion equally due to Local Board officers, that they also
should be recognised and protected. Without such protection, sanitary
legislation cannot, in the words of the Royal Sanitary Commission, be
‘active and effective,’ because local officers are too dependent on their
immediate employers to be thoroughly efficient.
“In advocating protection let me not be misunderstood. I do not mean
centralisation or the removal of that proper control which every local
authority should maintain over its own officers. I would maintain intact the
great principle of local government, which has been the bulwark of our
social and political freedom. But local government may degenerate, and in
small towns deteriorate into littleness: local affairs are too frequently
avoided by those who are most fitted by intelligence and social standing to
take part therein. I would simply control in the most constitutional manner
the short-comings or excesses of local government as is already done in
various other departments. I would require that local officers should be
properly qualified and adequately remunerated; that in the honest discharge
of their duties and during good behaviour they should be protected from the
effects of ignorance, narrow prejudices, and interested clamour, and that
they should have an appeal to a disinterested and judicial body, superior to
local feeling. The demand is reasonable—I ask no more. . . . .”
To these admirable remarks by Mr. Angell on the present position of the
town surveyor I can add but little.

I believe that the sole reason which is given why Government protection
is not granted to the surveyor is the argument used by those in authority,
that if a surveyor disagrees with the corporation he serves, it is considered
better that he should resign his appointment rather than be protected by the
Local Government Board or other central office; but if this argument is
sound, why does it not also apply in a similar manner to the medical officer
of health or the inspector of nuisances? The real fact no doubt is, that in
framing the Public Health Act of 1875, medical men were consulted and not
engineers, and this is very apparent in many of the clauses, which will be
fully considered in their proper places in this book.
The time will no doubt come when the necessity for some change in the
position of the town surveyor will be apparent, and adequate protection will
be afforded him; in the meantime let him strive, by attention to work, and
by daily advancement in scientific knowledge, and in courtesy to those with
whom he is associated, to make the position and power of the town
surveyor felt and honoured as it should be throughout the kingdom.

[1] The section is as follows:—“The Commissioners shall appoint, subject to the
prescribed approval, or where no approval is prescribed, subject to approval by one of Her
Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State, a person duly qualified to act as a local surveyor of
the paving, drainage, and other works authorized under the provisions of this and the
special Act . . . . . . and the Commissioners with the like approval may remove any such
surveyor.”
[2] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary
Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. i. p. 18.

CHAPTER II.
THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR.

Whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of surveyor to a town, or upon a
sanitary authority determining to make such an appointment, the question is
usually relegated to a committee or sub-committee to report upon the
subject, to fix the amount of salary proposed to be given, and frame the
duties of the office.
The following report is one that has lately emanated from an important
English borough, and is given in full as a specimen of such reports, and as a
guide on which a report could be framed; altered, of course, to such
requirements as may be locally necessary:—

Report of the Special Sub-Committee as to the Surveyor.

(1.) Your sub-committee report that they have, in compliance with the
resolution of the day of , carefully considered the steps to be taken
with reference to the vacancy caused by Mr. ———’s resignation, and they
have come to the unanimous conclusion that it is desirable that the office of
surveyor should be continued.
(2.) Your sub-committee have also considered the duties which were
assigned to the office of Mr. ———’s appointment, and they beg now to
submit them, revised in accordance with the present circumstances of the
department, and with the recommendations contained in this report.
(3.) Your sub-committee further recommend that the salary of the
surveyor be fixed at £ . . per annum, and that advertisements be issued for
candidates.
Duties of the Surveyor.
(1.) To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to perform all
duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways.

(2.) To report from time to time to the committee superintending the
same, the state of the several highways and lines of tramway, and as to the
materials wanted or works necessary.
(3.) To prepare all plans, specifications, or instructions necessary in
relation thereto, and as to the materials to be used therein, and to see that all
works are completed according to contracts entered into.
(4.) To engage and dismiss under sanction of the committee all
workmen employed at daily and weekly wages.[3]
(5.) To certify all accounts for work done, materials supplied, and wages
due.
(6.) To have charge of all materials and implements.
(7.) To purchase or contract for, or hire all horses, carts, tumbrils,
stones, flags, gravel, draining pipes, and proper implements and materials,
and all other matters and things, at such prices and in such manner as the
committee shall judge reasonable and expedient, and to sell or otherwise
dispose of the same as he may be directed.
(8.) To have the entire charge and superintendence of the breaking up
and repairing of all streets, for the purpose of laying or replacing gas and
water pipes.
(9.) To inspect and report, in conjunction with the medical officer of
health, upon slaughter-houses preliminary to licences being granted, and to
make the plans and superintend the construction of any slaughter-houses
which the council may hereafter erect.
(10.) To take all levels and surveys which may be necessary for the
purpose of deciding on the best mode of draining the several districts, or
any part thereof, or for the purpose of fixing the levels and inclinations of
any streets or roads, or in anywise relating thereto.
(11.) To carry out the scheme now in course of construction for the
interception of the sewage of the borough, and any future scheme, for its
precipitation, filtration, deodorization, or any other process which the
council may adopt, either within or without the borough.
(12.) To superintend the construction and completion of all tramway lines
and sidings which may be required.
(13.) To prepare, from time to time, schemes for the drainage of the
several districts or any part thereof.
(14.) To prepare all such plans, sections, and specifications as may be
necessary for the due execution of any flagging, paving, sewering, or other

works required to be done, or for entering into any contracts in relation
thereto, and to see that all works are executed in accordance therewith.
(15.) To measure up and duly certify the execution of all works, and
apportion the cost to the parties chargeable therewith.
(16.) To see that all house drains, which may from time to time be carried
into any public sewer, are made and connected in accordance with the
regulations.
(17.) To give to the several contractors performing any works, orders for
the same in writing only, keeping duplicates thereof, duly entered in a book
to be kept by him for that purpose.
(18.) To prepare all plans, drawings, and estimates required, and to
superintend the execution of all improvements.
(19.) To see that no encroachments be made on any highway or public
place.
(20.) To advise on, and execute, all engineering works, and prepare all
such plans, specifications, and estimates of, and take out quantities for, such
sewers, buildings, bridges, and works as may be required, and to
superintend the erection and execution thereof.
(21.) To have in his charge, and be responsible for, the proper
management of all buildings and properties belonging to the corporation, or
for the repair and maintenance of which the corporation is liable, except
otherwise directed by the council.
(22.) To examine and report upon all plans and elevations of buildings
proposed to be erected or altered upon land sold or leased by the
corporation.
(23.) To inspect and report on plans of new streets to be laid out, of
houses to be built, and of buildings to be erected or altered.
(24) To see that all streets are properly named, and that the name plates
are kept in good order.
(25.) To act as building surveyor in all matters relating to the execution of
the Sanitary and Local Acts, and to examine and certify new houses as fit
for habitation.
(26.) To examine all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public, to
report thereon, and to take such steps as may be necessary to prevent
accidents arising therefrom.
(27.) To prepare all plans and sections for deposit, pursuant to Standing
Orders, with respect to all street improvements, tramways, gasworks,

waterworks, or other works, unless otherwise ordered by the council, and to
prepare all other surveys, plans, and sections required.
(28.) To attend the meetings of the several committees when required.
(29.) To prepare all returns relating to his office that may be required by
the Government.
(30.) To attend in London or elsewhere when required, without extra
charge, excepting only his travelling and hotel expenses.
(31.) To keep accurate permanent records and plans relating to all
properties purchased, leased, or sold, or in possession.
(32.) To devote the whole of his time to the duties of his office, and not to
be engaged in any other office, business, or employment whatever.
(33.) To report from time to time all and every matter connected with any
branch of his office which, in his opinion, may require the attention of any
committee, and take their instructions thereon.

Clauses 18 and 20 in the above list of duties are very comprehensive, and
as a rule a town surveyor’s duties may be summed up in a very few words
—“to do anything that he is requested.” It is, however, better that some
definite instructions should be laid down, and those which I have given may
be taken as a fair specimen of what such duties may be.
Unlike the medical officer of health, who by Act of Parliament is
required to hold a diploma of competency,[4] it is open to anyone to apply
for and obtain the appointment of a town surveyor. This is no doubt
unfortunate, as some test of merit is desirable, and of late years the
necessity of some examination as to competency has been much discussed.
In order to meet this requirement, the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain
has instituted examinations and granted certificates of competency for both
town surveyors and inspectors of nuisances. The following particulars of
these examinations, and the reasons given for their necessity, may be of
interest, and are given in full.[5]

Examination of Local Surveyors and Inspectors of Nuisances.

The great and increasing importance of the duties devolving upon local
surveyors and inspectors of nuisances in connection with the various
statutes relating to Public Health and the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, has
led the council of the Institute to establish voluntary examinations for local

surveyors and inspectors of nuisances, and for persons desirous of
becoming such, or of obtaining the certificate of the Institute.
Each examination occupies a portion of two days. On the first day the
examination of surveyors is continued for four hours, viz. from 2 to 4 and 6
to 8 P.M. and consists of written papers only. Inspectors of nuisances have
two hours’ written examination on the first day, viz. from 4 to 6 P.M. On the
second day the examination for both classes commences at 11 A.M., and is
vivâ voce; with one or more questions to be answered in writing if deemed
necessary. A certificate of competence signed by the examiners is granted to
successful candidates.
As rural sanitary authorities are able under the Public Health Act 1875 to
obtain almost all the powers of urban sanitary authorities, it is not
considered advisable to make any distinction in the examination of the two
classes of surveyors.
As one person may, under the Public Health Act 1875, be both local
surveyor and inspector of nuisances, candidates wishing to obtain the
double qualification may enter for both examinations on the same occasion.
Candidates are required to furnish to the council of the Institute
satisfactory testimonials as to personal character, and to give two weeks’
notice to the secretary previous to presenting themselves for examination,
stating whether they wish to be examined as surveyors or inspectors of
nuisances, or as both.
The fee for the examination must be paid to the secretary, by post-office
order or otherwise, at least six days before the the day of examination. On
receipt of the fee a ticket will be forwarded admitting to the examination.
The fees payable for the examination are as follows:—

For Surveyors £5 5 0
For Inspectors of Nuisances 2 2 0

Unsuccessful candidates are allowed to present themselves a second time
for one fee.

Syllabus of Subjects for Examination for Local Surveyors.

Laws and Bye-Laws.—A thorough knowledge of the Acts affecting
sanitary authorities, so far as they relate to the duties

of local surveyors; also of the model bye-laws issued by the Local
Government Board.
Sewerage and Drainage.—The sanitary principles which should be
observed in the preparation of schemes for, and
the construction of sewerage works; the ventilating and flushing of sewers
and drains; the internal drainage and other sanitary arrangements of houses,
privies, water-closets, dry-closets, and the removal of refuse; the sanitary
details of builders’ and plumbers’ work.
Water Supply of Towns and Houses.—The sanitary principles which
should be observed in the preparation
of schemes for, and the construction of water-works; the various ways in
which water is likely to become polluted and the best means of ensuring its
purity.
Regulations of Cellar Dwellings and Lodging Houses.—General
principles of
ventilation; the amount of air and space necessary for men and animals; the
means of supplying air, and of ensuring its purity.
Highways and Streets.—The sanitary principles which should be
observed in the construction and cleansing of
streets and roads.

Examination Papers, November 6, 1879.

Questions for Surveyors, November 6, 1879, 2 to 4 o’clock.
1. Define street; state the law applicable to every description of street in
an urban sanitary authority district, and the rights and obligations and duties
of sanitary authorities, owners and occupiers therein.
2. What are the relative advantages of circular and egg-shaped sewers; in
what case are they respectively preferred?
3. Give a specification of a water-tight sewer. Describe and give a sketch
of the form of man-hole which you consider best adapted for ordinary town
sewers, and state the rule which you adopt for determining the amount of
ventilation to be afforded in a main street sewer.
4. In what way does the size and shape of the sewer affect the velocity of
sewage flowing through it? If a nine-inch pipe sewer, laid at an inclination
of 1 in 200, gives a velocity of 3 feet per second, what velocity will it give
when laid at an inclination of 1 in 800, the pipe running full in each case?

Will this velocity suffice to keep it clear from deposits? Describe the
various modes which may be resorted to for flushing sewers.
5. Give a description of the process termed intermittent downward
filtration. State what area of land you would require, with a gravelly soil,
for applying this method of purifying sewage to a town with a population of
1000 inhabitants, and state the arrangements you would adopt for dealing
with the rain-water falling on the roofs, yards, and streets.
November 6, 1879, 6 to 8 o’clock.
1. In reporting upon the source of water supply for a town, what are the
points to which you would direct your attention?
2. Give a sketch of a D trap, an S trap, a P trap, and a pan water closet
(plan of a dwelling-house annexed).
3. Criticise the arrangements of this residence as to position of rooms,
walls, doors, fire places, windows, &c., from a sanitary point of view.
4. Describe the drainage arrangements shown on the plan. Say whether
they are satisfactory; if not, in what way are they faulty?
5. Sketch on the plan any other system of drains which you would think
preferable.
6. Describe in detail the arrangements necessary for the water supply of
the residence, a bath being fixed in the room over the serving room, a W.C.
on the first floor over that on the ground floor, and a housemaid’s sink near.

It is, of course, open to consideration whether the Sanitary Institute of
Great Britain is the proper authority to hold these examinations or not; but
there is no doubt that some such examination is necessary, and would be
welcomed by nearly all town surveyors in order to more firmly secure their
positions; and the Sanitary Institute is entitled to every credit for having
taken the initiative step in the matter.
Under the present system of appointment to the office of town surveyor
those seeking that office must be prepared to work hard to obtain it, and to
give up some considerable time to its acquisition. Tact, patience, and
perseverance are indispensable qualities when seeking such appointments,
and the following suggestions on this matter may be of use.
The appointment usually rests finally with the whole body of the town
council or corporation, even if a sub-committee or committee has been

appointed in the first case to make some selection of candidates. The
candidates thus selected by the committee are usually requested to appear
before the whole body of the town council, who then make the appointment
from amongst them.
The first thing a candidate should do when he hears of a vacancy
occurring in the office of a town surveyor, or sees an advertisement
requiring a surveyor’s services, is to obtain fresh testimonials from those
persons of position and influence for whom he has worked or who know
him professionally. These testimonials, with any very good old ones (but
not too many of either), should be sent by post to the town clerk or person
mentioned in the advertisement, with a formal, carefully-worded
application for the appointment.
If canvassing is not prohibited, a list of the members of the town council,
with their addresses, should then be procured, to whom printed copies of
the application and testimonials should be sent, accompanied by an
autograph letter asking that the application and testimonials should be read.
This should be followed up (if possible, immediately), by a journey to the
town and a personal visit to each member of the council or corporation, not
necessarily for the purpose of soliciting a vote, but with a view to making
the acquaintance of the members of the corporation and to identify the
applicant with his testimonials; and in these visits great tact and patience
are necessary. It is also of importance to seek and obtain all the outside
influence that is possible, in order to bear upon the members of the
corporation, by means of letters of introduction, and informal testimonials
as to eligibility for the appointment, and personal character and position,
&c.
Canvassing on behalf of oneself is extremely unpleasant and harrassing
work; but wrong as the system may appear to be, it is not easy to see how,
in municipal government, any other method can be adopted, and the visit of
the candidate to each member gives the latter an opportunity of asking him
questions and satisfying himself as to his qualifications, and thus he will not
feel he is acting blindly when he gives his vote in favour of that candidate
whom he thinks, after a personal interview, the most suitable for the
appointment.

[3] This seems to be an undue interference with the control which a surveyor should
always have over his men.

[4] “A person shall not be appointed Medical Officer of Health under this Act unless he
is a legally qualified medical practitioner” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, sec. 191).
[5] Vide ‘Calendar of the Sanitary Institution of Great Britain for the year 1880.’

CHAPTER III.
THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES.

It will be observed on reference to the list of the duties of the surveyor,
given in the preceding chapter, that the first on the list is as follows:—
“To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to perform all duties
devolving on the council as surveyors of highways.”
The necessity for these duties are obvious when we turn to the Public
Health Act 1875, and read the following sections:—[6]
“Every urban authority shall within their district, exclusively of any other
person, execute the office of and be surveyor of highways, and have,
exercise, and be subject to all the powers, authorities, duties, and liabilities
of surveyors of highways under the law for the time being in force, save so
far as such powers, authorities, or duties are or may be inconsistent with the
provisions of this Act; every urban authority shall also have, exercise, and
be subject to all the powers, authorities, duties, and liabilities which by the
Highway Act 1835, or any Act amending the same, are vested in and given
to the inhabitants in vestry assembled of any parish within their district.
“All ministerial acts required by any Act of Parliament to be done by or
to the surveyor of highways may be done by or to the surveyor of the urban
authority, or by or to such other person as they may appoint” (38 & 39 Vic.
c. 55, s. 144).
“All streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by
the inhabitants at large within any urban district, and the pavements, stones,
and other materials thereof, and all buildings, implements, and other things
provided for the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the control of
the urban authority. The urban authority shall from time to time cause all
such streets to be levelled, paved, metalled, flagged, channelled, altered,
and repaired as occasion may require; they may from time to time cause the
soil of any such street to be raised, lowered, or altered as they may think fit,
and may place and may keep in repair fences and posts for the safety of

foot-passengers. Any person who without the consent of the urban authority
wilfully displaces, or takes up, or who injures the pavement, stones,
material, fences, or posts of, or the trees in, any such street shall be liable to
a penalty not exceeding five pounds, and to a further penalty not exceeding
five shillings for every square foot of pavement, stones, or other materials
so displaced, taken up, or injured; he shall also be liable, in the case of any
injury to trees, to pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as
the court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).
The duties thus devolving upon the town surveyor by reason of these
sections and the orders of the council are very considerable. The following
table gives a list of the principal subjects which will require his attention;
all of which will be considered in due course in this book.

List of Duties devolving upon a Town Surveyor as “Surveyor of Highways.”

(1.) The construction and maintenance of highways or streets,
including—
(a.) Roads formed of broken stones or “metal,” commonly called
macadamised roadways;
(b.) Streets paved with granite cubes or setts;
(c.) Streets paved with wood;
(d.) Streets paved with asphalte.
(2.) The construction and maintenance of footwalks or footpaths,
including the different materials of which these are formed.
(3.) The breaking of stone for road metal.
(4.) Steam rolling.
(5.) The necessary notices and specifications under the 150th Section of
the Public Health Act 1875, for the purpose of compelling private streets to
be properly sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged, channelled, lighted,
and made good.
(6.) The lighting, cleansing, and watering of streets.
(7.) The naming and numbering of streets.
(8.) The planting of trees along the sides of footwalks.
(9.) Obstructions caused by builders’ rubbish or by hoardings and
scaffold poles; and also by dangerous or defective cellar coverings.
(10.) The damage caused to footpaths by allowing water from private
premises to flow over them, and the nuisance caused by defective rain-

water gutters or shutes.
(11.) The damage caused to roadways by the laying or removal of gas
and water mains and services, and the surveyor’s powers and duties in
connection therewith.
(12.) The importance, especially in old towns, of laying down improved
building lines of frontage in the narrower or crooked streets.
(13.) The examination of all plans of proposed new streets or buildings.
(14.) The supervision of all new streets and buildings whilst their
construction is in progress.
(15.) Dealing with all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public.
Each of the foregoing list of duties will be dealt with in separate chapters
in addition to other matters which will be treated, but before closing this
chapter a few words upon the subject of “meetings” may be of use.
It will be observed upon reference to the list which I have given of the
duties of the surveyor, that there is one which says, “To attend all meetings
of the board, and committee meetings, except where his attendance has
been previously dispensed with; to attend upon the chairman when so
required.”
The result of this order is that a very large percentage of the surveyor’s
time has to be devoted to attendances at long meetings of the Board or town
council, and at the numerous committee and sub-committee meetings which
are appointed under it.
This work is doubled where, as in some towns, the corporation and their
committees sit in a dual capacity, viz. as the council proper, and the council
as the urban sanitary authority; this generally involves two ordinary
meetings of the whole body each month, and probably at least six
committee meetings a week, leaving the surveyor but scanty time to look
properly after his works.
With regard to these committee meetings it is necessary that each should
have some distinguishing title descriptive of the class of work over which it
has jurisdiction, and in selecting names for them the following list may be
of some service:—Finance Committee, General Purposes Committee, Law
and Parliamentary Committee, Surveyor’s Committee, Land and Estates
Committee, Rates and Taxes Committee, Streets Committee, Lighting and
Cleansing Committee, Navigation of Port Committee, Public Grounds
Committee, Sanitary Committee, Drainage and Sewerage Committee,
Markets Committee, Properties for Sale Committee, Works Committee,

Water Committee, Gas Committee, Watch Committee, Health Committee,
Library Museum and Arts Committee, Baths Committee, Parks, Gardens,
and Improvement Committee, Streets Improvement Committee, etc. etc.
The surveyor should always endeavour to be punctual in his attendance at
the council meetings and those of the committees, as to be late is always
looked upon with disfavour. His reports should as much as possible be in
writing, so that there should be no misunderstanding as to what his advice is
on any subject. To save trouble and expense it is well that all drawings of
new schemes should be first submitted to a committee in pencil, as they are
frequently much altered; this is very vexing if they have been neatly and
highly finished. It must not be forgotten that the gentlemen who form
municipal bodies give their time gratuitously, and everything should be
done to save it as much as possible. It is an excellent plan and a great
convenience, if a surveyor will have a series of named and numbered
pigeon holes in his office corresponding to his committees, in which to
place all papers, drawings, correspondence etc., which he intends to bring
up to the next meeting of a committee; thus saving himself flurry at the last
moment before the meeting, in endeavouring to find the papers he wants.
With his varied duties, correspondence, interviews, meetings, inspections,
investigations, reports, drawings, and calculations, the motto of a surveyor’s
office should be “method.”

[6] For full particulars and explanations of the various Highway Acts see ‘The Powers
and Duties of Surveyors of Highways and of other Authorities with regard to the
Management of the Public Highways,’ by Alex. Glen, M.A., etc.

CHAPTER IV.
TRAFFIC.

Before a surveyor can decide upon the best material with which the streets
of his town shall be paved, it will be well to consider the question of the
class of traffic they will have to bear.
It must be remembered that three distinct interests have to be considered
in dealing with this question, viz. (1.) The rate-payers, upon whom the cost
of construction and maintenance of streets falls. (2.) The owners and
employers of horses and vehicles who principally use the streets; and (3.)
The inhabitants of the adjoining premises, who would be annoyed if the
material selected were unduly noisy or dirty. In addition to these
considerations, much depends upon local circumstances; the class of trade
upon which the welfare of a town is dependent must not be lost sight of. A
pavement suitable for a busy, pushing manufacturing city may not be
suitable for a quiet agricultural or cathedral town, or for a town which is
used as a health resort. Again, the question of the most adaptable materials
must be considered, and the climate and physical character of a town should
enter largely also into this question.
To condense the requirements of a good roadway into as small a compass
as possible, the following may be given as some of its principal
requisites:—
(1.) It must not be extravagantly costly in its first construction.
(2.) It must be durable and require the least possible amount of repairs
at the least cost.
(3.) It must be safe, firm and hard, with an even face and yet giving
sufficient foothold to horses.
(4.) It must be as noiseless as possible.
(5.) It must be so constructed as to be quickly laid down and repaired
when broken up for water, gas, drains, or other purposes.

(6.) It must be of strong foundation, so as to carry the heaviest weight
without subsidence.
(7.) It must be of such a shape as will throw off all surface water at
once.
(8.) It must be of such materials as will make a minimum of dust or
mud.
(9.) It must be easily cleansed.
(10.) It must be non-absorbent of impurities or moisture of any kind.
(11.) It must give easy traction upon its surface.
(12.) It must not cause jolting to the traffic.
(13.) It must not injure horses’ legs or hoofs.
Of the above requirements No. 1 affects the ratepayers alone; Nos. 3, 11,
12, 13, affect the traffic only, except that the occupiers of shops are
indirectly affected by them; No. 4 affects both traffic and occupiers, and
No. 10 affects the occupiers principally. The remainder of the requirements
affect all three interests.
With reference to the wearing effect of traffic upon the surface of the
roadway, no standard has yet been arrived at by which this can be
determined with accuracy. In France a great number of observations and
experiments have been made from time to time by the engineers of the
Ponts et Chaussées, but their practice has been to count the number of
“collars” passing a given section of a roadway in a given time, irrespective
of the weights, speeds, or number of wheels such collars may be drawing.
Mr. Deacon, the former Borough Engineer of Liverpool, has, however,
reduced traffic to a standard of tons per yard width of roadway per annum.
This he effected by having the traffic in any street carefully watched for a
certain definite time, the number of vehicles, their character and
approximate weight being noted as well as the number of horses by which
they were drawn, and their number of wheels.
The effect of the traffic thus tabulated, arranged, and reduced to ton yards
per annum, can be ascertained upon any roadway, and Mr. Deacon has
given the results of his observations in a valuable paper on the subject of
street carriage pavements which he read before the Institution of Civil
Engineers.[7]
Sir John MacNeill has estimated that 80 per cent. of the total wear of a
road is due to traffic, the remaining 20 per cent. being due to atmospheric
causes. Of this 80 per cent. 60 per cent. he considers is due to the action of

horses’ hoofs where the traffic is fast, and 44·5 per cent. where the traffic is
slow. General Morin estimates the wear of a road due to horses’ feet to be
two-thirds of all causes. There can be no doubt that the action of horses’
feet, shod as they are with heavy iron shoes with long toe pieces and heels,
must have a destructive effect upon the surface of a carriage-way, and this
may be easily observed when watching the ruts formed by any continuous
line of traffic in a roadway.
The following remarks from a report of the Society of Arts on this subject
may here be of interest. “It may be mentioned that as respects the horses’
shoes, attention has long been called to its defects by Sir Francis Head and
others, but Sir Joseph Whitworth now points out the achievement of a
decided and important improvement, which will have a large effect in road
conservancy, as well as the reduction of noise. The improvement consists in
the fastening of a rim of hardened steel, of about half-an-inch square, to the
horses’ feet, and letting the frog grow to its natural size. One effect is to
reduce by five-sixths the weight of the old shoe, or in other words to reduce
by five-sixths the weight of the iron hammers constituted by the common
horses’ shoes, pounding the road surface, and creating road dust and dirt,
and distributing it about. The saving in this respect, as well as the reduction
of noise by the reduction of the weight of rim, and also the saving of road
wear, would warrant the imposition of the stimulus of a tax, or a toll upon
heavy horses’ shoes to hasten this removal.”[8]
Up to the present date, however (1883), no general change has been
effected in the manner of shoeing horses, notwithstanding these admirable
remarks of Sir Joseph Whitworth upon the subject.
With reference to the question of traction upon roads General Morin, in
his ‘Expériences sur le Tirage des Voitures,’ states that the resistance to the
rolling of vehicles upon solid metalled roads and pavements is proportional
to the weight and inversely proportional to the diameter of the wheels. On
solid roads he states that the resistance is nearly independent of the width of
the tires when they exceed 3 or 4 inches, but on a compressible face it
decreases in proportion to the width of the tire; the resistance further
increases with the velocity on hard roads, but does not do so when they are
soft.
The following table is almost universally now adopted as showing the
traction upon level roads formed of different materials, asphalte being taken
as the standard of excellence in this respect.

Asphalted roadway 1·0
Paved roadway, dry and in good order 1·5 to 2·0
„ „ in fair order 2·0 „ 2·5
„ „ but covered with mud 2·0 „ 2·7
Macadamised roadway, dry and in good order 2·5 „ 3·0
„ „ in a wet state 3·3
„ „ in fair order 4·5
„ „ but covered with mud 5·5
„ „ with the stones loose 5·0 „ 8·2

There are four forces constantly at work tending to destroy the
momentum of vehicles passing along a roadway: they are gravity, collision,
friction, and the resistance of the air.
The first of these is lessened by easy gradients in a road, the second can
be overcome to a great extent by evenness of surface, the third by hardness,
and the fourth, as well as all the others, by giving sufficient foothold to the
animal drawing the vehicle.
Another excellent table[9] prepared from experiments made by Mr. Amos
on different descriptions of pavement in the City of London may be useful,
and is here given:—

Tractive
Speed in Force in
Draught Fraction
Road Material. Miles Decimals
in lbs. of Load.
per hour. of the
Load.

1
6·945 126·6 ·0219
45·3
Gravelly Macadam in a side street -
1
3·45 114·322 ·0197
50·3

1
5·15 70·963 ·0123
81·1
1
Granite pitching by side of tramway - 3·196 41·932 ·0072
137·3
1
2·557 47·572 ·0082
121

Granite Macadam “freshly laid” - 1
4·239 262·886 ·0456
21·9

1
2·775 242·726 ·0421
23·7

1
5·025 91·525 ·0158
64·9
1
Asphalte Pavement - 3·56 69·753 ·0121
82·5
1
5·687 84·268 ·0111
68·3

1
3·932 118·163 ·0205
48·7
1
Wood Pavement - 3·278 102·412 ·0177
56·2
1
3·827 100·066 ·0173
57·5

Macadam road, very good on Victoria 1
- 6·65 109·06 ·0181
Embankment 52·7

The following table from Law’s ‘Rudimentary Treatise on Civil
Engineering’ shows the force required to move a load of a ton weight on
different descriptions of roadway, the limiting angle of resistance, and the
greatest inclination which should be given to the road being also stated.

Force Greatest
in lbs. Limiting inclination
Description
required angle of which should
of the Road.
to move resistance. be given
a ton. to the road.
° ′
Well laid pavement 33 0 50 1 in 68
Broken stone surface on a bottom of
46 1 11 1 „ 49
rough pavement or concrete
Broken stone surface laid on an old
65 1 40 1 „ 34
flint road
Gravel road 147 3 45 1 „ 15

As a matter of fact, however, the gradient of a macadamised road should
not, if possible, exceed 1 in 20,[10] experience having shown that a horse,
unless the hill is a very long one, is able to draw his ordinary load for a

level up such an inclination, whereas, if it is steeper he is sometimes
stopped altogether, even though the carter tries the zigzag route so as to
obtain an artificial ease of gradient.
The table given in ‘Molesworth’ upon the same subject is too well known
to be repeated, and another table may be found in Sir Henry Parnell’s work
on roads, which gives a comparison between the draught necessary on a
well-paved road at 2, on a well-made, clean macadamised road at 5,
whereas on a wet and muddy gravel or flint road it rises to 32!
Mr. T. D. Hope, of Liverpool, assuming the power of traction at 100,
gives the following table:—

Weight
drawn.
Level macadamised road 27 cwt.
„ granite pavement 30·5 „
„ wood „ 54·75 „

And Lieut. Crompton has given the resistance of wheels in lbs. per ton on
different surfaces as follows:—

Very good pavement 35 lbs.
Good macadam 60 „
Ordinary ditto 90 „
Newly-laid gravel 200 „
Soft grass land 300 „
Newly-laid metal 440 „

Here “newly-laid metal” comes out very badly, and points to the necessity
of rolling, of which I shall speak in a future chapter.
Whilst on the question of wheel resistance, it may be well to note that the
small front wheels of a waggon cause considerably more harm to a
macadamised road than the larger hind wheels. In the smaller diameter any
loose stone or obstruction is pushed along in front for a considerable
distance, often tearing up the surface of the road, whereas in the other case
the stone is forced into its place or crushed as under a roller.
On the question of “safety” to traffic, Mr. Haywood, the eminent
Surveyor of the City of London, has caused several most complete
observations to be made from time to time, the results of such observations

being detailed by him in various reports. Amongst other useful information
compiled by him, he has ascertained that a horse will travel 446 miles upon
a roadway paved with blocks of wood without a fall, 191 miles upon
asphalte, and 132 miles upon granite setts. I cannot do better than give
verbatim his remarks upon this point:—
“Slight rain makes both asphalte and wood more slippery than they are at
other times. On asphalte the slipperiness begins almost immediately the rain
commences, wood requires more rain before its worst condition ensues. The
slipperiness lasts longer upon wood, on account of its absorbent nature, than
it does upon the asphalte; when dry weather comes after the rain, when
asphalte is in its most slippery state, and the horses fall on it very suddenly,
on wood their efforts to save themselves are more effectual; wood also is
frequently in that peculiar condition of surface in which horses slip or glide
along it without falling. A small quantity of dirt upon asphalte makes it very
slippery, wood requires a large quantity. Slipperiness can be temporarily
cured on both pavements; on the asphalte by sprinkling it with sand, on the
wood by sprinkling it with gravel. The result in both cases is dirt. The sand
thrown on asphalte helps to wear it out, the gravel thrown on wood tends to
preserve it. When a horse falls on asphalte it has difficulty in getting up; on
wood it rises more readily.”[11]
In streets crowded with traffic, the constant stopping and starting,
especially on any surface that is slippery, is very trying to horses. Attention
has lately been directed to this point with a view to the storage of some
power in a vehicle, either by the compression of a spring in stopping or by
some other mechanical means, in order that in starting the driver may at
will liberate this power so as to assist the horse in overcoming the inertia of
his load. These trials, however, have not at present met with much success.
Before closing this chapter on traffic, it will be well to point out that
nearly all vehicles travelling rapidly can pass each other safely if allowed a
clear space of eight feet; hence all roadways should, if possible, be made of
a width between the kerbs of some multiple of eight: a convenient width for
the footpaths, so far as foot-passenger traffic is concerned, is found to be
one-fifth of the entire width of street. It is scarcely necessary to add that
vehicles pass each other on the left side, pedestrians on the right. It is not
easy to assign a cause for the former beyond custom, except that the whip is
held in the right hand, and in consequence free play is given for its use as
the driver sits on that side and can watch his wheels in passing. In France

and other countries the right side is the “rule of the road.” In the case of
pedestrians it is perhaps more convenient for many reasons to pass on the
right side, one being that the umbrella or parasol is always carried in the
right hand, which is also used to remove the hat when bowing, and another
because one’s tendency in passing any obstacle is to give way with the left
shoulder. For regulating the traffic and for the protection of foot passengers,
“sanctuaries,” as they are termed, have often to be constructed by surveyors
in broad streets or awkward centres of traffic, and it is well to place a lamp-
post on these sanctuaries, on which may be advantageously fixed a notice,
“Keep to the Left,” so as to regulate vehicular traffic. On the lamp-posts at
the edge of the footpaths it is also sometimes customary to fix small
enamelled iron plates bearing the inscription on both sides, “Keep to the
Right,” so as to regulate the pedestrian traffic.
Of the danger to life and limb to pedestrians in London much has
frequently been said, and no wonder, when we consider the number of
persons who are daily injured and sometimes killed according to the
Registrar-General’s returns. Some years ago it was proposed to erect light
iron bridges over the most dangerous crossings approached by winding
stairs, but “time is money” in the mighty metropolis, and the scheme was
abandoned because it was felt that most persons would prefer the risk of
being run over rather than spend the time in ascending and descending the
necessary steps for this purpose.

[7] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii.
[8] Vide Report of the Society of Arts on the application of Science and Art to street
paving and street cleansing of the metropolis, 1875.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Experiments made by the direction of the French Government on the tramway
between Sèvres and Versailles, showed that a horse on a level tramway draws three-and-a-
half times the weight, at the same speed and with the same expenditure of power, that he
can do on an ordinary road. Up a gradient of 1 to 100, he is capable of drawing 2·25 times
the weight he can do up the same gradient on an ordinary road, and up a gradient of 1 to 25
he can draw one-and-a-half times the load he can do under similar circumstances on the
ordinary road.
[11] ‘Report on accidents to Horses on Carriageway Pavements,’ by William Haywood
(1874).

CHAPTER V.
MACADAMISED ROADWAYS.

I do not propose in this work to speak of any of the engineering operations
necessary to lay out or construct long lines of connecting roadways, as that
is a duty which seldom falls to a town surveyor to perform, and there are a
great number of treatises and books upon the subject already published. The
object of this chapter will be to give some information and hints upon the
construction and maintenance of what are known as macadamised roads,
suitable for urban and suburban traffic.
There can be little doubt that roadways of this description are expensive
luxuries where the cost of their maintenance, owing to excessive traffic or
other causes, exceeds 2s. per square yard per annum, but they are often
necessary luxuries when the requirements of the locality are considered, a
point to which I drew attention in the preceding chapter upon “Traffic.” For
purposes of what may be styled “pleasure traffic,” macadamised roadways
are unequalled when well constructed and maintained, but there are many
objections to them which will be considered in their place in this chapter.
The word macadamised is, as is well known, derived from one John
Loudon Macadam, who in the year 1816 first took up the question of
putting broken metal upon a road instead of the boulders previously used.
[12] His name, being rather a peculiar one, has been attached to this
description of road ever since.
As a matter of fact, the “macadamised” roadways of the present day are
constructed after a method introduced by Thomas Telford as an
improvement upon Macadam’s principles, and a perusal of the two
following specifications will, I think, show that there is not very much
difference between the method introduced by Telford and that followed at
the present time.

Specification of a Roadway as designed by Thomas Telford more than fifty
years ago.[13]

“Upon the level bed prepared for the road materials, a bottom course or
layer of stones is to be set by hand in form of a close, firm pavement; the
stones set in the middle of the road are to be seven inches in depth; at nine
feet from the centre five inches; at twelve feet from the centre four inches;
and at fifteen feet three inches. They are to be set on their broadest edges
lengthwise across the road, and the breadth of the upper edge is not to
exceed four inches in any case. All the irregularities of the upper part of the
said pavement are to be broken off by the hammer, and all the interstices to
be filled with stone chips firmly wedged or packed by hand with a light
hammer, so that when the whole pavement is finished there shall be a
convexity of four inches in the breadth of fifteen feet from the centre.[14]
“The middle eighteen feet of pavement is to be coated with hard stones to
the depth of six inches. Four of these six inches to be first put on and
worked in by carriages and horses; care being taken to rake in the ruts until
the surface becomes firm and consolidated, after which the remaining two
inches are to be put on.
“The whole of this stone is to be broken into pieces, as nearly cubical as
possible, so that the largest piece in its longest dimensions may pass
through a ring of two and a half inches inside diameter.
“The paved spaces on each side of the eighteen middle feet are to be
coated with broken stones or well-cleaned stony gravel up to the foot path
or other boundary of the road, so as to make the whole convexity of the
road six inches from the centre to the sides of it, and the whole of the
materials are to be covered with a binding of an inch and a half of good
gravel free from clay or earth.”
If the above specification, written more than fifty years ago, is compared
with one of the present date, it will be seen that there is a strong
resemblance between them.

Specification of a Roadway as now executed.

The cross section of the roadway when finished is to be an arc of a circle,
with a rise of 1 in 27 from kerb to the centre of the roadway each way.[15]
The roadway, when consolidated and finished, to be 12 inches in depth at

the gutters and 15 inches at the centre, diminishing gradually from this
point right and left to the depth named. The gutters to be 2 feet in width,
formed of stone setts 6 inches by 6 inches, and laid in sand, on a firmly
consolidated surface of small broken stone or gravel.
The earth road-bed on which the surface formation is to rest is to be
excavated to the required depth, and when graded and shaped to its proper
form, it is to be thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with a steam roller, and all
depressions which then appear are to be filled with the same material as the
road-bed, and rolled until the whole be uniformly compact and firm.
On the road-bed thus formed and compacted, a bottom layer of stone of a
depth of 8 inches at the centre of the road, and gradually diminishing to 6
inches at the kerb, is to be set by hand, to form a close, firm pavement. The
stones are to be laid, with their largest side down, in parallel lines across the
street, breaking joint as much as practicable.[16] The width of the upper part
of the stone not to be more than 8 inches, nor less than 6 inches. The stone
not to exceed 15 inches in length. After being set closely together, the
stones are to be firmly wedged by inserting a bar in all possible places, and
placing between them stones as nearly as possible of the depth of the
pavement, until the whole is bound in position. Projections of the upper part
of this course are to be broken off, care being taken not to loosen the
pavement; and no wedging is to be done within 20 feet of the face of the
work being laid. The small interstices are to be filled in with stone chips
firmly wedged with hammers. The whole is to be thoroughly rammed and
settled to place, and all undue irregularities of surface broken off.
On the foundation course must be laid an intermediate layer of broken
stones, varying in size from 3 inches in their greatest diameters to 1 inch in
their smallest diameters. These irregular-sized stones may be either the
“tailings” of the screened stones, or may be raked from the quarry, and
placed on the roadway without being machine-broken; but they must
nevertheless be so laid as to compact solidly, and must be clean broken
stone, free from dust and dirt, and within the dimensions given above. This
intermediate course must be 4 inches in depth at the centre of the roadway,
gradually decreasing to 3 inches in depth at the gutters; it is to be
thoroughly rolled with the steam roller until it be firm, compact, and solid.
On its upper surface it must be identical in rise and form to the cross-
section of the finished pavement, as specified above. In the laying of this
course of stone a small quantity of binding material is to be used, sufficient

only to fill up the crevices, and render this portion of the pavement solid.
Preferably the binding is to be of fine screened gravel or sand, which is to
be sufficiently watered during the process of rolling, so that the “licking up”
of the road material, and its adherence to the rolling-wheels may be
prevented.
On the intermediate course is to be laid the surface layer of broken stone.
[17] It must be 2¹⁄₂ inches in depth, and the stones must be practically
uniform in quality, and as near an approach to a cube in form as possible.
Each stone used in this layer must have passed through a 2¹⁄₂-inch circular
hole, and all stones that are wedge-shaped, and do not approach uniformity
of measurement on their sides, are to be taken from the road with properly
shaped rakes, and no stones allowed to remain which are not sound, strong,
and equable in size and quality of material. The stones are to be raked into
an even layer, and the steam roller passed over them twice or thrice. After
this a quantity of fine screened gravel or sand is to be thrown on and
sufficiently sprinkled to moisten the mass without “licking up.” The rolling
is then to be continued (working the roller backwards and forwards,
gradually from the gutter to the crown), with an occasional light watering of
the pavement, until the cross-section be exact according to specification, the
interstices filled in, the roadway firmly compacted and solid, and all excess
of binding removed from the surface of the finished pavement.[18]
Telford’s object was the complete separation of the road metal from the
subsoil by a firm and regular foundation, and this system has ever since
held its ground. The advantages to be gained in constructing a roadway in
this manner may be summed up as follows:—
(1.) Economy of construction, as a considerable quantity of metalling is
saved; only 3 inches of properly broken stone and a little binding material
being necessary, the foundation of the roadway (which really carries the
traffic) may be made of a quality of stone unsuitable for road metal, or even
of bricks or stones from old buildings that are being pulled down.
(2.) The prevention of the rising up or “spewing” of the clay or other soft
material on which the roadway rests.
(3.) A solid foundation is secured which will successfully resist the
weight and percussion of the traffic.
(4.) The increased facility for the drainage of the roadway water being
ruinous to it.[19]

Instead of forming a paved or “pinned” foundation for macadamised
roadways, sometimes what is called “hard core” is placed at the bottom of
the road upon the surface formation.
This “hard core” is made of very heterogenous materials, often the waste
products of the house refuse depôt, and consists of ashes, old pots and pans,
meat tins, old bottles, shells, and a variety of similar articles; sometimes the
core is made of burnt ballast, but in no case does it make so good a
foundation as stones set by hand.
Concrete has also been employed as a foundation with great success, but
it is very expensive, and is seldom used except under streets paved with
either granite, wood, or asphalte, of which I shall speak hereafter; for if the
traffic was so great as to necessitate the use of concrete for a foundation it
would surely be better to give the roadway a more durable surface than
macadam.
The following tables, showing the thickness of the foundation and
metalling of broken stone roads, is from a paper on roadways, read to the
Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, by Mr. James Hall,
Borough Surveyor of Stockton, and may be of use to those who would like
to know what proportions to use.

Pinned Foundations. Broken Stones. Concrete.
Cover- Con-
Pinning. Metal. Under. Upper. Metal.
ing. crete.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Country roads 6 3 4 9 4 4 3
Suburban „ 9 3 5 9 6 6 5
Town streets 9 6 5 15 6 10 5

Chalk has sometimes been used for the bottom of a roadway, but where
this is likely to be affected by frost it is the worst material that can be used,
as it is likely to blow up the roadway.
With regard to the annual outlay upon macadamised roadways, the
following comparative tables[20] prepared by Mr. Ellice Clark, the then
Surveyor of Derby, may be of interest.

Description Original Annual Outlay.
of Pavement. cost Interest. Sinking Main- Scav- Gravel. Total.
per fund 3 tenance. enging.

square per cent.
yard. compound
interest.
s. d. d. d. s. d. s. d. d. s. d.
Wood pavement - 15 1·5 7·5 10·1 0 1·0 0 2·7 5·0 2 2·3

Val de Travers
compressed - 18 0·0 9·7 .. 0 3·6 0 0·4 .. 1 1·7
asphalte

Granite setts 7
inches by 3
inches laid over
a layer of 12 - 17 9·0 9·6 0·5 0 1·3 0 2·5 .. 1 1·9
inches of
cement
concrete

Macadam in
south of - 4 9·0 2·1 .. 3 6·0 1 0·0 .. 4 8·1
England

Traffic per Annum
Load of Mud
Material. per yard
per area.
of width.
superficial
tons.
yards.
Macadam 344 25,000
Granite setts 500 50,000
Wood 1666 25,000
Asphalte 4000 500,000

The following is a table of the cost of streets in Paris per square yard per
annum.[21]

Description Mainte- Cleans-
Total.
of Pavement. nance. ing.
s. d. s. d. s. d.
Stone Pavement 0 4·50 0 3·37 0 7·87
Macadam 0 9·25 0 7·31 1 5·26
Asphalte 0 10·20 0 4·17 1 2·37

The cost of maintaining macadamised roadways as compared with that of
granite setts has been said to be as high as 5 to 1 and that this cost if
capitalised for 12 or 13 years will equal the first expense, interest on money,
and the necessary repairs for a granite paved roadway.
The following table gives the cost per annum per square yard for the
maintenance of macadamised roadways in different places, so far as I have
been able to collect them:

s. d. s. d.
Bristol 4 to 1 0
Charing Cross (London) 5 0 (now paved)
Exeter 6 „ 2 6 including cleansing
Glasgow 8¹⁄₂
Leeds 10 „ 1 2
Liverpool 2 „ 2 6
Manchester 6 „ 1 8
Merthyr Tydfil 4¹⁄₂
Newcastle 1 3 including watering
Paris 9¹⁄₄ „ 10 9
Parliament Street (London) 3 6 repairs only
Regent Street (ditto) 3 7 (now paved with wood)
Stockton 9 „ 1 6
Sheffield 1 8 „ 2 0
Wakefield 1 0 all paved streets now.

In Birmingham the macadamised streets have worn down 6 inches in one
year, with a traffic of 2484 vehicles passing in 10 hours.
With reference to the great cost of maintenance in Paris, the following
particulars[22] may here be given;
“The surface of the street is picked by gangs of men, metal from 2¹⁄₂ to 9
inches in thickness is then laid on, a coating of sand is then spread upon it,
it is watered and rolled at per kilometre ton, that is, at per ton weight of
roller per kilometre travelled, at a cost of about 15·33d. per ton mile for the
first 250,000 ton miles, and at reduced rates for additional service. The
materials used for the roads are flints costing 4s. 6¹⁄₂d. per cubic yard for
light traffic roads; for medium traffic, hard millstone at 11s. 4d.; and for the
heaviest and greatest traffic, porphyry at 15s. 9d. The average total cost of
maintenance of the streets is 1s. 8¹⁄₂d. per square yard per annum for the
first-class roads, and 1s. 1¹⁄₂d. for the lighter traffic; the highest cost for

maintenance is as high as 10s. 9d. per square yard, the lowest 9¹⁄₄d. per
annum.”
It may be well to mention that 73 per cent. of the streets in Paris are
paved, 5 per cent. are coated with asphalte, and 22 per cent. are
macadamised.
The contour, or best form of cross section that should be given to a
roadway, has often exercised the minds of engineers, but for all practical
purposes evenness of surface and regularity of section in a macadamised
roadway are of more importance than the slight difference between straight
lines and curves, which might only tend to confuse the workmen. Formerly
it was the practice to employ a complicated gauge in the form of a straight-
edge fitted with plummet or level and sliding bars, but a good eye, assisted
by a long straight-edge and spirit-level and three boning rods, is generally
found to be sufficient, and if the centre of the roadway is kept level with the
heel of the footpath, a sightly cross-section is generally the result; or say 6
inches to 9 inches higher in centre of a roadway 30 feet in width between
the kerbs, 3 inches to 4 inches where it is from 18 to 20 feet in width.
The following detailed section of a macadamised roadway is one which I
am in the habit of specifying for suburban districts, as it is easily set out and
constructed, and answers all purposes most admirably.

Large illustration (66kB)

The total width of street is 36 feet, of which the roadway takes 24,
leaving a footpath 6 feet in width on each side.
The surface of the finished roadway is a segment of a circle, the crown
being level with the heels of the footpaths on each side; the formation
surface is parallel with it, and of course the depth of this and the thickness

of foundations and metal must depend upon local circumstances. It will be
seen that the haunches are drained with 3-inch common drain-pipes. This
may be omitted if the ground is thoroughly dry, but it is often a great help to
a road.
The paths, kerbing, and channelling will be described in their respective
chapters.
It must be borne in mind that on a perfectly level road a more convex
section is necessary than on a gradient.
It is wrong to make the sides of a roadway weaker than the centre,
especially in streets with shops on each side, or on hills where drags are
likely to be used. On hills, too, be it remembered, the channels should take
the surface water; any ruts from wheel tracks acting as watercourses are
disastrous. Hauling timber on a macadamised roadway is also very
damaging.
The great objections to macadamised roadways are as follows:—
(1.) They manufacture too much mud and dust.[23]
(2.) They are too absorbent.
(3.) They are very noisy and damaging to vehicles and horses when fresh
metalled.
(4.) They constantly require mending, but never seem quite sound.
(5.) They are frequently encumbered by men and carts engaged in either
repairs, cleansing, or watering.
(6.) They are very expensive to maintain and cleanse.
(7.) They are bad for a horse to fall upon, as such falls generally damage
the knees.
The following notes upon the maintenance of macadamised roadways
may here be of service:—
(1.) Roads should be inspected in wet weather, as hollows and other
imperfections are then easily detected; a hollow place extends very rapidly
if neglected.
(2.) All ruts should be filled in at once. If there are three parallel, the
centre rut should be first filled in; the traffic is thus slightly diverted, as a
horse will avoid new metal.
(3.) Ruts should not be allowed to form; the surface of the road ought
never to lose its regular section.
(4.) A road should be thoroughly repaired directly it shows the least sign
of being fairly worn all over.

(5.) The right season of the year for repairs is the autumn, although where
a steam roller can be used almost any time will do. If the surface of the road
is very hard it should be “lifted”[24] previous to repairs.
(6.) All loose stones should be picked off at once or put together in
hollow places upon the roadway, as, if allowed to remain, they are not only
dangerous to horses, but are liable to be crushed, or to be forced through the
skin of the roadway, thus causing it damage.
(7.) Water lodging upon a road does great mischief, but it should not be
let off by digging a trench with a pickaxe to the side of roadway, as is
sometimes done.
(8.) A roadway when very dry sometimes suffers through disintegration
of the surface.
(9.) Scraping the mud off a roadway may damage it by loosening stones;
sweeping the surface when wet is best.
(10.) A heavy shower does a road good by washing it; a continuous
drizzle, especially after frost, is very ruinous to a roadway.
(11.) A good cleansing is sometimes worth a coat of metal.[25]

Bituminous Roadways.

In some towns in England bituminous or asphalte macadamised
roadways are made. This consists in mixing ordinary coal tar with the road
metal ordinarily employed for macadamised roads, only it must be borne in
mind that the metal employed must be limestone or some other soft
material, otherwise it will not wear down evenly with the tar, and thus a
lumpy surface will be produced in course of time.
The method of mixing is by heating the stone, which has of course been
previously broken to the required size, and then thoroughly mixing and
incorporating it with the tar. This is then carried to the roadway, is spread in
the ordinary manner and well rolled to the proper contour, a surface being
afterwards given to it by a coating of about 2 inches thick, composed of a
similar mixture, the stones of which are of much smaller size.
Another method is to place about 6 inches of the broken metal described
above upon the necessary foundation. Upon this a boiling mixture
composed of about 50 gallons of creosote oil and 1 ton of pitch is poured
until every interstice is filled with the mixture. Whilst this is still warm, a
thin layer of small broken stone is spread upon the surface and well rolled;

more small stones or chippings are added, and the whole is rolled until the
surface of the roadway has attained its proper contour and presents a
perfectly smooth and clean appearance, little inferior to that of real asphalte.
Dry weather is essential whilst this class of roadway is in course of
construction, and they require careful watching, as, upon the skin becoming
broken, the whole roadway soon breaks up. They have, however, many
advantages over ordinary macadamised roadways when finished, not the
least of them being their imperviousness to moisture, and the ease with
which they are cleansed.

[12] The first road “engineer” in this country was John Metcalf of Knaresborough, who was born in
1717, and who, although totally blind, was the first person to introduce a methodical system of road
repairs. Vide ‘Roads and Road Makers,’ by Henry Alexander Glass.
[13] Vide ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir H. Parnell (1833).
[14] The total width of roadway being thirty feet.
[15] It is necessary to give a new roadway more convexity than it will have when finished, for however
carefully it is raked or attended to when being rolled, the top is sure to flatten and spread towards the
haunches.
[16] Instead of parallel lines it is sometimes well to place these stones diagonally from centre to kerb or
“herring-bone” fashion, thus greatly facilitating the under drainage.
[17] In metalling a road it is better to put on the coats gradually, than to give the whole thickness of
metal at once.
[18] The method adopted in Chicago, U.S.A., for forming their roadways is as follows:—The road bed
is prepared of the proper contour and well-rolled with a 15-ton steam roller until it is even, firm, and
compact; on this bed rubble stone is carefully placed by hand with its broadest surface downwards, then
12 inches of metal are added 6 inches at a time, thoroughly rolled to bond it well, it is then topped with 4
inches of crushed trap rock or some other equally hard stone, which will not disintegrate through the
action of the weather, nor pulverise under the pressure and wear of vehicles upon it; this is again,
thoroughly well rolled so as to compact and bind it together.
[19] “If roads be kept dry they will be maintained in a good state with proportionally less expense. It
has been well observed that the statuary cannot saw his marble, nor the lapidary cut his jewels without the
assistance of the powder of the specific materials on which he is acting; this, when combined with water,
produces sufficient attrition to accomplish his purpose. A similar effect is produced on roads, since the
reduced particles of the materials, when wet, assist the wheels in rapidly grinding down the surface.”
Parnell’s ‘Treatise on Roads,’ 1883. More modern writers have likened macadamised roadways to “stone
mills on which the stones are ground into dust when dry, or mud when wet.”
[20] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lx.
[21] Vide ‘Annales industrielles de Paris,’ Oct. 21st and Nov. 4th, 1877.
[22] Vide ‘Annales industrielles de Paris.’
[23] A report of the Paddington Vestry on “wood and other pavements,” (1878) states macadam as a
mud producing material is twelve times worse than wood, and six times worse than granite cubes.
[24] This is also sometimes called “stocking” or “chequering,” and consists of making furrows across a
roadway with a sharp pickaxe, about a couple of inches in depth, thus removing any irregularities, and
also allowing the new metal to bed properly.
[25] In Birmingham, good cleansing is said to have reduced the amount of metal necessary for the
maintenance of the roadways from 20,000 tons per annum to 13,000 tons.

CHAPTER VI.
ROAD METAL AND BREAKING.

The only true test of the fitness of any stone for use as a road metal is by an
experimental trial upon a certain length of roadway; but in making the first selection for
such trials it is well to make the following investigations:—
(1.) Ascertain from local persons, such as masons, quarrymen, and others, their
opinion of the qualities of the stones in the neighbourhood.
(2.) Make a trial of the stone for toughness. This can be done by setting a good stone-
breaker to work upon a heap of the stone as quarried and carefully watching how much
he can break in an hour.[26]
(3.) Ascertain what power the stone has to resist abrasion. This is done in France by
putting the broken metal into a revolving cylinder and then carefully noting by weight
what the cubes lose by contact with each other. Another plan may be adopted by
pressing the stone against a grindstone with a uniform pressure, and noting the loss
caused by such contact.
(4.) The power to resist compression may be easily ascertained by placing small
cubes in an hydraulic press and noting under what pressures each cube will crush.
(5.) The effect of weather is not easily ascertained artificially, although it is suggested
that a good test may be made by soaking the stone in a saturated solution of sulphate of
soda; and then on exposure to the air, if soft, it is said the stone will disintegrate as if
under the action of thaw succeeding frost.[27]
The specific gravity of a stone is no criterion whatever as to its fitness. Clay-slate has
a higher specific gravity than a tough flint, and yet the former is almost useless as a road
metal; the latter, on the contrary, often making excellent roadways.
The qualities necessary for a really good road metal are hardness, toughness, not
easily decomposed or affected by the weather, and at the same time the stone when
broken ought to have some power of cohesion without the necessity of much binding
material. The question of cost I put aside at once, as it is well known that the best road
metal is always the cheapest where there is much or heavy traffic.
Local circumstances must to a great extent determine what stone to use upon a
roadway, but the following list may be of use:—
Syenite.—This is a granite in which hornblende takes the place of mica, and is an
excellent road material; the darker the colour the more durable it is found to
be.
Granite.—This should have more felspar than quartz, and have as little mica as
possible; the closer the grain the better. Coarse-grained granites soon

decompose.
Trappean Rocks.—Some of these are excellent for road metal. Basalts of dark colour
and close grain should be selected. Greenstones with similar
characteristics are good; as is also Whinstone.
Gneiss.—Is inferior to granite; it has mica in layers and is not a good road metal.
Clay Slates.—These are useless, as they crumble on exposure or degenerate
into mud.
Limestone.—The Metamorphic, Silurian, and Carboniferous limestones may be used
if crystalline in appearance, but the Lias and Oolitic are of little use.[28]
Sandstones.—Some of these, if cherty or containing a large percentage of iron, may
be used; but as a rule they are quite unfitted for use as a road metal.
Flints. —These, if tough, make excellent roadways; but unfortunately they are
sometimes too brittle for heavy traffic. Surface-picked flints are better than
those from a quarry.[29]
Pebbles.—These are found on sea shores and river beds. They are composed of very
various rocks, and are much water-worn and rounded; when broken they
sometimes answer very well if mixed with gravel to bind them.
Gravel.—This, if of a flinty character, and not too much mixed with earthy matter,
makes good roads for light traffic, if carefully watched or well rolled during
formation. Pit gravel should always be screened through wire screens of 1¹⁄₂ to 1³⁄₄
gauge, and the small can be used for footpaths.
In some places it is difficult to obtain any natural stone for the purposes of road
metal; in these cases slag from blast furnaces or ordinary clinkers from furnaces are
sometimes used. Oyster shells are used on the roadways near the Gulf coasts[30] and
charcoal in Michigan, United States.[31] I have myself made a most excellent roadway
with coral on the coast of Jamaica, and no doubt many strange materials have been, and
still are, used for this purpose.
“I never mix” is an adage that should be followed by surveyors as regards road metal.
Do not mix a soft material with one that is harder for either construction or maintenance
of a roadway; the effect is what is known as a “bumpy” road, arising from the fact of the
soft stone wearing faster than the hard. The hardest metal should be kept for the top or
surface layer of the roadway.
As an instance of the extreme difficulty besetting the question of the best material for
road metal, I will here give a table showing the comparative coefficients of quality
assigned to them by the engineers of the French Department of the Ponts et Chaussées.
[32]

Coefficients of Quality of Road Materials.
Granitic gravel 23·8
Quartz gravel 21·4
Trap 20·0
Quartz 10·0 to 25·0 (in one instance 4·8)
Basalt 12·0 „ 20·0
Porphyry 10·0 „ 20·0 (in one instance 5·0)

Quartzite 11·0 „ 18·0
Devonian schist 16·0
Schist 4·0 to 12·0
Sandstone 12·0 „ 16·0
Granite 6·0 „ 20·0 (generally 10·0 to 12·0)
Syenite 12·0
Gneiss 9·0 to 12·0
Silicious pebbles and gravel 8·0 „ 19·0 (in one instance 6·0)
Silex 8·0 „ 16·0
Chalk flints 7·0 „ 11·6
Silicious limestone 6·0 „ 18·0 (generally about 10·0 to 12·0)
Compact limestone 14·0
Magnesian limestone 16·0
Carboniferous limestone 9·0
Oolitic limestone 5·0 to 12·0
Lias limestone 5·0 „ 10·0
Juranic limestone 5·0 „ 8·0
Limestone 5·0 „ 12·0
Mean of all France 10·63

It will be seen by the above table how different are the results obtained from
materials of the same character.
Breaking stone for the purpose of using it as a road metal was, until comparatively
recent years, always effected by hand; now, as in other cases, machinery has stept in and
somewhat supplanted manual labour. Hand-broken road metal, however, still finds
favour with road surveyors; it is better broken, and in some districts, the occupation
finds employment for persons who otherwise would be thrown on the rates for support.
In breaking stone by hand the breaker sits and strikes the stone with a small cast-steel
chisel-faced hammer, weighing about one pound, at the end of a long, straight-grained
but flexible ash stick.[33] The breaker also has another hammer, weighing about five
pounds, with which he reduces the size of the large stones before breaking them into the
proper size for road metal. This latter size is often a matter of choice, some engineers
preferring it to be broken so small as will pass through a ring of only 1¹⁄₂ inch in
diameter; others are content with 3 inches, especially where the roads are steam rolled.
An old method of gauging used to be “such a size as the stone breaker could put in his
mouth,” but this was unsatisfactory to all persons concerned, and “to pass all ways
through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter” is now the size most generally adopted.
Mr. Codrington says[34] “a good stone breaker will break 2 cubic yards of hard
limestone to the ordinary gauge in a day, and some men will break more. Hard silicious
stones and igneous rocks can only be broken at the rate of 1¹⁄₂ or of 1 cube yard per day;
of some of the toughest, such as Guernsey granite, a man can only break on an average
half a cube yard per day. River gravel, field stones, or flints, which are already of a
small size, can be broken at the rate of 3 or 4 cube yards per day.”
This may be taken as fairly representing a day’s work, the price for breaking however
must vary considerably in different localities on account of the variety of the stones to
be broken and the value of labour; in some districts the road metal does not cost more

than 1s. per cube yard, in others 2s. 6d. and 2s. 8d. is not considered too high, and it was
to meet and reduce this great expense that steam stone-breaking machines have been
introduced. These machines are known as “Ellison’s,” “Newall and Archer’s,”
“Hope’s,” and “Blake’s,” the latter being that which is best known and most generally
used in this country.

“ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.

“BLAKE’S” STONE BREAKER.

“NEWALL AND ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.

The foregoing illustrations will give a general idea of the manner in which the stone
is broken or crushed between strong iron jaws; in all cases a revolving perforated screen
is necessary (not shown in the drawings) to separate the stone broken to proper gauge
from that which is too large, and also from the spalls or chippings.
The Blake’s or “Blake Marsden’s” machines are of various sizes and weights; the
following particulars with respect to them, as advertised, may be of use.[35]

Total weight
Approxi- of machine
Size of machine
mate with wheels,
at mouth, Nominal
quantity axles, horse Price of[36]
showing what horse-
of road shafts, machine
size of stone power
metal automatic complete.
each machine required.
broken screening
will take.
per hour. apparatus,
etc.
inches. cube yards. H.P. tons cwt. qrs. £ s. d.
10 × 8 3¹⁄₃ 3 5 6 0 157 0 0
12 × 8 4 3 5 11 0 167 0 0
15 × 8 5 5 6 19 0 200 0 0
15 × 10 6 6 8 5 0 220 0 0
20 × 10 8 8 10 2 0 265 0 0
24 × 13 12 10 15 5 0 390 0 0
24 × 17 13 14 16 2 0 415 0 0
24 × 19 14 16 19 17 0 440 0 0
30 × 13 14 16 16 2 0 440 0 0

Mr. Till, the Borough Engineer of Birmingham, speaking of the work done by one of
Blake’s machines in 1874, says:[37] “The stone-breaking machine at Holliday Street will
break on an average 40 tons of ragstone per day, at a cost, exclusive of wear and tear of
machine, of 10¹⁄₂d. per ton, but it produces 16 per cent. of dust or fine stone; of the
remainder one-fifth has to be rebroken by hand, the whole is very irregular in size and
very flaky in comparison with hand-broken stone. The machine is much more efficient

in breaking granites or pebbles. It has, however, been found very useful during the last
two years, in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining labour.”
Mr. Jacob, the Borough Engineer of Barrow in Furness, read an excellent paper on
the subject of stone-breaking machinery to the members of the Association of Municipal
and Sanitary Engineers, at their meeting in Manchester in 1875,[38] giving a full
description of one of Blake’s machines, to which I will refer my readers.
Mr. Codrington[39] gives the result of breaking whinstone in a 16-inch by 9-inch
Hope machine, from which it appears that the total cost, including wages, coal, oil,
cottonwaste, etc., wear and tear of machinery, and, I presume, interest on first cost of
machine, was about 1s. per cube yard. This effected a saving of 10d. per cube yard as
compared with the same stone broken by hand, and the machine broke 40 tons of stone
per diem.
To make a stone-breaking machine pay, it is necessary:
(1.) To give it nearly constant work.
(2.) That the stone to be broken shall be too tough to break economically by hand.
(3.) That the machine shall be at the quarry, so as to save the expense of much
handling.
(4.) To exercise care in feeding, to give it a sufficient supply without allowing an
undue quantity of stone to pass in at one time.
(5.) As about 20 per cent. of grit or dust is produced, this must be used for foot-paths,
or as a binding material for roads, or in asphalte or tar paving.
In addition to the grit which is produced, a great many long and thin pieces of stone
pass through the machine, which have to be again broken by it before they could be
used as road metal; and having once taken this form, they will frequently pass several
times through the machine before they get properly broken.
The wear and tear of a stone-breaking machine is very considerable, as can be easily
imagined; it has been known to reach as high as 62·5 per cent.[40] of the first cost of the
machine in one year. The objections to stone-breaking by machinery are principally:
(1.) In some districts labour can be successfully employed in this manner.
(2.) Hand-broken stone is sharper in fracture, as it is done by a blow and not by
gradual pressure, whereas machine-broken stone is often flaky or with rounded edges,
and frequently each stone may be cracked and shaken by the pressure.
(3.) Want of uniformity in the size of the stones.
The smaller the stone is broken the heavier a cubic yard of it will weigh, as the
percentage of vacant space between each stone will be less. It has been found by
experiment, however, that 55 per cent. of ordinary road metal is solid, so that the weight
of a cubic yard of it can easily be ascertained in the following manner.[41]
Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of any stone by 27 to bring it to a cubic yard, and
then multiply this by 0·55: the result will be the weight of a cubic yard of the same
stone when broken for metalling.
A cubic yard of Guernsey granite broken to pass through a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring has been
weighed, and gives an average of 1 ton 3 cwt. 2 qrs.

tons cwt. qrs.
A cube yard of flint weighed 1 1 3
„ „ pit gravel weighed 1 4 3
„ „ limestone weighed 1 3 0

A cubic yard of ordinary broken road metal will, when properly spread, cover an area
of about 30 square yards of surface of a roadway.
The following specimen specification for the supply of stone either unbroken or
broken may be of use.

Specification for the Supply of Road Metal.

(1.) The road metal must at all times be clean and free from clay or other dirt, and
fully equal to the sample; if required to be broken, each cube must have a square face
and sharp edges, and pass all ways through a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring.
(2.) The metal must be delivered in (name of town) free of all charge to the
corporation, either at a railway station or at one of the depôts of the corporation, at the
option of the contractor, such option to be declared in the tender.
(3.) The metal must be supplied on the order of the borough engineer in such
quantities as he may specify, and must be delivered within the time specified in the
order. The contractor shall not be required to supply and deliver more than tons in any
one week; but the corporation will be at all times ready to take the metal in larger
quantities.
(4.) The bill of lading or railway invoice shall be taken as primâ facie evidence of the
weight of metal supplied; but the corporation retain the right to test the accuracy of such
bill of lading or railway invoice, by passing the metal over a weighbridge as it is
received.
(5.) Metal delivered at a depôt by carts shall be measured when broken and paid for at
the rate of cwt. per cubic yard.
(6.) The corporation retain the right to reject all metal which shall not be equal to the
sample, or at their option to pay a reduced price according to its value.
(7.) Quarterly payments will be made by the corporation on the certificate of the
borough engineer, and within one month from the date of such certificate.
(8.) The borough engineer shall be the sole judge as to the fitness of the metal
supplied, and his certificate, in writing, shall be conclusive evidence upon the point as
between the corporation and the contractor.
(9.) If the contractor shall make default in the supply and delivery of road metal in
accordance with the terms of this specification, and within the time specified for the
purpose in the order of the borough engineer, the corporation shall be at liberty to obtain
such road metal as they may deem fit and necessary from another source, and any
excess in price or other loss they may consequently incur, shall be recoverable by them
from the contractor as liquidated and ascertained damages.
(10.) Tenders must be sent in only on the prescribed form, and the person tendering
must insert in his tender the name of two persons who will join him in a joint and

several bond to the corporation in the sum of l. for the due performance of the contract.
(11.) Each person tendering must send to the office of the borough engineer a sample
of the road metal he offers, accompanied by a full description, and the name and
position of the quarry from which it is produced; such sample to be not less that one
cwt. in weight, and to be retained by the corporation in the event of the tender being
accepted.
(12.) The corporation do not bind themselves to accept the lowest or any tender; and
they further retain the right to reject a contractor in the event of his failing to find
sureties to their satisfaction in compliance with the 10th condition.
(13.) The word “corporation” shall mean the mayor, aldermen and burgesses, of
in their capacity as the urban sanitary authority for . The word “contractor” shall
mean the person whose tender is accepted, and who has signed these conditions; and the
words “borough engineer” shall mean the engineer to the said corporation for the time
being.
Since writing this chapter my attention has been directed to a stone-breaking machine
which is said to substitute a “knapping” for that of the usual crushing motion which is
so generally the great defect in these machines: I allude to that known as “Baxter’s
patent knapping-motion stone breaker,” by which a rapid jerk or blow is given instead
of the slow crushing movement, thus (it is contended) causing less waste from dust and
chippings, and also less strain of the machinery and less power to drive it.

[26] Toughness is not all that is required. Leather would be very difficult to break with a hammer, but it
would not make a good road metal.
[27] I have tried this experiment, but without success, except on such soft stones as were evidently
unfitted for use as a road metal.
[28] Many hundreds of miles of roadways in this country are made with limestones; they often make an
excellent surface, as they possess a considerable power of binding together, but weather and very heavy
traffic affect them considerably: as they all have a strong affinity for water, their very power of thus
cementing themselves together causes a quantity of dust in dry, and mud in wet weather.
[29] A flinty or quartzose stone seems to harden with exposure. This is notably the case in pebbles; old
pebble paving taken up and broken makes a most hard and durable road metal.
[30] ‘Roads, Streets and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 10.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Vide ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 33, a most
excellent work upon this subject.
[33] Mr. W. Bold considered a hammer weighing 1¹⁄₄ lb. of an elliptical form, pointed at the ends, the
area of each end being about ¹⁄₁₀₀th of a square inch, to be the most suitable to break hard stones. Vide
‘Minutes of Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. (1840) p. 50.
[34] ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 38.
[35, 36] No doubt the price of the machine varies with the price of iron, etc.
[37] Vide ‘Report of the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham to the Paving and Street Improvement Sub-
Committee,’ p. 11.
[38] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. ii. p. 76.
[39] Vide ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 41.
[40] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. ii. p. 82.
[41] Vide ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 45.

CHAPTER VII.
ROAD ROLLING.

The march of civilisation has decided that road rolling is a necessity for macadamised
roads, instead of allowing the stones of which they are composed to be worn in by the
traffic, as was formerly the custom. In Calcutta bullock rollers were used so long ago as
the year 1855, and it was the cruelty of this operation that suggested to Mr. W. Clark the
necessity for a steam roller,[42] the outcome of which was the well-known roller as
manufactured and supplied by Messrs. Aveling and Porter of Rochester, and now so
generally used throughout this country, as well as in American and other foreign towns.
[43]
Steam rolling saves money as well as suffering, and the legislature have recognised
the importance of a sanitary authority becoming possessed of a steam roller by
permitting money to be borrowed for the purchase of a roller as for a permanent work.
(Sect. 234 Glenn’s Public Health Act 1875, footnote to Sub. Sect. (1).)
Mr. Albert W. Parry, the Borough Surveyor of Reading, has prepared some tables on
the subject of steam road rollers, from information he received on this subject, in answer
to some questions he addressed to the surveyors of a number of towns a few years ago.
It appears from this tabulated statement that thirty-three 15-ton steam rollers were in
use, six 10-ton rollers, one 21-ton roller, one 8-ton roller, one 9¹⁄₂ ton roller, one 14¹⁄₂-
ton roller, one 17-ton roller, and one 25-ton roller; this latter not being much used, as it
was found to be too heavy.
The average gross cost per annum of necessary repairs to the rollers, other than those
which could be effected by the men in charge of it, amounted to 35l. 12s. The number of
men employed to attend to the roller and cost of labour per day varied considerably,
from one case (South Shields) where “one engine-man at 26s. per week, and an old
scavenger with the flag” were found to be sufficient; to another (Gloucester) where the
cost per day is stated as follows: “one man works the engine at 5s. per day, one boy with
signal flag, 1s. 8d., two men spreading gravel or sand at 3s., two men watering and
sweeping to keep water from running off in channels.”
Some of the older rollers require a steersman as well as a driver, and the Locomotives
Amendment Act requires two men with flags, but this is seldom really necessary. The
sweepers, spreaders and sprinklers should be taken as irrespective of the actual cost of
the roller, which may therefore be assumed to be the wages of the engine-man, say 5s.
per diem, and a boy or old man with a flag at 2s., thus making a total for labour of 7s.
per diem.

The fuel that is consumed by a 15-ton roller seems to be from 3 to 5 cwt. of coke per
diem, common gas coke being generally used, though steam coal would no doubt
answer equally well, some of the smokeless Welsh descriptions being of course
necessary.
With regard to the question “When not used for rolling roads, to what other use (if
any) do you put the engine power?” there are not many towns that use the machine for
any other purpose than rolling, but the following uses may be enumerated to which the
machines have been applied:—Driving a stone-breaker, a mortar-mill, a saw-bench, a
chaff-cutting machine, a bean-crusher, etc. It has also been used in connection with
pumping, and to produce the necessary power for the electric light, and it is frequently
employed as a traction engine.
The driving rollers usually have provision by which spikes may be fitted into holes in
their faces, in order that they may be used for lifting or chequering roads. These,
however, apparently do not answer; the working of a machine in this manner is said to
shake and strain it considerably, and the holes in the rollers, which are plugged with
wood when not in use, are objectionable, as these plugs wear out and the road metal gets
into the holes, and the surface of the road is picked up as the rolling proceeds; besides
this, the spikes seem to have no effect unless the surface of the roadway being operated
upon is soft.
With reference to the use of binding material, the most commonly used and that
which receives most favour is road grit or scrapings,[44] sharp sand is also employed, as
well as gravel if clean, and also stone chippings and screenings; these should be of the
same material of which the road is made, if possible, and no doubt newly constructed
roads require more care in the binding material than simple repairs. The steepest
gradient upon which a roller will act appears to be 1 in 9 in Blackburn, with a 15-ton
roller, but this must require a very heavy pressure of steam, and 1 in 14 seems to be a
gradient that gives no trouble to roll either up or down; in going down hill, of course it
is a mere question of sufficient break power.
The number of superficial yards rolled per day must vary extremely with
circumstances: the class of material, the amount of binding and water used, the gradient
and pressure of steam maintained, and the amount of rolling considered necessary,[45]
being amongst the various influences. From the above returns I find that the number of
square yards rolled varies from 500 to 3000 per diem, the average for 42 towns being
1105 square yards per diem.
The cost per square yard rolled, including all charges, may be assumed to be between
¹⁄₂d. and 1d., and the cost of binding material about 3d. per square yard. With reference
to the necessity of binding material, the following, facts are interesting.
Mr. Wm. H. Grant, Superintending Engineer of the New York Central Park, in his
report upon the park roads, says:[46] “At the commencement of the macadam roads, the
experiment was tried of rolling and compacting the stone by a strict adherence to
Macadam’s theory, that of carefully excluding all dirt and foreign material from the
stones, and trusting to the action of the roller and the travel of teams to accomplish the
work of consolidation. The bottom layer of stone was sufficiently compacted in this way

to form and retain, under the action of the rollers (after the compression had reached
about its practical limit) an even and regular surface; but the top layer, with the use of
the heavy roller loaded to its greatest capacity, it was found impracticable to solidify
and reduce to such a surface as would prevent the stones from loosening and being
displaced by the action of waggon-wheels and horses’ feet. No amount of rolling was
sufficient to produce a thorough binding effect upon the stones or to cause such a
mechanical union and adjustment of their sides and angles together, as to enable them
mutually to assist each other in resisting displacement. The rolling was persisted in with
the roller adjusted to different weights up to the maximum load (12 tons) until it was
apparent that the opposite effect from that intended was being produced. The stones
became rounded by the excessive attrition they were subjected to, their more angular
parts wearing away, and the weaker and smaller ones being crushed.”
“The experiment was not pushed beyond this point. It was conclusively shown, that
broken stones of the ordinary sizes, and of the very best quality for wear and durability,
with the greatest care and attention to all the necessary conditions of rolling and
compression, would not consolidate in the effectual manner required for the surface of a
road while entirely isolated from and independent of other substances. The utmost
efforts to compress and solidify them while in this condition after a certain limit had
been reached, were unavailing.”
From the foregoing it is very evident that some description of binding material is
essential in making a road under a roller. Where traffic is allowed to consolidate a road
it is different, as then the stones are knocked about and are sufficiently abraded against
each other to form a binding material for themselves. Too much binding material or too
much water should not be used in forming a road with a steam roller. It is unfortunately
frequently the case that a road is made quickly only to go to pieces with the traffic in a
few weeks. The surface of a well-constructed macadamised roadway should after being
rolled look almost like an encaustic pavement. If there is too much binding material in
the joints of the stones, the first heavy rain washes it out and the surface of the roadway
quickly goes to pieces.
The following description of the manner in which it is recommended that the roller
should be applied is taken from an excellent little pamphlet on Steam Road Rolling, by
Messrs. Aveling and Porter, the well-known makers of steam-rollers, and although local
circumstances must guide the surveyor in all his works, the particulars may be of use:—
“In the best practice the roadway is excavated, graded, and properly formed to a
depth of 14 inches from the level of the gutters, with a cross section conforming to the
cross section of the road when finished; it is then thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with
the steam roller, all depressions being carefully filled and rolled before the stone is put
on. On the bed thus formed and consolidated a layer of stones 8 inches thick is set by
hand, and rammed or settled to place by sledge hammers, all irregularities of surface
being broken off and the interstices wedged with pieces of stone. The intermediate layer
of broken stone, of a size not exceeding 3 inches in diameter, is then evenly spread to a
depth of 4 inches and thoroughly rolled, and this is followed by rolling in half-an-inch
of sand. The surface layer of stone, broken to a size not larger than 2 inches diameter,

and to a form as nearly cubical as possible, is then put on to a depth of 3 inches,
thoroughly rolled, and followed as before by sand, also rolled. Finally, a binding
composed of clean, sharp sand is then applied, well watered and most thoroughly rolled
with the steam roller, until the surface becomes firm, compact and smooth, the
superfluous binding material being swept off and removed.”
And the following account of the method adopted in the United States at Hartford
may also be of interest.[47]
“The surface of the road is excavated to a suitable depth—say, 18 inches; preparing
the form for the pavement with the precautions as for a common pavement; 4 inches of
gravel and proper drainage where required, provided blocks of stone of any irregular
shape are selected for the pavement, of about 7 inches in thickness. The blocks are set
by hand with great care, as closely in contact at their base as practicable. The surface
between the blocks is filled with chippings of stone carefully laid in. A layer of broken
stone, 4 inches thick, is laid over this pavement. The road-covering thus prepared should
be rolled with the steam roller until the upper layer has become perfectly compact and
consolidated. The second layer, about 3 inches in depth, is then laid on; a coating of
clean coarse gravel, 1¹⁄₂ inch thick, termed ‘binding,’ is spread over the surface, and the
whole well rolled as before, and you have the requisites of a good road—viz., clean,
hard, and even at all seasons. No road should be considered made until it is completely
rolled. A road made in the manner above described, and kept perfectly clean, hard, and
even, with materials of a good tough quality, would show extremely little wear on the
surface; indeed, it has been found in France to be less than ¹⁄₂ an inch in a year, on a
road of great traffic.”
In the neighbourhood of New York the steam roller is used as follows:—
Two and a half inches of trap rock is laid and lightly rolled until the stones have
become a little compacted, then coarse screenings are added, and it is again rolled; after
this a layer of about 2 inches of stones are added and rolled with coarse screenings as
before. Fine screenings or stone dust is then applied, and the roadway is then rolled until
every interstice is filled up; it is then well watered and again rolled.
With reference to the employment of the steam roller in repairs of roads, the
following description is given of the method adopted by the Surveyor to the Tottenham
Local Board, near London.[48]
“When a road becomes so full of holes or so worn as to require coating throughout its
entire length and width, it should be hacked completely over and raked into a segmental
form in its transverse section to remove irregularities, and so that the road may have a
fall from the crown to the channel of not less than one inch to a yard. It should then be
coated with stone broken as nearly cubical as possible and to an uniform gauge. When
spread it should be slightly coated with gravel screenings, or the grit sweepings from the
roads, which are equally suitable for the purpose when in proper condition. The road
should then be watered and rolled, beginning with the road at the channels, and ending
at the crown of the road, until a smooth surface is obtained, more stones being added to
fill up any inequalities that may exist, until the whole is consolidated. By constantly

sweeping the grit from the sides to the crown of the road as the roller passes over, every
stone is thoroughly grouted into its bed.”
Mr. R. Read, the Surveyor of Gloucester, says:[49] “The road should be thoroughly
well lifted and the metalling spread in three-inch layers evenly, and rolled once or twice
before the gravel or other binding material is spread; then spread gravel or sand evenly
and well watered with fine distributor until the stone is entirely covered, and the sand
does not adhere to the roller. Dam up the road channels to prevent water and sand
running off into sewers and let men scoop up the water, and throw it back on the road,
as it collects in the gutters.”
In all cases the sides should be rolled first to such a degree of firmness that when the
roller passes over the centre or crown of road, its weight, which tends to spread the
metal or make it work off towards the sides, may be resisted by their consolidation.
With reference to the effect of the weight of steam road rollers upon roadways, it may
be well here to compare that of a 15-ton roller with other burdens that a road has to bear,
taking each case at per inch of width of tire.
An ordinary loaded two-wheeled cart presses with a weight of about 9 cwt. per inch
width of tire, a loaded wagon about 7¹⁄₂ cwt., a 9-ton traction engine about 3³⁄₄ cwt., and
a 15-ton steam road roller about 3¹⁄₂ cwt. So that as far as the surface of the roadway is
concerned, a roller affects it the least of any of the above loads.
It has, however, been found that where rollers of more weight than 15 tons are used,
[50] not only are they unwieldy, but, from their great weight, the solidity of the
foundation of the roadway may be interfered with, and also there is great danger of
damaging gas or water mains and services, besides any cellars that may be constructed
under the roadway.
The steam rollers which are principally used in this country, are those manufactured
by Messrs. Aveling and Porter, and those by Messrs. Green and Sons, drawings of both
of which are here represented.

MESSRS. AVELING AND PORTER’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER.

MESSRS. GREEN AND SON’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER AND TRACTION ENGINE COMBINED.

In Paris the Gellerat steam roller is used, and another is also known, which is
manufactured by Messrs. Morland and Sons.
A 15-ton steam roller costs about 650l. in the first place, the cost of working it &c.,
has been given in the early pages of this chapter.
The advantages of steam road rolling may be summed up as follows:—
(1.) The saving of wear and tear to vehicles and horses. Roads should be made for the
traffic, and not by it.[51]
(2.) Economy; as it is said that a saving of from 30 to 50 per cent. is effected by
reason of the roads being better made thus obviating the necessity for such frequent
sweeping and scraping.
(3.) The roads can be made or repaired at any season of the year.
(4.) The avoidance of cruelty to horses, cattle, and sheep, as in the case of newly
metalled unrolled roads.
(5.) A saving of road metal. (a) Because it need not be broken so small. (b) Because
there are no loose stones to be kicked about and lost. (c) Because there is no abrasion of
the stones, only one surface of the stone being exposed. (d) Because no ruts can be
formed in which water can lie to rot the stone. (e) Because a thinner coating of metal
can be employed.
(6.) The roller can be advantageously used for other purposes.

(7.) Rolled streets have a better appearance, they are easier of traffic as having more
evenness of surface and superior hardness, and it is contended that if steam rollers were
more general there would not be such an outcry for other descriptions of pavement for
roadways.
(8.) The steam roller soon finds out the good from the bad metal for roads, it is also
contended that it also does this with respect to the gas and water mains, the latter,
however may be looked upon as a rather doubtful advantage.
(9.) The avoidance of the necessity of the continued employment of men raking the
metal into the ruts.
In Mr. Paget’s valuable little pamphlet upon the subject of steam rolling[52] may be
found the following remarks:—
“One of the main advantages attending the rolling of roads by steam-power, consists
in the diminished proportion of mud or soluble matter which is then incorporated in the
structure of the road surface. If the surface of an ordinary road that has not been rolled is
broken up and the material washed, it is found that as much as half of it is soluble
matter, mud, dirt, and very fine sand; the stones, having only been thrown loosely upon
the road, have lain so long before becoming consolidated by the traffic, and have
undergone in the meantime such extensive abrasion that the proportion of mud, dirt, and
pulverised material in the metalling is increased to that extent, and the stones are really
only stuck together by the mud. This accounts for the fact that although an unrolled
macadamised road may indeed, after long use, have a surface that is pretty good and
hard in dry weather, and may offer then a very slight resistance to traction, yet it will
quickly become soft and muddy when there is any rain. By the employment, however,
of a steam roller upon the newly-laid metalling of a macadamised road the stones are
rolled in and well bedded at once, and the surface is thus consolidated into a sort of
stone felt, capable of resisting most effectually the action of ordinary traffic, and
containing the smallest quantity of soluble matter to form mud in wet weather.”
Having given the advantages of steam road rolling, I will now proceed to give the
disadvantages.
(1.) The first cost; this to a small borough or town is often the great stumbling block.
It is a pity that two or three of them could not join, and procure one between them at
joint cost, thus avoiding the individually heavy burden.
(2.) The risk of damage to gas and water mains and services; or even of cellars under
the streets in some of the older towns.
(3.) The interference to traffic whilst the roller is at work; the result is generally
unsatisfactory if, to avoid this, the machine is worked during the night.
(4.) The noise and smoke.
(5.) The risk of frightening horses.
(6.) If too heavy a roller is used, the foundation of the roadway may be injured or the
metal may be crushed instead of bedded.
(7.) The necessity of using so much binding material and water.
Before closing this chapter it will be necessary to say a few words upon rollers drawn
by horses.

These are always unsatisfactory: they are expensive to use, as a large team of horses
and a number of attendants are necessary; they are difficult to turn, and the horses’ feet
displace almost as many stones as the roller compresses into their beds.
They cannot be of greater weight than 10 tons, even when on the hydrostatic
principle, and they are clumsy and difficult of manipulation.
If a roller is to be used at all, let it be a steam road roller of the most modern
description, and of the best manufacture.

[42] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 95. (The first
steam roller was made in the year 1864.)
[43] The first steam roller used in England was, I believe, in the year 1872; in Paris about 1864.
[44] This should be collected and “weathered” so as to get rid of mud and any organic matter in it.
[45] In Paris 3 to 3·75 ton miles of roller are applied to every cubic yard of metal; in America 5 ton
miles are thought necessary.
[46] Vide ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 89.
[47] Vide Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. 32.
[48] Vide Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. 33.
[49] Vide ‘The Use of Steam Rollers,’ by A. W. Parry, Reading.
[50] Some road surveyors contend that for gravelled roads 6-ton rollers are heavy enough, for
macadam roads 12-ton rollers.
[51] Traffic in making a roadway is apt to grind off the sharp edges and spoil the metal before it is set.
[52] ‘Report on the Economy of Road Maintenance and Horse Draught through Steam Rolling, with
special reference to the Metropolis,’ by Frederick A. Paget, C.E., etc. etc., London 1870, to which I refer
my readers for many scientific and useful facts upon this subject.

CHAPTER VIII.
PITCHED PAVEMENTS.

It has been asserted that where a roadway has a traffic exceeding 1000 vehicles per
diem, that to maintain it as a macadamised roadway is not economical.[53] However that
may be, it is unquestionable that for very heavy traffic blocks of hammer-dressed stone,
laid upon a concrete or hard gravel bed, have been in use for a great number of years,
and indeed the Romans, who were great road makers, introduced the system (the
Archaic, as it is sometimes called) into this country more than 2000 years ago; the size
of the paving stones was, however, much larger than modern science finds necessary.
There is no doubt that a roadway paved with granite or whinstone setts, upon a hard
concrete foundation, presents a most enduring pavement, costing but a few pence per
annum in repairs[54] and cleansing, and in other respects it answers nearly all the
requirements of traffic except in two very important particulars—it becomes very
greasy and slippery under certain conditions of the weather after having been laid any
time, and it is an intolerable nuisance in any great thoroughfare, from the incessant din
and clatter arising from the wheels of vehicles and the iron shoes of the horses striking
upon it; so great is the noise in some thoroughfares thus paved, that tradesmen are
compelled to keep their doors and windows tightly closed in order that they may be able
to conduct their business, and it is known to injuriously affect the nerves and health of
persons who are obliged to live in the vicinity of such streets. It is a bad pavement too
for horses to travel upon, the jar upon the legs of the unfortunate animals soon telling
upon them.
Great improvements, however, have in recent years been introduced to correct these
faults. The setts are now made very narrow, about 3 inches in width, or 4 setts to 14
inches including the joints: this gives a better foothold for the horse, the hoof having but
a little way to slip before being arrested by a joint; it also lessens the noise, and helps
besides to prevent the edges of the stones becoming worn or the pavement wearing
unevenly.
Running the joints with an asphaltic composition instead of ordinary grouting has
also materially conduced to deaden the noise.
Taking the question of cost into account—and cost of this description of paving, be it
remembered, is considerably affected by weight, when carriage of the stone has to be
considered—the following sizes of stones may be taken as satisfactory.[55]

Depth 6 to 8 inches
Width 2¹⁄₂ „ 3 „

Length 5 „ 9 „

The following table,[56] showing the number of square yards that 1 ton in weight of
different sizes of granite setts will cover, may be of use, but this must vary with the
specific gravity of the stone employed.

Depth. Width. Square yards.
5 inches × 3 inches covers 4¹⁄₃
6 „ × 3 „ „ 3²⁄₅
4 „ × 4 „ „ 5¹⁄₃
7 „ × 3 „ „ 3

The question of the best class of stones to employ as a paving material must to a great
measure depend upon local circumstances, but it is important to select such stones as are
very hard and durable, but which will not wear smooth and slippery nor round by reason
of the chipping off of their edges.
Nearly all granites are suitable for this work, but Carnarvonshire syenite[57] is said to
be the best material that can be used, although, being denser than granite, it is heavier
and consequently more expensive.
At one time large quantities of paving stones were used in London and Liverpool
which were brought from Bombay and China, as ballast for ships trading between those
ports.
Mount Sorrel from Leicestershire and the Welsh stones are said to wear slippery[58] as
well as porphyry, whereas the presence of felspar in the granite always keeps it rough
under traffic.
Of the granites, that from Dalbeattie in Scotland is said to be the best.
The table on the next page, prepared by Mr. Walker in 1831, showing the wear of
different stones, may be of interest.

Table showing the Result of Experiments made by Mr. Walker
on the wear of Stones in 1830-31, a period of 17 Months.

Loss Loss
Super-
of per
Name of ficial Original Relative
weight super-
stone. area weight. losses.
by ficial
in feet.
wear. foot.
cwt. qrs. lbs.
Guernsey 4·734 7 1 12·75 4·50 0·951 1·000
Herm 5·250 7 3 24·25 5·50 1·048 1·102
Budle 6·336 9 0 15·75 7·75 1·223 1·286
Peterhead (blue) 3·484 4 1 7·50 6·25 1·795 1·887
Heytor 4·313 6 0 15·25 8·25 1·915 2·014
Aberdeen (red) 5·375 7 2 11·50 11·50 2·139 2·249
Dartmoor 4·500 6 2 25·0 12·50 2·778 2·921
Aberdeen (blue) 4·823 6 2 16·0 14·75 3·058 3·216

The Aberdeen granite as at present laid in the City of London, 3 inches wide by 9
inches in depth, has a life of about 15 years.[59] In the City of Durham whinstone setts
of the same width last 17 or 18 years, in Manchester similar granite setts last 15 to 20
years. On this subject Mr. Deacon, the then Borough Engineer of Liverpool, has
collected some most valuable information, and I refer my readers to a paper read by him
before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1879,[60] for a great deal of useful
information on this and other subjects connected with roadways.
Various methods have been adopted for constructing granite paved streets, some of
which I will proceed to describe.
One of the first really good granite pavements introduced into London was that
known as the “Euston Pavement,” and it was constructed in the following manner: The
foundation was shaped to the intended surface of the finished roadway; upon this a layer
of coarse gravel was spread 4 inches in thickness, this was well rammed,[61] and upon it
was spread 4 inches of gravel mixed with a small quantity of chalk to bind it; this again
being well rammed, upon it was placed a similar layer only composed of finer gravel,
and upon this foundation the stones were placed, being bedded upon about an inch of
fine sand. The stones used were Mount Sorrel granite, which were hammer-dressed and
squared, 3 inches in width by 4 inches in depth; they were set close together at right
angles with the lines of the kerb, they were then thoroughly rammed by the pavior. The
whole surface was afterwards covered with screened gravel which was allowed to find
its way into the joints and thus steady the entire pavement.
The following section will explain this.

In many cases the foundation is simply formed by shaping the soil to the required
contour, and covering this with 3 or 4 inches of gravel or cinders, which is afterwards
either rammed or consolidated by the traffic; upon this the setts are placed as closely as
possible, the joints are then filled with fine gravel well worked in with a “cramming
iron,” the whole surface being then covered with a grouting of lime and sand, which is
brushed into the joints with a stumpy broom.[62]

In Leeds, Manchester, Salford, and many other important cities, I believe the
foundations are formed in the manner just described, but of greater depth, the grouting
also is a bituminous mixture, which I will presently describe, instead of the ordinary
lime grouting.
The paved streets of Manchester are proverbial for their excellence, which is
attributable to the manner in which the foundations of the streets are consolidated by the
traffic before any setts are placed on them; in many cases the old macadamised surface
of a street being utilised as a foundation, this process being almost identical with that
recommended by Sir Henry Parnell fifty years ago.[63]
Where the traffic is heavy, however, a firmer foundation even than this is necessary,
and up to the present time no better foundation has been introduced than that of good
Portland cement concrete. This should be at least 9 inches in thickness, and be
composed of one part of Portland cement, two parts of clean sharp river sand, and four
parts of clean river ballast, or broken stones, or other suitable material. The surface of
the concrete, after having been placed in position, should be smoothed over with the
shovel, so as to present the proper convexity and have an even surface for the granite
setts to be bedded upon.
Another description of foundation now very extensively used where the traffic is
heavy, is that known as “Bituminous Concrete,” which is made as follows:
The ground being excavated to the proper depth and contour, broken stone as for
macadam is spread for a depth of 6 or 9 inches; this is then levelled and thoroughly
rolled with a light roller, a boiling mixture of pitch and tar, or creosote oil is then poured
over the whole surface until every interstice is filled, when a thin layer of small broken
stone is spread upon it, and then well rolled until it consolidates.
It may be well to observe here that in all works involving concrete foundations and
paving in streets, the traffic should be entirely stopped if at all possible. Streets paved
half at a time are never quite satisfactory, and the concrete should have at least a week
to set before the pavement is placed upon it.
Upon a foundation of either Portland cement or bituminous concrete, the granite setts
themselves should be grouted with a bituminous mixture instead of cement or lime
grouting. This renders the pavement more impervious to moisture, makes it less noisy,
and adds considerably to its strength; the mode of applying it is nearly similar to that of
ordinary grouting. The setts are placed on about an inch of sand and well rammed, the
boiling mixture is then poured over the whole surface, which is then covered with a thin
coating of small, sharp gravel.
The following table of the proportions necessary for the bituminous mixture may here
be of use.

Proportions for Bituminous Mixture.[64]
Creo-
Pitch. Tar. Pitch. sote
oil.
For grouting in pavements 1 to 1 or 3 to 1
For foundations or lower layer of asphalte macadam 3 to 1 or 3¹⁄₂ to ¹⁄₂

For upper layer of asphalte macadam and for foot paths 2¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ or 3¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₄

The objections to this method of paving are only temporary: the nuisance arising
from the fumes of the boiling mixture whilst it is being applied, and the necessity for
dry weather to make the operation successful. Healey’s Patent Pitch Boilers[65] are said
to moderate, if not entirely to do away with the former, and the latter can be arranged by
only doing the work at favourable seasons, or if the worst come to the worst, to cover
the work with tarpaulins raised on trestles.
Before closing this chapter I should like to draw attention to the question of provision
for wheel tracks, or tramways paved with stone, asphalte, or other hard material, and a
track for horses giving a firmer foot-hold, similar to those so highly spoken of in Milan
and other Italian cities. An excellent description is given of them by Mr. P. le Neve
Foster, Jun., in an appendix to a report on the Application of Science and Art to Street
Paving and Street Cleansing of the Metropolis (1872).
The roadway where stone tramways are employed cannot be of convex section; on
the contrary, it should be concave, with the channel, gutter, or water table in the centre.
This is in itself an obvious advantage, and I trust that the question of these tramways
may at some future date receive more attention from English engineers; the great
objection to them in this country being that the smooth tram-track would be very
slippery and apt to throw horses down when passing on and off, but they have many
advantages which should not be passed over without consideration.[66]

[53] Birmingham in 1854 had not, I believe, a single mile of paved streets; the principal ones are now
nearly all paved with granite setts, and over 20,000 square yards were so paved in 1880.
[54] It is said that the cost per annum per square yard of granite paved roadways is but 3d., whereas the
same cost for macadamised roadways under the same circumstances is 1s. 6d.
[55] In Paris after considerable research into the question, the engineers of the Ponts et Chausseés,
decided that the size of the paving stones, which used formerly to be 9 inches square should be 4 inches
wide by 6¹⁄₄ inches long by 6¹⁄₄ inches deep, the stone that is used being a grit sandstone, from the forest
of Fontainebleu.
[56] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 66.
[57] Syenite is a hard, greenish-grey metamorphic rock, composed principally of silica, alumina, and
lime, in conjunction with magnesia, iron, etc. Its specific gravity is 2·96.
[58] Mr. Boyle, District Surveyor of Manchester, says: “I would caution you against the use of the old
blue Penmaenmawr stone as being an extremely slippery stone, and one which makes a dangerous
pavement.” Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. iii. p. 58.
[59] The old granite paving of London used only to last eight years. Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. ix. p. 222.
[60] Vide ‘Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by George Frederick Deacon, M. Inst. C.E., ‘Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 1 et seq.
[61] The pavior’s rammer is about 55 lb. in weight, with an iron ring at its foot; this is swung with
some dexterity between the legs, and is allowed to fall with great force upon the earth or stones it is in use
upon.
[62] The usual specifications for the Guidet paving blocks (in New York) require that they shall be of
granite, equal in hardness to the Quincy granite, of durable and uniform quality, each measuring not less
than 3¹⁄₂ nor more than 4¹⁄₂ inches in width on the upper surface or face, and not less than 10 nor more
than 15 inches in length, and not less than 8 nor more than 9 inches in depth. Blocks of 3¹⁄₂ inches in
width on the face to be not less than 3 inches in width at the base; all other blocks to measure on the base

not more than 1 inch less in width or in length than on the face. The blocks are set upright in close contact
on their edges in courses, with the longest dimensions and the continuous joints running across the street,
breaking joints lengthwise of the street.
The ends of the blocks are dressed off so as to give close joints in the direction of the draught, while
the broad vertical sides of the blocks are left rugged or uneven, or with the split rock-face so that the
continuous joints running across the street are somewhat open. Vide ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements’ by
Q. A. Gillmore, p. 157.
[63] Vide ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir Henry Parnell, p. 130.
[64] As these ingredients often vary very much in their constitution, the surveyor must use his
judgment to a great extent as to these proportions.
[65] These boilers are now much used for such purposes, they hold from 60 to 500 gallons and are light
and portable; the temper of the bituminous mixture also remains uniform whilst being drawn off, and
there is very little evaporation or waste arising from them.
[66] Since writing the above, the Liverpool and Manchester tram-road was designed I believe on this
principle.

CHAPTER IX.
WOOD PAVING.

In the year 1843 Mr. Charles Cochrane, the President of the ‘Association for the
promotion of Improved Street Paving, etc.,’ in a paper which he read before the
Institution of Civil Engineers, on the State of the Streets of the Metropolis, said that
there existed at that date 100,000 yards of wood pavement.[67] He further states that it is
said to be slippery, but that he approves of it as the best material hitherto used, “both as
regards its general economy and durability as well as its facility of traction, and more
especially its extreme cleanliness.”
Two years previous to this date, Mr. Edward Lomas condemned wood pavement as
slippery, and recommended granite pavement for horses with wood tram-tracks for the
wheels of vehicles.[68]
Since these dates the question of wood paving has made giant strides, many
companies and private firms having started business as wood paviors, with many
various methods, which they strongly advocate as being superior to the others; amongst
them I will enumerate and describe the following:
The Improved Wood Pavement Company.—The ground being consolidated, a layer of
sand is made the basis of the pavement, and
assumes the shape the surface of the street is intended to take. Red-wood boards 1-inch
in thickness are then laid across the roadway, from kerb to kerb, placed together so as to
break joint; boards of the same material and thickness are then laid longitudinally, and
breaking joint in the same manner.[69] On this foundation red-wood blocks are placed in
rows, taking the same direction as the under flooring.
Between each row of blocks, a strip of wood ³⁄₄ × ³⁄₄ inch is nailed to the block and
flooring, the blocks in all cases breaking joint; the spaces thus formed between the rows
of blocks are then run with a thick composition which fills all vacant spaces there may
be between the strip and the block, covering the strip about ¹⁄₈ of an inch. Gravel, dried
and sifted through ³⁄₄-inch mesh, is then put in, solidly rammed, and composition poured
in; the pavement is then covered to a depth of ¹⁄₂ an inch with dried gravel and
composition for the purpose of indurating the surface, and filling the spaces flush with
the top of the block, a slight covering of sand is then spread, when the traffic may
immediately pass over.
The Asphaltic Wood Pavement Company.—After the ground is properly prepared, 6
or 9 inches of concrete is laid, on this is laid
a bed of asphalte not less than ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness; then wood blocks 3 by 8 by 5 inches
or 3 by 9 by 5 inches, of good, sound, yellow Baltic timber are laid with joints ¹⁄₂-inch

in width, these joints are filled from 2 inches up with heated asphalte, the remaining 3
inches being filled with a grouting of hydraulic lime, and clean, sharp, fine river grit or
sand, the whole being covered with a top dressing of fine, sharp sand, which wears in
with the traffic.
Croskey’s Wood Pavement.—Upon a bed of concrete, cross grained planks were to be
placed side by side and be forced together by pressure so
as to form a compact homogeneous surface of wood.[70]
Lloyd’s Patent Keyed Wood Pavement.—The special feature of this system is that
Pitch Pine blocks are used laid direct upon the
concrete foundation, the blocks being grooved on each side so that the grouting
(composed of Portland cement) shall run in and form a key.
Harrison’s Wood Pavement.—This system consists of a concrete foundation, upon
which strips of wood 2 inches wide by ¹⁄₂ an inch in
thickness are laid. Upon these, wood blocks 3 inches in breadth are placed, and then hot
asphalte is poured into the joints, which conglomerates the whole.
Henson’s Wood Pavement.—The main feature of this patent consists in placing
common felt on the concrete bed, and between the joints of
the wood blocks; thus, it is contended, giving elasticity and allowing for the expansion
and contraction of the blocks. The blocks are also bevelled on the top and grooved in a
particular manner.
Carey’s Wood Pavement.—In this case the blocks are cut 4 inches wide by 9 inches
long, and 5 or 6 inches deep, according to the traffic; these
blocks are shaped with alternate convex and concave ends, and are laid on a bed of sand
about 2 inches thick, the joints between the blocks, which have been left about ³⁄₈ inch
wide, being filled with a grouting of lime and sand.
Messrs. Mowlem and Company’s method of laying wood paving is to form a
foundation of concrete, varying in thickness
according to the nature of the subsoil and the traffic; then to pave with blocks of yellow
deal, 3 inches wide and 6 or 7 inches deep; the joints, which vary from ³⁄₈ to ¹⁄₂ inch, are
filled in with sand and lias lime, and the surface is afterwards indurated by strewing it
with shingle.
Patent Ligno-Mineral Paving Company.—This company lays claim to the speciality
of using hard woods as well as pine, and that
the pine blocks they employ are preserved or mineralised so as to be more durable than
the wood in its natural state.[71]
Nicholson’s Wood Pavement.—This is principally in use in the United States, and
consists of rectangular blocks of pine laid upon a close
flooring of pine boards, 1 inch thick, laid lengthwise with the line of street, their ends
resting on similar boards laid transversely from kerb to kerb, the boards being
thoroughly tarred and laid upon a bed of sand. The joints of the wood blocks are run
with an asphaltic mixture, and the whole surface is finally covered with hot coal tar and
sprinkled with fine sand and gravel.
Stowe’s Wood Pavement.

—This is also American, the blocks resting directly upon sand or gravel about 6 inches
in thickness.[72] “The blocks are set in courses transversely across the street, so as to
break joint lengthwise of the street, the courses being separated from each other 1 inch
by a continuous course of wooden wedges placed close together edge to edge, and
extending from kerb to kerb. These wedges are set in the first instance with their tops
flush with the top surface of the blocks. After the whole pavement shall have been well
rammed, so as to give each block a firm bed, the wedges are driven down about 3
inches, and the open joints thus formed above them between the courses are filled in
with a concrete composed of hot coal tar and fine roofing sand and gravel. The surface
of the pavement may then be coated with coal tar prepared by boiling with pitch, and
finished off with a thin layer of sand.”
Wood Paving in Norwich.—Mr. P. Marshall, the City Surveyor of Norwich, states[73]
that the wood pavement in that city is “simply laid on the
road formation levelled up with shingle. The blocks are grouted in with blue lias lime
and well rammed down. This makes a splendid road, and is superior to any portion of
the road that has been laid with concrete. This wood paving, 5 inches deep, laid as
described, costs 7s. per yard super. We have had some down here now for 2 years, and
have had no settlement whatever. It is a very important matter, for it makes wood paving
possible for country towns.”
Shiel’s Composite Block Paving.—This pavement consists of composite blocks 12
inches by 15 inches, cast in iron moulds with two
rows of wood placed at an equal distance from either side and each other, the vacant
spaces being filled with granite broken as for macadam; over all is poured a boiling
composition of pitch, chalk, and sand. The blocks are thus treated at the works, and are,
when cool, taken to the street, laid on a concrete foundation, and grouted with cement
grouting.
Prosser’s Wood Pavement.—This is composed of blocks sawn at an angle of 60°, the
grain of the wood running in the same direction. Each end
of the block rests on the other, transversely to line of street. Between the rows of blocks
a plank, the same depth as the blocks, but with the grain of the wood horizontal, is
placed. The blocks, which on one side of the plank lean in an opposite direction to those
on the other, are secured or dowelled together by wooden pins running through the
plank and piercing the blocks about an inch.
In Chicago, U.S.A., cedar blocks 6 inches square, set on a composition of tar and
gravel, are used, and are said to make a very durable pavement.
The following sanitary objections to wood as a material for pavements are made in
the Report on the Application of Science and Art to Street Paving and Street Cleansing
of the Metropolis (1872) page 17.
“The General Board of Health set aside wood as an ineligible material for this
amongst other reasons, that street surfaces ought to be impermeable; and for roads of
light traffic and cheap construction, they looked to modifications of macadam, with
bituminous binders of mineral tar. Since then wood has been reproduced for the
purpose, and strongly pressed in improved forms for trial. It certainly offers the

advantage of a great gain in noiselessness over granite, more especially from the horses’
feet, though with some disadvantage from a dead rumble and vibration; and further it
has the advantage of being more available than smooth pavements for inclines. But
hygienists object to its use on grounds which, in the absence of sanitary science, are
overlooked, but which it is important to particularise as showing the dangerous state of
ignorance and incompetency of the authorities by whom they are not entertained or are
disregarded.”
The sum total of these charges against wood as a pavement consists in the following:
“Wood is porous, it is composed of bundles of fibres, it absorbs and retains wet, foul
wet especially.” Why foul wet should be absorbed more than ordinary wet does not
transpire.
There is no doubt that wood in its natural state does absorb a large quantity of water,
[74] but this can be avoided in wood paving by preserving the wood of which it is
composed by one of the following processes.

(1) Burnetising Chloride of zinc is used in this process.
(2) Kyanising Corrosive sublimate is used.
(3) Renwickising Boiling in coal tar.
(4) Boucherising Sulphate of copper is used.
(5) Bethelising Creosote heated to 200° F. is used.
(6) Seelyising Creosote is also used, the wood being first boiled.
(7) Hayfordising Creosote is also used, wood being unseasoned.

The fibres of the wood are also compressed, and no open joints between the blocks
are permitted, by paving the blocks transversely, with butt joints closely packed
together, and by filling the cross joints with an asphaltic or other impervious grouting.
Wood paving should, however, be laid in streets with moderate traffic, and plenty of
sun and air. In confined spaces such as courts, it soon rots and becomes a source of
much unhealthiness.[75]
Many reports have been from time to time made on the advantages and disadvantages
of wood paving, and much has been said and written upon the subject, so that I will only
touch upon some of the principal questions at issue.
The first of importance is that of durability, and although the life of a hard wood
constantly exposed to attrition is amazing, as may be seen on the stairs of the
Metropolitan Railway Stations, and in many cog wheels of old machinery, still some
diversity of opinion exists as to what may be fairly put down as the wear per annum of
the surface of a street paved with wood blocks.
It must be remembered that to arrive at any fixed ratio of wear, a standard of traffic
should be fixed; but this unfortunately has not hitherto been done, so that the results of
observations are bound to differ considerably. It must also not be lost sight of that the
reason of excessive wear in a wood pavement generally arises from wide joints being
the means of causing the edges of the blocks to abrade and become worn.
Mr. D. T. Hope, in a paper he laid before the Scottish Society of Arts, upon some
most careful investigations he had made on this subject, gives the wear as ¹⁄₈ of an inch

in 18 months on blocks laid with vertical fibre, which he proved was the best manner of
laying them to ensure the longest life.
Mr. Deacon estimated the wear at from 1³⁄₈ inch to 2⁵⁄₁₆ inches per annum.[76]
Mr. Copland estimated the wear at ³⁄₁₆ of an inch per annum.[77]
Mr. Howorth estimates the life of wood paving at 25 years per inch of wood, if an
absolutely uniform quality of wood fibre could be assumed.[78]
Mr. Haywood says,[79] “Wood pavements with repairs have in this City (London) had
a life varying from 6 to 19 years, and that with repairs, an average life of about 10 years
may be obtained.”
The life of wood is no doubt extended by being preserved by one of the processes I
have enumerated, but as its life may be taken as an average of 8 to 10 years, and as the
blocks are bound to wear unevenly, they should be made as shallow as is consistent with
stability; as it is an undisputed fact that the foundation of a roadway is the important
carrier of the traffic, the surface material, of whatever it may be constructed, only acting
as a skin to preserve it. If the blocks are too thick, unnecessary capital is locked up.
Wood pavement was laid in Sunderland[80] in 1859 with strips of creosoted red pine,
creosoted beech wood, and unpreserved oak, the bulk of the paving being unpreserved
red deal, and this was replaced in 1867.
In 1877, on renewing the pavement, it was found that the creosoted wood suffered
less from wear and tear than the unpreserved, so the whole was done with creosoted red
pine, the original strip of creosoted red pine was left untouched, the strip of oak was
turned, and the beech was merely raised; and there is no doubt that the best wood
pavement is that which can be constructed in the simplest manner, as for instance deal
blocks 4 or 5 inches deep, laid with a close joint upon a Portland cement concrete bed,
the blocks being well grouted in with Portland cement grouting, their surface being
afterwards sprinkled or strewn with sand or sharp gravel.
The woods employed for paving are beech and oak, both of which are said to be too
slippery, elm, which is not durable, pitch pine and Baltic fir. Memel and Dantzic timber
is better than Riga, the best wood for the purpose being said to be Wyborg or St.
Petersburgh red deals.
All sappy wood must be at once rejected as unsuitable. This is a great objection to
creosoting or other preserving processes, as it hides defects in the wood.
The advantages of wood paving may be summed up as follows:—
(1.) It is the quietest of all known pavements, wheels make scarcely any noise upon it
and there is no clatter of horses’ hoofs.
(2.) It is much safer than either asphalte or granite pavements for horses travelling
upon it and if a horse falls he can rise more easily.
(3.) The traction necessary upon it, though slightly greater than upon asphalte, is
compensated for by the better foothold given to horses.
(4.) It is clean. If well constructed there should be no mud made upon it; all that
appears upon its surface should arise either from its being imported upon it, or from the
gravel with which it is sometimes necessary to dress the surface.

(5.) It presents a uniform and slight elasticity, which is of great benefit to vehicles
passing over it.
(6.) It may be laid on a gradient of 1 in 20 with safety to the traffic.
The principal objections to wood as a paving are:—
(1.) It is said to absorb moisture and to smell offensively, but this has often been
refuted.[81]
(2.) It is said to be difficult to cleanse without the aid of water, as dirt adheres to the
wood, and lingers in the joints.
(3.) It is not easy to open it or repair it, for the purposes of gas and water pipes, etc.,
and rather a large surface has to be removed for this purpose, and it has to be left a little
time after repairs before traffic is again allowed on it.
(4.) The wood swells if wet, and cases are on record of the side kerbs of streets being
raised, and lamp posts thrown down, by the pressure of the wood thus swelling.[82]
With regard to the cost of wood paving. This must vary in different localities,
according to the value of labour, of materials, and in the manner in which the work is
done.
The practice of most of the companies engaged in this class of work is to make a
fixed charge per square yard for the pavement, including the concrete but excluding the
excavation, and they also guarantee to keep the pavement in repair free of charge for
one or two years, and then for so many years after, at so much per yard per annum.
About 14s. per square yard is generally the first charge for constructing, and 1s. per
square yard is the annual charge for maintenance.
Upon the subject of cost the following tables[83] may be useful.

Table showing the Actual Duration and Cost
of certain Wood Pavements in the City of London.

Total Cost
Average Cost
First Cost of Repairs
Date when per
Situation. Life. per per
laid New. Square Yard
Square Yard. Square Yard
per Annum.
during Life.
Yrs. Mths. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
May, 1855 10 2 0 12 2 0 17 4¹⁄₂ 0 2 11
Cornhill -
July, 1865 6 8 0 11 6 0 8 9³⁄₄ 0 3 0¹⁄₂

Nov. 1853 11 7 0 12 8 0 17 1¹⁄₂ 0 2 6³⁄₄
Gracechurch Street -
June, 1865 6 0 0 11 6 0 6 11 0 3 0³⁄₄

May, 1851 9 4 0 9 6 0 6 0 0 1 7³⁄₄
Lombard Street -
Sept. 1860 10 7 0 9 2 1 0 2 0 2 9

May, 1854 12 3 0 12 6 1 8 4³⁄₄ 0 3 4
Lothbury -
Aug. 1866 6 1 0 12 6 0 3 5³⁄₄ 0 2 7¹⁄₂

July, 1841 19 1 0 14 4 0 13 4 0 1 5¹⁄₄
Mincing Lane -
Aug. 1860 13 0 0 9 2 1 2 6³⁄₄ 0 2 5¹⁄₄

May, 1854 12 3 0 12 6 0 17 5³⁄₄ 0 2 5¹⁄₄
Bartholomew Lane -
Aug. 1866 5 5 0 12 6 0 3 11¹⁄₄ 0 3 0¹⁄₄

Foundations are included, but no excavation.

Table showing First Cost, and Tendered Cost per Annum
for Maintaining Certain Wood Carriageway Pavements in the City of London.

Years Total Cost
to be of Pavements Average
Agreed Cost of
Date main- First Cost during Cost
Name of maintenance per
Situation. when tained per Contract per
Contractor. Square Yard for
Laid. by Square Yard. Term, Square Yard
the Contract Term.
Con- per per Annum.
tractor. Square Yard.
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
Improved 1 year free
King William Feb.
Wood Paving 16 0 18 0 15 years at 1s. 6d. = 2 0 6 0 2 6¹⁄₄
Street 1873
Co. 1l. 2s. 6d.
1 year free
Nov.
Ludgate Hill Ditto 16 0 18 0 15 years at 1s. 6d. = 2 0 6 0 2 6¹⁄₄
1873
1l. 2s. 6d.
Portions of 1 year free
Great Tower
Sept.
Street and Ditto 16 0 16 0 15 years at 1s. 3d. = 1 14 9 0 2 2
1873
Seething 18s. 9d.
Lane
No
Bartholomew Jan.
Carey agree- 0 12 6 —— —— ——
Lane 1872
ment
Improved
Dec.
Ditto Wood Paving 3 0 16 0 3 years free 0 16 0 ——
1871
Co.
May, Mowlem and [84]5
2 years free
Duke Street 0 15 0
1873 Co. 3 years at 1s. = 3s.
2 years free These pavements will no
Not yet [84]7 doubt last some years longer
Houndsditch Ditto 0 17 0 5 years at 9d. = 3s.
laid than the contract term of
9d.
maintenance.
[84]
2 years free
Ditto Ditto Carey 7 0 13 6
5 years at 1s. = 5s.
In the wood pavements the cost of the foundation is included, but no excavation.
The pavements at the end of each financial year are to be in a good sound condition.

The following table[85] is also given as showing the comparative cost of wood paving
with macadam and bituminous concrete paving in Liverpool.

Description Original Deductions from Interest Sinking Mainte- Scav- Gravel- Total
of Cost First Cost to on Fund in- nance per enging ling Annual
Pavement. per determine Cost of Original vested Square per per Cost
Square Renewal. Cost at at 3 Yard Square Square per

Yard at Cost of 4¹⁄₂ per cent. per Yard Yard Square
present Allowances per cent. Com- Annum. per per Yard.
Foun-
prices. for old per pound Annum. Annum.
dation
Materials Square Interest.
not
at date of Yard
requiring
renewal. per
renewal.
Annum.
s. d. s. d. s. d. d. d. s. d. d. d. s. d.
No. 6.
Bituminous
Concrete 3 9 Nil Nil 2·0 Nil 0 9 2·4 .. 1 1·4
Pavement
No. 7.
Wood
15 1·5 2 0 Nil 7·5 4·3 0 1·0 2·7 5·0 1 8·5
Pavement
No. 8.
Macadam
6 9 Nil Nil 3·4 Nil 1 0 8·0 Nil 1 11·4
Pavement

In concluding this chapter upon wood paving, I will give a specimen specification for
work of this description.
Excavation.—Excavate the ground to a depth of — inches below the level of the
proposed finished surface of the roadway.[86] The formation surface thus
excavated must be well watered and rolled or punned if found necessary, and any soft or
made earth removed to such a depth as may be found to be sufficient.[87]
Foundation.—Upon the excavated formation surface a bed — inches thick of
concrete is to be laid, composed of one part of good approved Portland
cement to two of fine, sharp river sand, and three of clean river ballast or broken stone.
The concrete to be finished off with an even and smooth top surface conforming with
the contour line of proposed finished roadway.
Wood Blocks.—Upon the concrete thus laid, and after it has sufficiently set, wood
blocks are to be laid.[88] These blocks must be of the best description of
Baltic red timber[89] (or such other timber as shall be specified), sound and thoroughly
well seasoned, free from all sap, shakes, large and loose knots or other defects, and any
that may be rejected by the surveyor as unfitted for the work shall be at once removed
from the works or broken up. The blocks must not be less than 6 inches or more than 12
inches in length by 3 inches in width and 6 inches in depth, they are to be carefully laid
with the fibre of the wood placed vertically, their ends must butt with close joints to
each other, and each course must be kept ³⁄₈ of an inch apart by means of wooden laths,
which are afterwards removed.
Joints.—The joints are then to be carefully run with a grouting composed of one part
of best approved Portland cement to two parts of fine, sharp, clean river sand.
(In some cases a hot bituminous mixture or asphalte is run between the joints as a
grouting.)
Top Dressing.—The whole surface of the pavement is then to be spread with a
coating, at least ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness, of fine sharp gravel or chippings.
The following heads of general conditions under such a contract may also be useful.

Alteration of gullies, sewer man-holes etc., will be done at the expense of the sanitary
authority.
Contractor must make good at once any damage caused to gas or water mains or
services—time penalty for delay.
Maintenance of work after completion for a specified time.
Power must be reserved to surveyor to suspend work during bad weather or from
other causes.
Heavy time penalties for non-completion of contract by a certain date.
Payments to be made to contractor on surveyor’s certificate, up to 80 per cent. of
whole contract, remaining 20 per cent. to be paid at end of (say) 2 years after
completion.
With the above specimen specification I conclude the chapter on Wood Paving.

[67] The first wood pavement laid in London was in front of the Old Bailey, in 1839.
[68] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. p. 131.
[69] This specification is the company’s own, as advertised when they first began business; for many
reasons the boards have since been discontinued, and other alterations introduced into the system.
[70] I am unable to ascertain if this plan has ever been tried anywhere.
[71] It is also affirmed by the Borough Surveyor of Sunderland that this process dispenses with watering.
Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. iii. p. 72.
[72] Vide ‘A Practical Treatise on Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 166, which see
also for a good account of wood pavements in the United States.
[73] Vide ‘Wood Pavements,’ by Henry Allnutt, 1880, p. 22.
[74] The power of absorbing water by wood varies from 9·37 to 174·86 per cent. in dry wood. In its
ordinary state the power varies from 4·36 to 150·64 per cent. The quantity of water contained in wood in
its natural state varies from 4·61 to 13·56 per cent. Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers,’ vol. lvi. p. 300.
[75] Vide ‘Roads and Roadways,’ by George Waller Wilcocks, 1879, p. 34.
[76] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 82.
[77] Ibid, vol. lx. p. 293.
[78] Ibid, vol. lviii. p. 45.
[79] ‘Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William Haywood, (1874) p. 44.
[80] See ‘Paper on Wood Pavements,’ by R. S. Rounthwaite, Boro’ Surveyor, Sunderland, ‘Proceedings
of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vii. p. 48.
[81] The surveyor of the parish of St. George’s Hanover Square, London, says, “My experience of wood,
and I have laid down 25,000 yards, is that it is perfectly free from smells, even on a cab rank.” Report of a
Committee of the Paddington Vestry on Wood and other Pavements (1878) p. 30.
[82] Mr. Allnutt says on this: “As to the swelling of the wood, it has been remarked that even brick walls
have been forced out. We do not see what provision can be made for this; but leaving the channel by the
kerb stone for the last work may relieve the lateral pressure, and perhaps it would be as well for the blocks
not to be so dry when being laid down.” Vide ‘Wood Pavement as carried out on Kensington High Road,
Chelsea, etc.’ by Henry Allnutt (1880) p. 15.
[83] Vide ‘Report on Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William Haywood, 1874, pp. 38 and 41.
[84] The Ligno-Mineral Paving Company and the Improved Wood Paving Company offered to maintain
their pavements, if laid, for terms of ten years and fourteen years respectively; their tenders were not
accepted.
[85] Vide ‘Paper on Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by G. F. Deacon, ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 23.
[86] If the road material thus excavated is macadam, it may be screened and used as concrete in the
foundation, if approved by the surveyor. The granite pitching of crossings, channel gutters, etc., must
remain the property of the sanitary authority, as well as the surplus macadam.
[87] It is important to give sufficient notice to gas and water companies in order that they may attend to
their mains and services before the foundations are put in.
[88] Sometimes about half an inch of fine sand is spread upon the surface of the concrete upon which the
wood blocks are bedded.
[89] If the blocks are to be creosoted, the number of pounds of creosote that should be absorbed in a
cubic foot of the wood should be specified; this is generally about 10 lb. of creosote to 1 cubic foot of
wood.

CHAPTER X.
COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS.

The word asphalte in its generally accepted sense implies a natural rock consisting of
pure carbonate of lime, intimately combined and impregnated with mineral bitumen in
very variable proportions; that used for roads or footpaths should not contain less than 7
or more than 12 per cent. of bitumen.
The rock when broken takes an irregular fracture without definite cleavage; it is
principally derived from Val de Travers, Seyssel, Sicily, Chieti, Auvergne, Lobsann, and
Limmer. Its grain should be regular and homogeneous, the finer the grain the better.[90]
When exposed to the atmosphere asphalte gradually assumes a grey tint, by reason of
the bitumen evaporating from the surface leaving a thin film of limestone behind. The
stone is usually taken from open quarries, but at Val de Travers shafts are sunk and the
general treatment is similar to a coal mine.
Bitumen, it must be borne in mind, is itself a mineral product found in Trinidad and
some other places; it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The weight of a cubic yard of natural asphalte is about 3874 lbs., its specific gravity is
2·114, but this of course varies with its percentage of bitumen.
The following is a test for asphalte given by Mr. Deland in a paper he read before the
Institution of Civil Engineers in the year 1880.[91]
“A specimen of the rock freed from all extraneous matter, having been pulverised as
finely as possible, should be dissolved in sulphurate of carbon, turpentine, ether or
benzine, placed in a glass vessel and stirred with a glass rod. A dark solution will result,
from which will be precipitated the pulverised limestone. The solution of bitumen should
then be poured off. The dissolvent speedily evaporates, leaving the constituent parts of
the asphalte, each of which should be weighed so as to determine the exact proportion.
The bitumen should be heated in a lead bath and tested with a porcelain or Baumé
thermometer to 428° Fahr. There will be little loss by evaporation if the bitumen is good,
but if bituminous oil is present the loss will be considerable—gritted mastic should be
heated to 450° Fahr. The limestone should next be examined. If the powder is white and
soft to the touch it is a good component part of asphalte, but if rough and dirty on being
tested with reagents it will be found to contain iron pyrites, silicates, clay, etc. Some
asphaltes also are of a spongy or hygrometrical nature. Thus, as an analysis which merely
gives so much bitumen and so much limestone may mislead, it is necessary to know the
quality of the limestone and of the bitumen.
“For a good compressed roadway an asphalte composed of pure limestone and 9 to 10
per cent. of bitumen, non-evaporative at 428° Fahr., is the most suitable. Asphaltes
containing much more than 10 per cent. of bitumen get soft in summer and wavy, those

containing much less have not sufficient bind for heavy traffic, although asphalte
containing 7 per cent. of bitumen properly heated does well for court yards, as it sets hard
when cold.”
For roadways “compressed” asphalte should be used and not “mastic,” which is only
fitted for footpaths, court-yards, etc. Compressed asphalte roadways are constructed as
follows:
The asphalte rock is first crushed in a “Blake’s” or other suitable crusher, then
pulverised in what is known as a “Carr’s disintegrator,” until it is reduced to a powder;
this powder is then heated up to between 212° and 250° Fahr. in revolving cylinders and
is laid about 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness upon a concrete foundation previously prepared for
its reception, the powder is carefully raked to the required contour and then either rolled
or punned with iron punners previously heated to prevent the adhesion of the powder to
them.
A roadway thus prepared presents many advantages over macadam, granite setts or
wood, the following passage amply describing one of them:[92]
“An indispensable feature of a weight-carrying pavement must be the absolute
exclusion of water at the surface as nearly as it can be insured, and in this one respect it
cannot be questioned that a surface like asphalte has no equal, the absorption being so
gradual as to be inappreciable during any possible continuance of moisture.”
In addition to this indisputable fact the advantage of durability is claimed for asphalte,
but this must vary considerably with the quality of the material and of the work. Mr.
Hayward estimates the life of an asphaltic Val de Travers compressed roadway at 17
years, and it is claimed for it that it will wear until it becomes quite thin, very heavy
traffic breaking it up when it is worn to about ³⁄₄ of an inch thick. Another advantage
claimed for asphalte is cleanliness, and this is evidently indisputable, as, being
impervious, none but imported mud or dust can be formed upon it.
In addition to the foregoing the following advantages are also claimed:
Pedestrians can walk on asphaltic roadways as well as on the footways.
It is comparatively noiseless under traffic, though in this case wood is better, as the
clatter of the iron-shod horses’ feet upon asphalte is very apparent.
It is expeditiously laid, and when repairs are necessary they can easily be effected; no
pavement shows less signs of openings being made in it for gas and water-pipe repairs
than asphalte.
The rapid laying causes less inconvenience to traffic in the streets.
Ease of traction; but here steps in the one great objection to asphalte as a roadway
paving, viz. danger to horses by slipping and falling, of which I shall say more hereafter.
Cellars and vaults under the streets are kept dry, by reason of its impermeability to
moisture.
Easily cleansed, especially by mechanical sweeping, and snow is easily removed.
It is very pleasing to the eye, being so uniformly regular and of good colour.
There is no vibration or concussion in travelling over it, and apart from the question of
safety it is delightful to drive over it.

It is a cool pavement at night; it does not absorb heat during the day, and consequently
none radiates from it after the sun has gone down.[93]
The great objection to asphalte as a material for roadways arises from the fact that it is
extremely slippery when damp,[94] irrespective of temperature, and this in the climate of
England is frequently the case. The result of this slipperiness is, that not only do horses
frequently fall upon it, but it is also difficult to stop a horse when drawing a load, thus
causing more risk to foot-passengers of being run over, and straining the horse
considerably in its efforts. Again, in thoroughfares crowded with vehicular traffic,
constant stoppages occur, and in starting again it is painful to witness the struggles of the
horses to keep their footing and overcome the inertia of their load. When a horse falls he
has very great difficulty in rising, but on the other hand, although he may be strained, a
horse never breaks his knees upon this class of pavement. How far this might be altered
if all the streets of a town were paved with asphalte, is a fair matter for argument, as it is
asserted that horses are very nervous on going from one pavement to another, and
accidents frequently happen in consequence.
The strewing of sand upon asphalte renders it less slippery, but in addition to the
interference of the traffic whilst this is being done, there are the further objections, of the
possible injury of the sand cutting into the asphalte, the expense of labour and materials,
and the mud caused thereby which has afterwards to be removed. Another plan is to
frequently wash the asphalte with water, but this is expensive and only of temporary
benefit.
Another objection to asphaltic roadways is that they cannot with safety be constructed
of greater gradient than 1 in 60, and it must also be borne in mind that fine weather is
necessary both for the construction and repairs of a roadway of this description.
Very little smell, and that not of an unpleasant character, arises from the work when
compressed asphalte is being used, the mastic is however temporarily unpleasant to those
who dislike the odour.
With reference to the question of the cost of compressed asphalte for roadways: it is of
course a matter depending upon local circumstances as to the first cost, but it must be
remembered that the compressed asphalte hitherto laid has been nearly all that of the Val
de Travers Company, who charge a fixed price per square yard for laying according to
thickness required, the distance of the locality from London, and other local
circumstances. With reference to maintenance, this is a question dependent mainly upon
traffic, but here again the company will undertake to keep in repair at so much per square
yard per annum for a certain number of years.
It would, however, perhaps be a better plan not to enter into such an agreement, but to
arrange for repairs under a schedule of prices, but this must greatly depend upon the
character of the work in the first place, and other local considerations.
Mr. Ellice Clarke gives the following as the cost of Val de Travers compressed
asphalte.[95]
The cost is reduced to 100,000 tons per annum per yard of width.

Original Cost Interest on Maintenance Scavenging Total.
per original per per

Square Yard. Cost. Square Yard. Square Yard.
s. d. d. d. d. s. d.
18 0 9·7 3·6 0·4 1 1·7

Nothing is charged for renewal, as the annual sum for maintenance provides the
asphalte in perpetuity.[96]
The following table[97] may here be of use:

Table showing the agreed Cost per Annum of certain
Asphalte Carriageway Pavements in the City of London.
Total Cost
Years Agreed Cost
of Pavements Average Cost
Description to be First Cost of maintenance
during per
Situation. of maintained per per Square Yard
Contract Term Square Yard
Asphalte. by Square Yard. for the
per per Annum.
Contractor. Contract Term.
Square Yard.
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.
2 years free
Cheapside Val de 15 years = £1
and Travers 17 0 18 0 - at 2s. - 2 0 6 0 2 4¹⁄₂
Poultry (Compressed) 1s. 6d.
6d.

2 years free
Gracechurch 15 years = 15s.
Ditto 17 0 17 0 - - 1 12 0 0 10 1¹⁄₂
Street at 0d.
1s.

2 years free
Finsbury 15 years = 11s.
Ditto 17 0 16 0 - - 1 7 3 0 1 7¹⁄₄
Pavement at 3d.
9d.

2 years free
Moorgate 15 years = 11s.
Ditto 17 0 16 0 - - 1 7 3 0 1 7¹⁄₄
Street at 3d.
9d.

2 years free
Limmer 15 years = 11s.
Ditto 17 0 16 0 - - 1 7 3 0 1 7¹⁄₄
(Mastic) at 3d.
9d.

2 years free
Lombard 15 years = 11s.
Ditto 17 0 16 0 - - 1 7 3 0 1 7¹⁄₄
Street at 3d.
9d.

2 years free
15 years = 11s.
Cornhill Ditto 17 0 15 0 - - 1 6 3 0 1 6¹⁄₂
at 3d.
9d.

2 years free
Mincing 15 years = 11s.
Ditto 17 0 12 0 - - 1 3 3 0 1 4¹⁄₂
Lane at 3d.
9d.

The cost of foundations is included in this table, but their thickness is not mentioned;
the excavation was done for the contractors.
With the one serious objection of slipperiness, compressed asphalte seems a most
suitable material for the surface of a roadway, but that objection is of considerable weight
when we reflect that the great object of roadways is that of “traffic,” and it is for that
purpose they are constructed; still, in cities where a heavy business traffic is going on,
this class of roadway has so many advantages that where cheap horses are driven it might
be used; where, however, valuable horses are used for pleasure driving, as in the west
end of London and the corresponding better parts of cities, some other description of
roadway should be maintained.
Mastic asphalte will be described in the chapter on footpaths.

Specimen Specification for a Compressed Asphalte Roadway.

Excavation and Concrete.—The excavation and concrete[98] foundation may be
specified to be executed in a manner similar to that
contained in the specimen specification for wood paving,[99] except of course that the
excavation will be shallower in this case.
Asphalte.—The asphalte to be used shall be the pure unadulterated natural rock known
as the Val de Travers, and be unmixed with any foreign or other matter
whatever. The rock after being properly broken, shall be ground in a Carr’s disintegrator
to a powder of such fineness, that not more than per cent. shall be left on a sieve
containing meshes to the square inch and decrepitation by heat will not be accepted.
This powder shall be heated to 240° F. or such other temperature as shall be found
desirable, so as to eliminate all moisture, and carefully transported to the street in
covered iron carts, in order that not more than 20° F. of heat shall be lost in transit. The
powder must be spread upon the concrete inches in thickness[100] and carefully raked
so as to have regularity of depth and surface.
Ramming.—The powder must then be rammed with iron punners of not less weight
than 10 lb. heated so as to prevent the adhesion of the asphalte. The
ramming must be done lightly at first, so as to ensure equality of thickness, and
afterwards augmented to heavy blows. Where the rammers are not available a T tool
must be employed.
To meet some of the objections to compressed asphalte as a material for roadways the
“Imperishable Stone Paving Blocks” have been introduced in America; they consist of
asphalte formed into rectangular blocks under pressure of about one ton to the square
inch, these are laid close together without any grouting, and a pavement of this

description is said to combine all the advantages of wood and asphalte, though sufficient
time has not yet elapsed to prove this.
In Salford, Manchester, etc., I believe “Woodward’s Patent Molten Ironstone Blocks”
are used with some success where there is not any very exceptionally heavy traffic.
One of the principal reasons of durability in asphalte pavement is its elasticity, and it
should be remembered that compressed asphalte does not begin to “wear” until all
compression has ceased; this is the case with no other system of pavement—stone and
wood both begin “wearing” from the day the traffic commences. Under ordinarily heavy
traffic it may be estimated that it will take two years to complete the compression of
asphalte, and the weight of a square foot of this pavement will at the expiration of that
time be nearly the same as on the day it was laid, though the thickness is reduced during
the first two years as much as it will be in the following eight.
Much is said about the advisability of good and dry concrete, but it may be as well to
explain the reasons that necessitate so much care in the foundation. First, it should be
always borne in mind that asphalte pavement is nothing more than a tough “carpet,” and
has no power of itself of offering resistance to heavy traffic; consequently, if the
substratum or concrete is not thoroughly solid and resisting, the weight of traffic will
crush it, and the asphalte will at once give way in all directions. The concrete should be
made strong enough to resist the traffic, and the asphalte is a simple covering to protect
the concrete from direct contact with the wear and friction caused by the traffic. So much
for the strength, but the dryness is of even still greater importance; for the best asphalte,
laid by skilled workmen, on thoroughly first-rate but damp concrete, will rapidly go to
pieces—a phenomenon takes place, which, although quite natural, is little realised by
most engineers. When the hot asphalte is laid, the water is immediately sucked up and
turned into steam, which tries to escape through the heated powder, and the result is that
although the surface of the asphalte is smooth, the mass is really disintegrated from
underneath by its bitter enemy “water,” and as soon as the surface begins to wear, the
fissures formed by the passing of the steam appear on the surface and the whole
pavement falls to pieces: thus accounting for some of the failures this description of
roadway has met with under unskilled treatment.
This completes the subject of roadways; I will turn to that of footpaths in the next
chapter.

[90] In this respect the Seyssel is the best, being of a very fine grain.
[91] Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lx.
[92] Vide Mr. Howarth’s paper on ‘Wood as a Paving Material under Heavy Traffic,’ ‘Minutes of
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. lviii. p. 35.
[93] In Paris and other cities liable to civil war or internal commotions, it is contended as an advantage
of asphalte that it cannot be used for the construction of barricades, breastworks, or rifle pits.
[94] Vide Mr. Haywood’s Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements, also Report on the Application of
Science and Art to Street Paving and Cleansing of the Metropolis,’ and numerous other pamphlets and
reports by eminent authorities upon the subject.
[95] Vide ‘Asphalte and its Application to Street Paving,’ by E. B. Ellice Clarke, ‘Proceedings of the
Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. vi. p. 52.

[96] The asphaltic roadways of Paris, of which there were 290,000 square yards in the year 1878, cost
from 10s. to 12s. per square yard to lay, and about 8·83 pence per square yard per annum to maintain,
including the charge for renewing ¹⁄₁₅th part of the surface every year, which is the method adopted there.
Vide ‘Annales Industrielles,’ 1878.
[97] Vide Mr. Haywood’s report on asphalte and wood pavements, 1874.
[98] “Lime concrete ruins compressed work.” Vide ‘Asphalte and its Application to Street Paving,’ by B.
Ellice Clarke. ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vi.
p. 46.
[99] See p. 94 ante.
[100] It must be ²⁄₅ths more in thickness than that specified as finished.

CHAPTER XI.
FOOTPATHS.

As in the case of roadways, so with footpaths: the foundation is of primary importance,
whatever material may be used for the surface. Where this material may be classed under
the head of “Paving,” concrete[101] makes the best foundation. For gravel, tar paving, or
other similar surface, a hard core bottom well drained is sufficient. The materials of
which a footpath can be formed are almost innumerable, but the following may be given
as embodying most of them:
(1.) Natural asphalte, compressed and mastic.
(2.) Yorkshire flagging—Caithness flagging.
(3.) Blue lias, and Devonian limestone flagging.
(4.) Concrete.
(5.) Bricks.
(6.) Granite slabs.
(7.) Artificial asphaltes, including tar pavement.
(8.) Gravel.
First on the list stands natural asphalte, compressed and mastic.
The compressed has been thoroughly described in the preceding chapter; it is
sometimes used for footpaths where there is a very heavy traffic, and answers admirably.
I will, however, now deal solely with mastic asphalte, which means the rock ground to
powder, mixed with a certain proportion of bitumen to act as a flux, and then subjected to
heat; this is sometimes used in conjunction with fine sharp clean river sand, but more
often with finely crushed stone about the size of peppercorns, and is styled “gritted
asphalte.”
As long ago as the year 1838, Mr. F. W. Simms speaks of asphalte mastic from
Pyrimont, near Seyssel, and says “it may be considered a species of mineral leather”[102]
—a very good description of its surprisingly tough, hard, durable and pliant properties.
The usual method of the preparation of the mastic is as follows:—
According to the amount of bitumen contained in the natural stone, from 5 to 8 per
cent. of refined Trinidad bitumen[103] is placed in a large caldron which is usually
provided with agitators driven by steam power; when this is thoroughly melted, the
powdered asphalte is added little by little, the heat being raised to between 390° and 480°
F., the mixture kept well stirred and “cooked” for about five hours. It is then turned out
into iron moulds, most companies having a special pattern with a trade mark for this
purpose.
The caldrons generally used contain from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons of mastic.

Some companies in large towns are provided with caldrons on wheels, commonly
called “Locomobiles,” in which case the grit is mixed with the mastic in the fixed
caldrons, and the whole mass run out into the locomobiles (which are also provided with
agitators worked by an endless chain attached to the axle of the wheels), and transported
direct to where the work has to be done. This system, though undoubtedly the best, is not
practicable except in large towns; the more usual method of laying mastic footpaths is to
send the asphalte cakes to the works, where they are remelted in small round street
caldrons, containing from 8 to 12 cakes each, weighing from 40 to 50 lbs., the grit being
sometimes added in the fixed caldrons, sometimes in the street caldrons, this amount of
grit varying from 20 to 60 per cent. according to the nature of the work.
The grit makes the asphalte more difficult to spread, but it lessens the cost and makes a
very durable path. The affinity between the asphalte and grit is so great that, in breaking
a sample, the actual pieces of grit will be found broken in half.
The asphalte should be spread from ¹⁄₂ to ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in thickness (if compressed 1
inch is the minimum), and should be brought hot on to the works in covered caldrons on
wheels, the test of its being ready and fit to lay being made by plunging a wooden spatula
into it, which should come out without any of the asphalte adhering to it, and also by jets
of light smoke darting out of the mixture.
The mastic should be taken from the caldron with a warmed ladle, and put into buckets
previously heated, then thrown out on the concrete (which should be perfectly dry) near
the spreader, who spreads it skilfully with a wooden stave, spreader, or spatula. The
surface should then be floated and dusted over with fine sand, portland cement, or stone
dust.
Dishonest contractors sometimes substitute inferior materials for natural asphalte, such
imitations being made of ground chalk, fire-clay, and pitch or gas tar, or ground
limestone mixed with bitumen.
A sample of the footpath after it is laid should be cut out (this is easily effected by
heating the surface with a piece of hot mastic), in order to see that the proper thickness is
given, and by applying a light to the sample, the smell will readily tell if real asphalte or
any inferior material has been used. Stockholm tar or common pitch should not be
allowed to be substituted for Trinidad bitumen, or it will spoil the mastic.
Asphalte mastic footpaths are excellent in every way, the only objections to them
being the necessity for the grit, and the temporary unpleasant smoke and smell whilst
being laid. It is also necessary to put stone sills round the cellar openings and coal shutes,
etc., for it to butt against, but it makes an invaluable pavement, especially for courts,
alleys, back yards, etc., for sanitary and other reasons.
The proportions of asphalte, bitumen and grit are given as follows by Mr. Delano in
his translation of a paper by M. Ernest Chabrier, on the applications of asphalte.[104]
“One ton of sanded mastic requires 13 cwt. of pure block mastic, 2 qrs. 12 lb. of
bitumen, 7 cwt. of grit or sand washed and dried,” and it takes 2 cwt. of coal to heat it.
He further says that one workman can easily prepare 3 tons of material in 12 hours.
The following table gives the number of square yards that a ton of prepared Sicilian
rock asphalte will spread.

With about
Without grit. 25 per cent. Thickness.
of grit.
square square
inches.
yards. yards.
63 80 ³⁄₈
51 65 ¹⁄₂
32 40 ³⁄₄
26 33 1
16 20 1¹⁄₂
12¹⁄₂ 16 2

A skilled workman properly assisted can lay 140 to 180 square yards in a day.[105]
With regard to the price of asphalte mastic footpaths, this is quite a local question, and
is not worth while discussing. The life of a footpath thus treated may be reckoned at
about 15 years under ordinary traffic; the concrete will remain untouched and what is left
of the asphalte may be remelted, so that a renewal is not so costly as the first expense.
Yorkshire Flagging.—This pavement is too well known to need any description from
me; it is an excellent pavement in many ways, and is most pleasant
to walk upon, there being a cling or foothold not experienced in any other material.
The objections to this description of pavement are:—
(1.) Its first cost, which is undoubtedly high as compared to its durability.
(2.) The fact of uneven wearing: one stone will be found soft next to a hard one; the
former wears, leaving a pit which forms a pool for water in due course, and has to be
removed.
(3.) Unless very carefully bedded, a stone will see-saw; this is very unpleasant in wet
weather, water accumulates beneath, and as the pedestrian treads on one end of the stone
a squirt of dirty water up to his knees, and a stumble, remind him that the stone is loose.
(4.) Liability to crack when any heavy goods are thrown upon it.
The following specimen specification for Yorkshire flagging pavement may be of use.
Specimen Specification for Yorkshire Flagging Foot Pavements.
The old flagging (where and when directed) to be taken up, refaced, squared, and
relaid.
The new flagging is to be chisel-dressed to a fair face, true, out of winding, and not
less than 3 inches thick,[106] to be properly squared and not pitched off only, or undercut,
but to hold good to the square; to have not more than fourteen pieces to the hundred
superficial feet; the joints must be set flush, and bedded and pointed with the best blue
lias mortar.
The bed for the flagging both old and new, if any is required, to be made with proper
earth, gravel, or dry rubbish, and all surplus earth and rubbish to be carted from the
streets as it arises from the works.
The flagging to be properly cut and rebated to receive all area gratings, coal shoots,
rain water troughs, &c.

Any damage done to gas or water service pipes in digging for the flagging, or in any
way connected with the work, to be made good by the contractor, as also all and every
other damage to windows, wood, or glass work; and the contractor will be held
responsible for, and will make compensation for any injury that the public may sustain
through the negligence of his workmen, or otherwise.
The whole of the flags to be of the very best quality, from Halifax, the quarries in the
neighbourhood of Bradford or in Yorkshire, and subject to the approval of the surveyor.
The contractor to provide all lights and proper guards at night, and when old paving is
to be taken up the work is to be done under the direction of the surveyor, and if
considered necessary, the stones are to be removed from the streets to be re-faced and
squared. No stone to be stacked in the streets.
The flagging to be measured after the work is completed.
The contractor to provide all stone, materials, tools, implements, horse and cart hire,
and pay all railway dues, freightages, etc., and also to provide all labour of every kind for
properly completing the work to the full and entire satisfaction of the surveyor. Payment
will be made as the work proceeds, on the certificate of the surveyor.
Should the contractor fail to perform the work to the satisfaction of the surveyor, he
then shall have power to execute the work and charge the same to the contractor, and
deduct the cost from any amount that may be due to him; and in the event of the cost
being more than the amount due, or if there shall then be no sum due to the contractor,
such cost shall be paid by the contractor to the mayor, aldermen, and citizens, and the
same shall be recoverable from him as liquidated and ascertained damages.
Caithness Flagging is now used very largely instead of Yorkshire; it comes from
Thurso in Scotland, and it is contended for it that it possesses many
excellent qualities, amongst others may be enumerated the following:
(1). It is impervious to wet.
(2.) It is not slippery nor does it wear so.
(3.) It does not scale or flake.
(4.) It dries rapidly after rain.
(5.) Its appearance is cheerful.
(6.) Great durability, as it does not abrade.
(7.) Frost has no effect upon it.
(8.) Can be re-used when half worn.
(9.) Cleanliness; for, not being porous, no dirt or dust can adhere to it.
(10.) Vehicular traffic may be turned over it without injury to the path.
(11.) Economy; as natural forces can be used, thus saving labour, and it can be laid
from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches thick only.
(12.) Having sawn edges, the joints are expeditiously and well made.
(13.) Its whole surface wears evenly.
The following table was compiled by the well-known firm of Kirkaldy, by direction of
Mr. Tarbotton the Borough Engineer of Nottingham, in order to ascertain the resistance to
a gradually increased bending stress upon Yorkshire flagging as compared with
Caithness.

Yorkshire.
Dimensions.
Test Ultimate
Weight. Thick-
No. Length. Breadth. Stress.
ness.
K lbs. inches. inches. inches. lb.
1918 184 36 24·07 2·46 4·744
1919 163 36 24·03 2·22 3·398
1920 107 36 23·90 1·50 1·459
Mean 151 36 24·00 2·06 3·200

Caithness.
Dimensions.
Test Ultimate
Weight. Thick-
No. Length. Breadth. Stress.
ness.
K lb. inches. inches. inches. lb.
1921 215 36 24·06 2·59 17·274
1922 178 36 24·05 2·15 12·711
1923 114 36 23·90 1·38 6·211
Mean 169 36 24·00 2·04 12·065

By which it appears that the balance in favour of Caithness flagging is 8·865 lbs.
The objection to this style of flagging is, that however varied the sizes of the stones
selected may be, as they have sawn edges and are very hard to cut with a chisel, a
difficulty sometimes arises in finishing rounded corners of footpaths, and against uneven
frontages of shops or buildings abutting on the footpath; this is especially the case in old
towns.
Blue Lias Flagging.—A blue lias flagging does not make a first-rate pavement, as
although it is very cheap, durable, clean, and has many other good
qualities, it sometimes wears slippery and is then dangerous to pedestrians; but the
Devonian limestone, which is much used in the west of England, has not apparently this
defect.
Concrete Footpaths.—These have been tried in this country, but generally without
success; the concrete or cement cracks, and in addition to this the
paths wear slippery and greasy, and as some time is necessary in order to allow the
concrete to thoroughly set before the traffic can be allowed on them, they have not found
much favour.
In the United States, however, concrete footpaths seem to be made successfully; the
following detail particulars of such a foot-pavement will, I think, be of great interest and
use.[107]
“Concrete footpaths should be laid upon a form of well-compacted sand, or fine
gravel, or a mixture of sand, gravel and loam. The natural soil, if sufficiently porous to
provide thorough sub-drainage, will answer.[108]
“It is not usual to attempt to guard entirely against the lifting effects of frost, but to
provide for it by laying the concrete in squares or rectangles, each containing from 12 to

16 superficial feet, which will yield to upheaval individually, like flagging stones,
without breaking and without producing extensive disturbance in the general surface.
“When a case arises, however, where it is deemed necessary to prevent any movement
whatever, it can be done by underlying the pavement with a bed of broken stone, or a
mixture of broken stone and gravel, or with ordinary pit gravel containing just enough of
detritus and loam to bind it together. In high latitudes this bed should be 1 foot and
upwards in thickness, and should be so thoroughly subdrained that it will always be free
from standing water. It is formed in the usual manner of making broken stone or gravel
roads already described, and finished off on top with a layer of sand or fine gravel, about
1 inch in depth, for the concrete to rest upon.
“The concrete should not be less than 3¹⁄₂, and need rarely exceed 4 to 4¹⁄₂ inches in
thickness, the upper surface to the depth of ¹⁄₂ an inch should be composed of hydraulic
cement and sand only. Portland cement is best for this top layer. For the rest, any natural
American cement of standard quality will answer. The following proportions are
recommended for this bottom layer.

Rosendale or other American cement 1 measure
Clean sharp sand 2¹⁄₂ „
Stone and gravel 5 „

“It is mixed from time to time as required for use, and is compacted with an iron-shod
rammer in a single layer to a thickness less by ¹⁄₂ an inch than that of the required
pavement. As soon as this is done and before the cement has had time to set, the surface
is roughened by scratching, and the top layer, composed of,
1 volume of Portland cement, and
2 to 2¹⁄₂ volumes of clean fine sand,

is spread over it to a uniform thickness of about 1¹⁄₂ inch, and then compacted by rather
light blows, with an iron-shod rammer. By this means its thickness is diminished to ¹⁄₂ an
inch. It is then smoothed off and polished with a mason’s trowel and covered up with
hay, grass, sand, or other suitable material to protect it from the rays of the sun, and
prevent its drying too rapidly.
“It should be kept damp and thus protected for at least 10 days, and longer if
circumstances will permit; and even after it is opened to travel, a layer of damp sand
should be kept upon it for two or three weeks, to prevent wear while tender.
“At the end of one month from the date of laying, the Portland cement mixture
forming the top surface will have attained nearly one-half its ultimate strength and
hardness, and may then be subjected to use by foot-passengers without injury.
“The rammers for compacting the concrete should weigh from 15 to 20 lb., those used
on the surface layer from 10 to 12 lb. They are made by attaching rectangular blocks of
hard wood shod with iron to wood handles about 3 feet long, and are plied in an upright
position. Certain precautions are necessary in mixing and ramming the materials in order
to secure the best results. Especial care should be taken to avoid the use of too much

water in the manipulation. The mass of concrete, when ready for use, should appear quite
incoherent, and not wet and plastic, containing water however in such quantities that a
thorough ramming with repeated though not hard blows will produce a thin film of
moisture upon the surface under the rammer, without causing in the mass a gelatinous or
quicksand motion.”
Under the head of Concrete may be included many artificial stone pavements, such as
“Bucknell’s Granite Breccia” “Ransome’s Artificial Stone,” “Eureka Concrete,”
“Granolithic,” and the “Silicated Victoria Stone,” this last being worth a description. The
stone is really a concrete, formed by mixing very superior Portland cement with crushed
Thames gravel, furnace or iron slag, Kentish rag-stone, granite chippings, or other
suitable material carefully washed. This fine concrete, after being mixed in the moulds
forming the slabs, is thoroughly incorporated by being rocked or jiggled in a trembling
machine; this motion, as can be easily understood, making the whole mass even and
homogeneous when it sets. The cost of the slabs is about 9d. per square foot, 3 inches in
thickness, and they make an excellent footpath.
Brick Footpaths.—These are sometimes constructed of ordinary bricks laid on their
sides, but soon wear, and are unsuitable for the purpose.[109]
Staffordshire blue paving bricks make an excellent footpath. These are bricks made of
stoneware highly vitrified; they should be about 12 inches in length by 6 inches wide, by
about 2⁷⁄₈ inches in thickness, their surface being chequered with a diamond pattern so as
to prevent their being slippery. They are exceedingly hard and durable if well burnt, and
to ascertain this a brick should be broken across and the colour, etc., noted.
They should be laid in cement mortar upon a bed of concrete or sand. The objections
to this class of pavement are as follows:
(1.) The colour is objectionable; being very dark, the footpaths give a street the
appearance of mourning.
(2.) The difficulty of breaking up the path for gas or water services, or for other
purposes.
(3.) The hardness of the bricks makes them awkward to cut to rounded corners, or for
water trunks, coal-holes, etc.
(4.) A loaded hand-barrow driven over them will sometimes break off the chequered
pattern.
(5.) They are slippery in a frost after snow.
But notwithstanding these disadvantages, they make a most wonderfully durable and
useful pavement for back streets.
Granite Slab Pavement.—This is sometimes adopted, large granite slabs, 6 inches in
thickness being laid; they are very useful when there are
cellars underneath, or where heavy vehicular traffic is intended to cross the foot
pavement. Granite is of course excessively durable, but it wears very slippery with traffic
and must then be tooled or axed; in process of time this wears it out, and its first cost is
heavy.
This description of pavement can be laid with advantage in front of markets or similar
buildings.

Artificial Asphalte Pavements.—The cost of obtaining natural rock asphalte from the
mines, and the knowledge that it is composed of two
very simple ingredients, limestone and bitumen, has led to a great number of artificial
asphaltes being introduced, especially for foot pavements. “British Rock Asphalte” is a
name by which many of the compositions are known; “Beauchamp’s Mendip Mountain
Machine-made Granite Asphalte” is a high-sounding title; “Prentice’s Mineral Foreign
Rock Asphalte” is another.
All these, and many more of the same description, are really what may be better and
more correctly described as “tar concrete” or “tar paving,” and consist of different
modifications of the homely coal-tar and limestone.
So long ago as the year 1840, “Lord Stanhope’s Composition” was well known; it was
made as follows:
Three gallons of Stockholm tar, 2 bushels of well-dried chalk, 1 bushel of fine, sharp,
clean sifted sand, the whole being boiled in an iron caldron.
Tar paving is now made in many and various ways by different surveyors of towns,
some making it with hot compositions, some with cold. A description will be found in the
chapter on Macadamised Roadways, page 46, of one method of making it, a modification
of this being all that is necessary for foot pavements.
The best paths of this description that I have seen are to be found at Torquay, and by
the kind permission of Mr. John Little, County Surveyor of Devon, and late Surveyor of
Torquay, I give his useful specification in detail, as follows:

Tar Concrete for Footpaths.

Proportions of Materials.
12 barrow loads of engine ashes.
4 „ „ screened slaked blue lias lime.
4 „ „ small spar or sharp grit.
34 gallons of best gas tar.
20 bucketsful, say 70 to 80 gallons of water.

Method of Mixing.—On a clean flagged or wooden floor spread three barrow-loads of
ashes, then about one barrow-load of lime, and so on until the whole
of the dry materials (or one mixing) has been spread; then throw over them about three
bucketfuls of tar, and before mixing it with them add (say) six bucketfuls of water; then
mix as for concrete, and when the liquids are pretty well absorbed add a similar quantity,
mix again, and so on until all the liquids have been absorbed; the mass will then be
something of the consistency of ordinary mortar. Next pass the whole three times at least
through a pug mill: if this be not done the concrete will be a failure. An ordinary hand
pug-mill will not be sufficient; the knives are not strong enough, nor will it incorporate
the materials thoroughly, but an upright pug-mill, worked by steam power where
practicable, or by at least one horse, should be used.
It will be found that as the mass emerges from the pug-mill a large proportion of the
water will run from it; means should therefore be provided for allowing the water to

escape freely from the floor.
Method of Laying.—Prepare the path for a layer of concrete 3 inches in thickness, on a
hard dry bottom, inclining from the inside to the kerb, at the rate of
¹⁄₂ an inch to a foot for pathways not more than 6 or 7 feet wide, but for wider pathways
an inclination of ³⁄₈ of an inch to a foot will be sufficient.
A template the full width of the path having been provided, lay concrete with a shovel
on the inner side of the path for a length of (say) 15 feet and a width of 1 foot, at such a
height that when it has been well rammed and patted with shovels it shall be the exact
height intended for the path; this is to form a resting-place for one end of the template,
the kerb forming that for the other end; then fill the intervening space with concrete up to
the template, treading and ramming it solidly for about twenty minutes, and as it gets into
shape, patting it with shovels and smoothing with a trowel; then, with an iron (not stone)
roller weighing about 5 cwts., roll for two hours, trimming and filling up hollows where
necessary; then go on with another length, and occasionally roll the first for half-an-hour,
and so on. Experience alone will decide the quantity of rolling necessary after the first
day or two, as weather and other causes tend to a more rapid solidification of the
concrete at some times than at others.
On the third day, sprinkle a small quantity of sea or other very fine sand on the
concrete, and allow it to remain for two or three days after the path has been in use—it
should then be removed.
General Remarks.—The ashes should not be those from a saw-mill or other place
where wood ashes would be mixed with them. All ashes, spar or grit,
and lime, should be passed through a screen of ³⁄₈-inch mesh. The lime should be the best
blue lias, slaked under cover; it should be allowed to lie for at least four days, but not
more than six days, before it is used. The spar or grit should be sharp and angular.
Great care should be taken to keep the concrete free from mud or dust; it should be
tipped from the carts or barrows, either directly into place, or, if this cannot be done, a
few slabs or boards should be laid down, on which it may be tipped.
The path should not be used until the concrete is sufficiently solid to bear a man’s
weight without taking the impression of his boots.
It has been found by experience that the laying of this concrete should not be
commenced before May, and that it should not be continued beyond the end of
September (or middle of October, if the weather is very fine). Frost is fatal to it before it
has become hard, and continuous cold wet weather retards considerably the hardening.
There can be no doubt that a pavement of this description for traffic that is not too
heavy answers every requirement; for streets of greater traffic, genuine mastic asphalte
should be used.
Before closing my remarks on artificial asphalte pavements, the following description
of an American method may be interesting:
On a dry foundation is placed a coat of rough clinkers from anthracite coal or iron
clinkers from a foundry, mixed with sand and tar in the proportions of 15 cubic feet of
fine sifted ashes, 14¹⁄₂ cubic feet of pit sand, and 1¹⁄₂ cubic feet or 9 gallons of tar. This is
laid about 3 to 4 inches thick and well rolled. Over this is placed a coating from 1 inch to

1¹⁄₂ inch thick, composed of 15 cubic feet of coarse sifted ashes, 15 cubic feet of clinkers,
and 1¹⁄₄ cubic feet or 8 gallons of tar. It must be then well rolled and sanded, care having
been taken that the materials are thoroughly mixed.
Gravel Footpaths.—For the suburbs of a town and in the country, nothing looks so
pretty as a gravel footpath.
The same rules that apply to a macadamised roadway apply to a gravel footpath. They
must be well “bottomed,” and well drained and well rolled. Limestone or other stone
chippings may with advantage be used with a pit gravel for constructing paths of this
description, and a barrelled surface looks better and is more enduring than a hanging
path. The following cross sections of footpaths will explain themselves better than any
long description:

Large illustration (163 kB)

Gravel footpaths are sometimes tarred over when thoroughly consolidated. This must
be done only when the weather is quite settled and fine: the least rain will spoil the whole
operation; it consists in simply tarring over the surface of the footpath in the same
manner that a gate or wall or any other substance would be tarred. The surface of the path

must previously have been swept perfectly clean, and immediately as the tarring is
completed, fine stone dust must be sprinkled on its surface; the traffic should be diverted
from it for a few hours, and it is then ready.
Care must be taken that the tar is not too thin in consistency, and that the coat is not
put on too thick. Treating a path in this manner saves gravel, which is washed or kicked
off it if left with an ordinary surface; but a cold night, a slight shower, or inferior tar will
make the whole process abortive, and the path will be in a fearful mess in the winter.

[101] Concrete is especially necessary as a foundation for asphalte, as it has little or no power of
resistance to vertical pressure in itself, and indentations in its surface would be very unsightly as well as
hold water. The concrete should be perfectly dry and thoroughly set before the asphalte is laid on it.
[102] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. p. 6.
[103] Trinidad bitumen is best, but it has to be refined before it can be used. This is done by cooking it
with shale oil, then straining it and decanting it, which is a troublesome and tedious process, and there is
great danger of fraud being practised. Good bitumen can be detected by its elasticity and softness when
rolled between the finger and thumb, and also by its smell.
[104] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xliii. p. 293.
[105] Ibid, vol. xliii. p. 293.
[106] A rule is sometimes made that York flags should be ¹⁄₂-inch thick for every square foot of surface,
but they should never be less than 2 inches thick.
[107] Vide ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 208.
[108] Sawdust 2 feet in thickness has sometimes been used, well rammed and rolled.
[109] The town of Brighton is an instance of this. Ordinary red bricks used to be laid as a footpath, no
doubt to give a rural appearance for the eye of the jaded Londoner, but these are giving place to more
modern materials.

CHAPTER XII.
KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC.

For all footpaths both urban and sub-urban a kerb of some description is necessary to be
fixed on the outside of the footpath, for the following reasons:
(1.) It acts as a sill against which the material of which the footpath is paved may butt.
(2.) It retains both the foundation and surface of the footpath.
(3.) Whether there is a paved channel gutter or not, a kerb is necessary in order to
finish the haunches of the roadway.
(4.) The appearance of a footpath without kerbing is very unsightly.
(5.) Unless a footpath is raised above the roadway it is liable to be flooded.
Many materials are used for kerb, of which granite being the best is generally used in
streets where there is much traffic, as the kerb is often subjected to severe blows from the
passing vehicular traffic as well as a grinding action from the wheels of waggons and
other heavy vehicles, especially on gradients where “hugging” the kerb acts as a drag or
break. In such cases granite, although the most expensive in the first case, is certainly the
most economical, and no other material should ever be used.
Granite kerb varies in dimensions considerably in different localities and according to
the width of the footpaths, the wider the path the wider should be the kerb. It should
however never be of less depth than 9 inches, nor narrower than 4 inches; depth is
necessary to prevent the kerb turning over towards the channel gutter, or water table as it
is sometimes termed, and the filling in on the gutter side must also be well rammed with
a bar to prevent this. Kerb should never be in less lengths than 3 feet, and when 8 inches
and broader it is better that the top surface should be bevelled off to conform with the
slope of the footpath, but in narrower kerbing such a practice is unnecessary, and if
carried to an extreme may even be dangerous.
The kerb should be drafted about 1 inch along both top edges and hammer dressed
about 5 inches on the face, in addition to the whole surface of the top and for 3 inches at
the back, in order that there may be a smooth surface visible against the channel gutter,
and also for the flagging or other paving to butt fair against, besides giving a clean
appearance to the aris of kerb both inside and out.
The following section of an 8-inch granite kerb will explain this:

Large illustration (106 kB)

The top surface should always be tooled or axed whenever it has worn smooth and
slippery, as a slip from a kerbstone often causes a very bad fall to a pedestrian.
Setting kerb requires a very experienced hand, for as it is set dry great care must be
shown, or it will sink, turn slightly over, or move even months after it has been set. In
addition to this it is heavy stuff to handle, but unless the line is accurate both as regards
level and contour, the appearance will be exceedingly bad. Of course the skillet line and
boning rods are freely used in setting kerb, but even with these helps one mason will set
kerb in a pleasing manner, whilst another, with even more care, does not seem able to
make it appear graceful.
Deep and narrow kerb should be bedded on good clean river gravel, and beaten into its
place with hard blows from a heavy wooden setting maul or beetle weighing not less than
50 lbs.
Broader and shallower kerb should be bedded on concrete.
In addition to granite, kerbing is also made of Endon or Yorkshire stone, limestone,
and for brick pavements a kerb specially made of the same material is generally used; it
is also, though not often in this country, constructed of wood, old railway sleepers being
used for the purpose. In the more rural districts grass sods are used with good effect for
gravel paths.
It is difficult to estimate the cost of kerbing, as local questions must interfere, carriage
of the material and value of labour entering so largely into the question.
Mr. Codrington[110] states that “A limestone kerb about 1 foot deep and 4 inches wide
costs from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per lineal yard, and a channel 10 inches wide by 6 inches
thick rather more.
“Granite kerbs 12 inches wide by 9 inches deep, 6s. 6d. to 7s. per yard run.
“Granite channel 12 inches wide by 6 inches deep, 4s. 6d. per lineal yard.
“A channel 12 inches wide, formed of granite cubes 4 inches by 7 inches, costs about
the same.”
I have found that granite kerb 6 by 12 inches could be fixed “in situ” at 3s. 3d. per
yard run, and 8 by 12 inches at 4s. 6d. per lineal yard.
Granite channelling composed of 3 courses of granite pitchers 6 by 8 inches, costing
5s. 6d. per lineal yard.
Limestone channelling 15 inches in width by 3 inches in depth, costing 3s. per lineal
yard.

A paved channel, gutter, or water table is of the greatest use to a roadway, besides
adding greatly to its appearance. Without such a channel the haunches of a road become
sadly damaged by the wash of the surface water, which is sometimes so extreme as to
undermine the kerb and cause it to fall out.
These channel gutters are made of different materials for macadamised roads, granite
setts laid in the direction of the gutter being the best. A channel gutter should not be less
than 18 inches wide, so that if made with ordinary 3-inch setts, 6 courses will be
necessary; they should be bedded on gravel and well grouted in with lime or cement
grouting. Sometimes granite slabs 18 inches wide by 3 or 4 inches thick are used and
make an excellent gutter, they are however liable to tip under heavy loads. Limestone
slabs can also be used in roads of light traffic with advantage.
In streets paved with granite setts, wood blocks or asphalte, the same material is used
for the channelling, the setts or blocks being however bedded in line with the channel
instead of transversely as in the street itself.
The channel gutter should take the slope of the roadway and the granite kerb should
show from 3 to 5 inches above it. At paved crossings it is well to keep them level with
the kerb so that pedestrians may step off the path on to the crossing without any drop, or
if there is any water in them at such points, it is a good plan to let the edge of the crossing
drop rather suddenly towards the kerb, so that the ordinary stride of the pedestrian carries
him on to the level.
Gulley gratings or buddle holes should be placed along the line of channel at such
intervals as may be found necessary. A great number of different forms have been from
time to time introduced for this purpose, the objects to be considered being:
(1.) Sufficient area to carry off all the water.
(2.) Not easily choked on surface by leaves or other debris.
(3.) Sufficiency of pit to retain all sand or road detritus and prevent it being washed
into the sewer.
(4.) The least possible obstruction to the traffic.
(5.) Constructed so that the pit may easily be cleaned out.
(6.) Trapped so as to prevent the escape of sewer gas.[111]
(7.) The drain from it should be easily freed of any obstruction.
One of the best forms of gully pit is that manufactured by Messrs. Oates and Green of
Halifax, as it meets nearly all the requirements which I have summarised as being
necessary for this description of work. The following drawing will explain itself:

What is called a “buddle hole,” which is an opening under the kerb, has much to
recommend it as giving a free unobstructed waterway and at the same time avoiding the
necessity of a grating in the street itself. The following drawing will explain the general
features of this “buddle-hole:”

Large illustration (92 kB)

A great number of different descriptions and forms of gully pits are shown in Mr.
Baldwin Latham’s excellent book on sanitary engineering, to which I refer my readers for
any further information upon this subject.

[110] ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 18.

[111] In many towns the gully gratings are purposely in direct communication with the sewers, so as to
act as ventilators.

CHAPTER XIII.
LIGHTING STREETS.

At the present moment the question of lighting streets by electricity is gaining so much
attention, that it must necessarily be first considered in connection with the subject of
lighting streets: but to enter fully into all the details and comparative merits of electricity
and gas as applied to street lighting would entail more space than can be afforded in this
work. It may however be of some use, even under the present state of uncertainty, if I
attempt to condense as much information upon this necessary part of a surveyor’s duty
into as small a compass as possible. Nor must it be forgotten that electric lighting will not
easily be adapted in old cities and towns, where, in addition to the main streets being
narrow and crooked, there are few large open spaces suitable for intense lights, and there
are numerous small courts and alleys which require lighting, and this for a long time to
come will probably be effected with gas.[112]
Section 161 of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts as follows:
“Any urban authority may contract with any person for the supply of gas or other
means of lighting the streets, markets, and public buildings in their district, and may
provide such lamps, lamp-posts and other materials and apparatus as they may think
necessary for lighting the same. . . .” (38 and 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 161.)
I do not propose to entertain the question of lighting where the gas works are the
property of the corporation, but only to give information that may be of use where a
contract has to be entered into between the corporation and a company. These contracts
are based nearly always upon the length of time at which the public lamps are to be kept
lighted, and may be summarised as follows:
(1.) The public lamps are lighted from sunset to sunrise every night throughout the
year; this averages 12 hours per diem, or about 4000 hours per annum.
(2.) The public lamps are not lighted on the nights of full moon, nor for two or three
nights before and after this period; the rest of the year they are lighted at sunset.
(3.) Similar to the preceding, except that the public lamps are not lighted during the
five nights of full moon, the night after they are lighted for one hour and extinguished on
the rising of the moon; this lighting increases from night to night about three quarters of
an hour until the moon has entirely disappeared, when the lamps are lighted during the
whole of the night for five consecutive nights. Then again on the appearance of the new
moon the lamps are extinguished the first night for about an hour that the moon is visible,
and this extension increases nightly about three quarters of an hour according as the
moon appears until the period of full moon, the intention being to profit by every hour of
the moon’s light.

By this arrangement the lighting is about 2000 hours per annum, instead of 4000
hours, when it is continued throughout the night during the whole of the year.
(4.) Sometimes, in addition to the foregoing, the lamps are not lighted at all during the
summer months.
(5.) Occasionally the public lamps are extinguished at midnight all the year round, if
not for the whole, for some portions of the district, it being assumed that all respectable
citizens being in bed, no light is required.
(6.) In some cases every other lamp only is lighted in the summer months, and many
other similar variations for the sake of economy may be practised.
(7.) The public lamps are sometimes supplied by gas through meters, which is then
paid for at so much per 1000 cubic feet consumed.
Of all the above methods the first is undoubtedly the most satisfactory to the
inhabitants, the urban authority, their officers, and the gas company; it is the least likely
to introduce disputes, and although something may be saved by adopting the more
parsimonious methods enumerated, it is found in practice that the first is the best.
In drawing up an agreement with the gas company to light the public street lamps for
any length of time, the following points must be considered.

Hints for a Contract with a Gas Company.

The company to provide a sufficient supply of gas of the full illuminating power and
quality as provided by their Act.
Payment to be at so much per lamp, or per 1000 cubic feet consumed, or at per hour, or
whatever may be determined on.
Payment to be made by urban authority for lighting, extinguishing, cleaning, repairing,
etc., as may be agreed, such payments to be made quarterly, or at such times as may be
agreed upon.
The hours or times throughout the year during which the lamps shall be lighted to be
determined by a table, every lamp to be fully lighted within one hour of the time named,
and not extinguished before that named for extinguishing. The consumption of the gas to
be regulated and determined by Sugg’s or Borradaile’s street lamp governors, or such
other mode as is agreed upon.
The company to keep the governors and burners in repair, and also the lanterns, at a
fixed sum per lamp per annum.
The company to light and extinguish, and keep all lanterns clean, and all pipes, valves,
etc., in repair.
The company to keep the lamp posts etc., properly painted after they are fixed by the
urban authority. Lamps may be shifted or fresh lamps erected by the urban authority, on
their paying the cost.
The company not to be compelled to supply gas to lamps which are beyond a certain
distance of their existing mains, without compensation.
A certain pressure of gas must be maintained, to be ascertained by water gauges fixed
at certain public places, or at such points as may be determined.

Any lamps burning under size or out, shall be immediately attended to by the
company. A deduction in payment for gas by the urban authority to be made if neglect
can be proved. An arbitration clause is necessary for this or other matters that may be
disputed, and also a clause for determining the agreement upon notice being given.
In supplying gas to the public lamps by meter, either wet or dry meters may be
employed, and these are fixed either in the lamp posts themselves or under the footpath.
Sometimes each lamp has a separate meter, but in the generality of cases one meter fixed
to a lamp gives the average of gas consumed by ten or a dozen of its fellows at the same
level, and in the same neighbourhood. The difficulties arising from this system are:
(1.) The liability of the meters to get out of repair, especially in times of severe frost,
or by vibration of traffic.
(2.) The first cost of providing and fixing the meters, and subsequent cost of repairs.
(3.) The trouble and cost of inspection and keeping the accounts.
And it is found that by employing either “Borradaile’s,” “Sugg’s,” or other regulators
the consumption of the gas can be readily adjusted to consume from 3 to 6 cubic feet per
hour, according to the requirements of the situation of the lamp.[113]
Lamp posts and lanterns are of innumerable sizes, shapes, and patterns, but the
following hints in connection with them may be of some service.
The lamp must not only be ornamental by day, but useful by night.
The light must not be placed either too high or too low.
The post must not be too clumsy so as to interfere with the pedestrian traffic, nor too
fragile so as to be easily broken if driven against. Bracket lamps have advantages in these
respects, and also in the very important one of throwing no downward shadow,[114] as
well as being cheaper.
The lantern should be made with the lightest possible amount of metal frame
compatible with sufficient strength, the angle bars should be very narrow to avoid
shadow, trap doors of perforated zinc or glass should be provided at the bottom for the
admission of the torch, and a good outlet at the top is essential for the escape of the
heated air. Flat glass is much cheaper and easier of repair than curved. The top of the
lantern should be furnished with a reflector cover, otherwise a large percentage of the
light is lost: this is very observable on approaching a large city, by the glare which is
thrown upwards. Some hundreds of different patterns of lanterns for street lamps have
been designed from time to time, and it is not necessary, nor have I space, to describe
them.
The burners should have steatite tips and be of varying size to suit the requirements of
the locality, the regulators which I have previously mentioned must be kept in good
repair. A lever tap is indispensable with the torch for lighting, as well as the trap door or
opening in the bottom of the lantern through which the torch is inserted.
Each public lamp post should be legibly numbered, and the surveyor should keep a
register in his office of all the public lamps in his town.
In order to determine the distance apart of the public lamps in a street, it must be
remembered that the intensity of light is directly proportional to the illuminating power
of the light, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the light, if

unreflected. For instance, the illumination of any point between lamps may be arrived at
by adding all the quotients obtained by dividing the illuminating power in standard sperm
candles of each lamp, by the square of its distance in yards from the point.
Thus a point midway between two lamps of 15 candles each, 20 yards apart, would be
reckoned thus:
15 15
X= + = ·30
100 100
In this country, the rule has generally been adopted that public street lamps burning 5
cube feet per hour of 15 candle gas should not be placed at a greater distance than 60
yards apart, the average distance in most English towns being about 40 yards.
On this question, the following interesting particulars by Monsieur Servier will be of
special interest.[115]
It appears to M. Servier that up to the present there has been too much straining after
intensity, with insufficient care for the object of obtaining a proper quantity of light
uniformly spread over the surface of the ground. The paper in question is therefore
intended in the first place to elucidate this latter subject, so as to determine beforehand
the necessary intensity for luminous centres, gas or electric, and also their height from
the ground and distance from each other required to produce a certain effect. With this
purpose M. Servier proposes to determine for any point of the road-surface, by the law of
the squares of the distances, the intensity of light, in terms of the Carcel standard, which
is spread at that point by one or more lights of given power. Representing these
intensities by proportional ordinates, the extremities of these ordinates form an irregular
surface, and the volume contained between this surface and that of the roadway
represents a specific value equivalent to the total luminous intensity distributed over the
soil. In default of a better term, M. Servier calls this a volume of cubic Carcels, a cubic
Carcel being the intensity of a Carcel (9·5 standard candles) multiplied by a square mètre
of surface. The different cases capable of being valued in this manner are as follows:
1. A burner consuming 140 litres (5 cubic feet nearly), and of 1·1 Carcels (10·45
candles) illuminating power, placed at the height of 3 mètres (9 feet 6 inches). This
burner gives at the foot of the lamp-pillar a maximum intensity of 0·122 Carcel (1·159
candles), and at 10 mètres (32·8 feet) away the illuminating power is reduced to 0·01
Carcel (0·095 candle). The distance of 20 to 30 mètres kept between the street lamps,
even in the best-lighted towns, is therefore excessive, for these should not be more than
13 mètres (14 yards) apart in order to obtain between them the minimum illuminating
power of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle), sufficient for enabling passengers to read.
2. The second case is that of a burner consuming 1400 litres (50 cubic feet nearly) of
gas, with an illuminating intensity of 14 Carcels (133 candles), placed at the height of
3·20 mètres; this being the class of burner fixed in the Rue du Quatre Septembre. The
intensity of light at the foot of the lamp-pillar is 1·367 Carcels (13 candles nearly), and to
obtain the light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) already mentioned as the least intensity
enabling one to read, a point must be fixed in a circle of 16 mètres radius from the lamp
as a centre. Taking now a group of six lamp-columns, three on each side of the street, and

overlapping, as in the Rue du Quatre Septembre, it will be found that the distribution of
light is defective. The most brilliantly lighted point at the foot of the column has an
intensity of 1·367 Carcels (13 candles), or more than triple that of the darkest point,
which has an intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) at 4·58 mètres distance.
3. A lamp of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power, gas or electric, fixed at the height of 8
mètres (26·24 feet). The illuminating intensity at the point vertically under the light is
reduced to 0·7 Carcel (6·65 candles); but the light of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) is to be
found in a circle of 6 mètres radius from this point. It will therefore be observed that the
distribution of light over the ground is better in proportion as the luminous centre is
higher; but conversely also, the amount of light thrown on the ground is greater as the
luminous centre is lower. It consequently results that the power of the light and its height
should be determined in every case with reference to the effect desired. The method
shortly described shows that, in the case of the lighting of the Rue du Quatre Septembre,
the mean amount of light per square mètre of the roadway is 855 décicarcel-cubes, the
best lighted parts having an intensity of 1·62 cubic Carcels, and the darkest portions an
intensity of 0·50 cubic Carcel.
M. Servier has examined the question of lighting a street 20 mètres wide and one or
more kilomètres long, with the condition that the illumination of the ground shall present
a mean determinate quantity of light per square mètre, or a given intensity at the darkest
points. Some interesting results are thus obtained. Thus, by substituting for the 14-Carcel
(133-candle) lamps in the Rue du Quatre Septembre, burners of 50-Carcel (475-candle)
power, with the condition of giving the same intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) to the
darkest points, a quantity of light more considerable than before will be required. That is,
a greater number of Carcels (3000 as against 1848 per kilomètre in length) will be
necessary in the larger burners than were required in the original smaller lamps. It is
therefore imperative, in order that the lighting shall be equally economical, that the unit
of intensity—the Carcel or candle power—shall be less costly in a lamp of 50 Carcel (or
475-candle power) than in the smaller lamps. By fixing lamps of 50-Carcel (475-candle)
power in the centre of the street, instead of along the side walks, maintaining the
condition of giving the light of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) in the darkest parts of the
thoroughfares, it is found that the pillars must be 8 mètres high and 20 mètres apart. The
best-lighted part of the road would then have the intensity of 1 Carcel (9·5 candles), and
would therefore be only twice as brilliantly lighted as the darkest corner; the mean
quantity light per square mètre would be 755 décicarcel-cubes.
Lastly, the same method of lighting has been applied to the “ordinary,” as
distinguished from the “luxurious” lighting of the public thoroughfares, assumed to be 20
mètres wide, giving a light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) at the darkest points. With
ordinary street burners consuming 200 litres (7 cubic feet) of gas per hour, and giving
1·72-Carcel (16·34-candle) power, it is found that the lamps should be 18 mètres (20
yards nearly) apart, the burners being 3 mètres (9 feet 10 inches) high. With burners of
14-Carcel (133-candle) power placed at the height of 3·20 mètres (10 feet 6 inches), the
lamp-pillars would be 106 mètres (115 yards) apart. Or with lamps of 50-Carcel (475-

candle) power placed at a height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet), the distance between the pillars
may be increased to 270 mètres (494 yards).
In the case of electric lighting M. Servier has studied two examples—the Jablochkoff
candle, and an arc light (system not stated). The former is credited with the illuminating
power of 16 Carcels (152 candles), and is fixed at the height of 5 mètres (16 feet 3
inches), on pillars 110 mètres (120 yards) apart. This would give a light of 0·65 Carcel
(6·27 candles) at the foot of the pillar, and a minimum intensity of 0·05 Carcel (0·475
candle) midway between the lights. The arc light is purposely made exactly equal in
computed efficiency to the larger Siemens burner of 50 Carcels (475 candles). In the
matter of expense, however, using the data applicable to Paris, with 12-candle gas at 6s.
6d. per 1000 cubic feet, M. Servier makes a striking comparison. The cost of lighting a
kilomètre of road in the “ordinary” manner last described varies very little for the three
classes of gas lamps—small, large, and very powerful—included in the calculation, and
ranges from 3·33 frs. to 3·96 frs. per hour. The cost of the same work done by the
Jablochkoff candle is estimated at about double, or 6·91 frs. per hour; and with the arc
light the cost would be 4 frs., or still higher than with the most costly system of gas
lighting, although less than the expense of the Jablochkoff electric light.
The following table will show the particulars of different lights so placed that persons
may see to read ordinary print in any part of the street, which may be taken as then being
a well-lighted street.

Con-
Greatest Least
Distance Number Total sump-
Illumi- Height Intensity Intensity
Description of of Illumi- tion
nating of of Light of Light
of Light. Lamps Lamps nating of Gas
Power. Lamps. on on
apart. per Mile. Power. per
Ground. Ground.
Mile.
Gas. candles. ft. in. yards. candles. cub. ft. candles. candles.
Batswing, 7 cubic feet 16·34 9 10 20 176 2876 1232 2·15 0·47
Cluster, 50 „ „ 133·00 10 6 115 29 3857 1450 13·10 0·47
Siemens, 100 „ „ 475·00 26 3 294 10 4750 1000 7·46 0·47
Electricity
Jablochkoff candle 152·00 16 3 120 29 4408 .. 6·18 0·47
Arc light 475·00 26 3 294 10 4750 .. 7·46 0·47

It must not be lost sight of, that the illuminating power of the gas in Paris is very low,
and is thus fixed. Under a pressure of 12 hundredths of an inch, gas burning at the rate of
4·05 cubic feet per hour (or 115 litres) shall give a light of 9·5 standard sperm candles (or
a “Carcel” lamp burning 42 grammes of pure colza oil) per hour.
The competition which has been started by the electric lighting companies has given a
great impetus to gas lighting. A large number of improved street gas lamp burners and
lanterns having been invented and brought into general use, the following particulars
with reference to some of those which were tried in the City of Exeter may be of use as a
comparison.

Cost
Con-
per Hour,
sumption
Candle gas being
Description of gas
Power supplied
of Lamp. in
of Light. at 3s.
cubic feet
per 1000
per hour.
cubic feet.
pence.
Ordinary street lamp with batswing burner 15 5 ³⁄₁₆
Siemens’ 330 50 1³⁄₄
Ditto 130 25 ⁷⁄₈
Ditto 45 10 ³⁄₈
Sugg’s 50 16 ⁵⁄₈
Ditto 30 10 ³⁄₈
Bray’s 80 20 ³⁄₄

Having thus far given a few facts upon lighting streets with coal gas, I will now turn to
the question of lighting them by means of electricity, and in doing this the following
points will be considered:
(1.) The motive-power to be employed in producing electricity and its applicability for
the purpose.
(2.) The description of machinery to be employed.
(3.) The value of the light produced, and its adaptability to the requirements of any
town.
(4.) The comparative cost of the electric light as compared with gas.
(1.) Whatever motive power is employed, whether water-power, steam or gas, it is
essential that it should be steady and unfailing; steady, because the regularity and
uniformity of the light depends upon the evenness of the speed with which the power
works, and unfailing, because a stoppage means the immediate extinguishment of the
lights: electricity, unlike gas, is not stored after manufacture, but is used as fast as it
emanates from the producing power.[116]
Sensitive governors and careful bedding of the machinery greatly tend to lessen
unsteadiness, and are points of considerable importance.
(2.) The machinery consists of the dynamo machines, the conducting wires and the
lamps.
I will not here enter into the question of which is the best dynamo machine to employ,
as to discuss the merits of them all would involve a large amount of space; but for this
and other valuable information upon the subject of electric lighting I will refer my
readers to Mr. Hedges’ excellent little book entitled ‘Useful Information on Electric
Lighting,’[117] but the following points should be attended to. The dynamo machine
should be fixed in a dry place, and not be exposed to dust or flyings, it should be kept
perfectly clean, and its bearings well oiled, its coils and conductors should be perfectly
insulated, and it should, where practicable, be fixed on an insulated bed. With regard to
the wires, the following ‘Regulations for the prevention of Fire Risks arising from
Electric Lighting,’ published by the Society of Telegraph Engineers and of Electricians,

are given in full, as they leave nothing to be desired in the way of their careful selection
and fixing:
“(7.) Every switch or commutator used for turning the current on or off should be
constructed so that when it is moved and left to itself it cannot permit of a permanent arc
or of heating, and its stand should be made of slate, stoneware, or some other
incombustible substance.
“(8.) There should be in connection with the main circuit a safety fuse constructed of
easily fusible metal which would be melted if the current attain any undue magnitude,
and would thus cause the circuit to be broken.
“(9.) Every part of the circuit should be so determined that the gauge of wire to be
used is properly proportioned to the currents it will have to carry, and changes of circuit,
from a larger to a smaller conductor, should be sufficiently protected with suitable safety
fuses, so that no portion of the conductor should ever be allowed to attain a temperature
exceeding 150° F.
“N.B.—These fuses are of the very essence of safety. They should always be enclosed
in incombustible cases. Even if wires become perceptibly warmed by the ordinary
current, it is a proof that they are too small for the work they have to do and that they
ought to be replaced by larger wires.
“(10.) Under ordinary circumstances complete metallic circuits should be used, and the
employment of gas or water pipes should in no case be allowed.
“(11.) Where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating supports, it should be coated
with insulating material, such as india-rubber tape or tube, for at least two feet on each
side of the support.
“(12.) Bare wires passing over the tops of houses should never be less than seven feet
clear of any part of the roof, and they should invariably be high enough, when crossing
thoroughfares, to allow fire-escapes to pass under them.
“(13.) It is most essential that the joints should be electrically and mechanically
perfect. One of the best joints is that shown in the annexed sketches. The joint is whipped
around with small wire, and the whole mechanically united by solder.

“(14.) The position of wires when underground should be efficiently indicated, and
they should be laid down so as to be easily inspected and repaired.
“(15.) All wires used for indoor purposes should be efficiently insulated.
“(16.) When these wires pass through roofs, floors, walls, or partitions, or where they
cross or are liable to touch metallic masses, like iron girders or pipes, they should be

thoroughly protected from abrasion with each other, or with the metallic masses, by
suitable additional covering; and where they are liable to abrasion from any cause or to
the depredations of rats or mice, they should be efficiently encased in some hard
material.
“(17.) Where wires are put out of sight, as beneath flooring, they should be thoroughly
protected from mechanical injury, and their position should be indicated.
“N.B.—The value of frequently testing the wires cannot be too strongly urged. It is an
operation skill in which is easily acquired and applied. The escape of electricity cannot
be detected by the sense of smell as can gas, but it can be detected by apparatus far more
certain and delicate. Leakage not only means waste, but in the presence of moisture it
means destruction of the conductor and its insulating covering by electric action.”
The lamps may take either the “arc” form, or the “incandescent.” The former is
produced by the electric current passing between carbon points, and requires
considerable electrical pressure; they give a light of from 1500 to 4000 candle power; the
mechanism of arc lamps has to be of the most delicate kind to ensure the proper distance
of the carbon points being maintained. The lamps should be guarded by globes of frosted
glass, not only to prevent incandescent pieces of carbon from falling, but to lessen the
glare of the light. “Incandescent” lamps are of small size, giving a light of from 8 to 50-
candle power, which is produced by the heating of a filament of carbon in a vacuum
owing to the resistance caused to the electric current by this contraction of the conductor.
(3.) With regard to the value of the light produced, and its adaptability to the
requirements of any town, it will be seen on reference to the opening of this chapter that
at present considerable doubt exists as to its adaptability for general public lighting, and
as each town varies in the length, straightness, and width of its streets, the number of its
large squares or confined courts and alleys, the surveyor must use his own judgment as to
the suitability of the light before recommending his corporation to adopt it.
As to the value of the electric light, there can be no doubt that a most brilliant and
powerful light is produced by the voltaic arc: so brilliant indeed, as to render it necessary
to screen it nearly always behind frosted or opalescent glass globes, the former being
found to be much the best for many reasons.
As to the photometrical value of the light, some considerable difficulty has hitherto
been experienced in obtaining accurate observations, principally owing to the peculiar
colour of the electric light, and also from its fluctuating character; but these difficulties
are being steadily overcome, and with a photometer mounted on a light frame with
wheels, some excellent experiments have been made in the public streets upon the
comparative values of different lights.
(4.) The last and really one of the most important questions remaining to be discussed
is that of the cost of the electric light as compared with gas.
With reference to the cost of the electric light, the following table may be of use; it is
compiled from an excellent paper on electric lighting, by Mr. James N. Shoolbred:[118]

Table of Comparative Estimates of First Outlay and
of Working Expenses of some Systems of Electric Lighting.

First Cost, including
Name of Machine. Working Expenses per hour.
Engine to drive it.
One Two Three Five One Two Three Five
light. lights. lights. lights. light. lights. lights. lights.
£ £ £ £ s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Gramme single light “A” with
- 330 535 725 935 1 6 2 1 2 7 3 0
Siemens lamp

Cost per light per hour - — — — — 1 11·4 1 4·8 1 2·2 0 10·2

Siemens single light
“medium” with Siemens - 365 611 835 1185 1 7¹⁄₂[119] 2 4 2 10 3 9
small-sized lamp

Cost per light per hour - — — — — 2 1·4 1 6·8 1 3·84 1 0·8

Six Twenty
Six lights. Twenty lights.
lights. lights.
£ £ s. d. s. d.
Gramme “many light”
- 576 1155 2 8 6 3
machine with candles

Cost per light per hour - — — 0 6·4 0 4·2

Mr. Shoolbred has also given another table[120] of street lighting which partly deals
with the question of cost, it is as follows:

Illuminating
Annual
Cost to Power
Date of Length of Cost No. of
Municipal of each Remarks.
Lighting. Street Lit. per mile Lamps.
Authority. (on
of street.
horizontal).

City of London.

District No. 1. (Ludgate Hill, &c.).—“Brush” Electric Light Co.
yards
£ £ candles.
lineal.
Mar. 31, 1881
to - 660[A] 1750 660 32 arc 950 1 40-light Brush machine.
Mar. 30, 1882
[A] Add £750 to cost, for fixing
and final removal of
apparatus.
District No. 2. (King William Street, &c.).—Siemens Bros. & Co., Ld.
Mar. 31, 1881
to - 2270[B] 1960 2026 6 arc 4000 6 continuous current machines.
Mar. 30, 1882

23 arc 330 2 alternating ditto.
[B] Add £1450 to cost, for fixing
and removal of apparatus.
Metropolitan Board of Works (Thames Embankment).—“Jablochkoff” Co.
Dec. 13, 1878
2¹⁄₂d. per light 60 3 Gramme double-machine (“A”
to - 2540 1131 380
per hour. candles and divider).
June 30, 1881
1 Ransome’s steam engine. 20
HP nominal.
July 1, 1881
1¹⁄₂d. per light
to - .. 753
per hour.
June 30, 1884}
City of Norwich (Prince of Wales’ Road, &c.).—R. E. Crompton & Co.
Aug. 15, 1881
to - 710 1700 531 5 arc 2000 4 Bürgin machines.
Jan. 31, 1883
1 Ransome’s steam engine, 20
9 arc 500
HP nominal.
Chesterfield (Market Place, &c.).—Brush (Hammond) Electric Light Co.
Nov. 1, 1881
to - 855 3500 .. 22 arc 950 2 40-Light “Brush” machines.
Oct. 31, 1882
100 2 Fowler’s semi-portable
Incan- 16 compound engines 20 HP
descent. nominal.

As to the comparison of cost between the electric light and gas, this has only, I believe,
been properly estimated on the Thames Embankment, London, by Sir Joseph Bazalgette,
the results of whose investigations upon this important point I shall give presently; it has,
however, been stated generally, and without contradiction, that arc lights can be produced
of about 2000 candle power, with 1 HP at a cost of from 3d. to 6d. per candle per annum
of 4000 hours, gas costing from 1s. 9d. to 3s. 6d. per candle according to the price of the
gas.
Incandescent lamps cost 3s. to 4s. per candle per annum, as their life is short, and only
200 candle power can be got from 1 HP.[121]
The latest investigations into the comparative cost of lighting by gas and electricity
upon the Victoria Embankment and Waterloo Bridge in London, show that the lighting as
effected by 96 gas burners for an average of 12 hours burning all night, and 121 gas
burners for 6 hours lighted after the electric lights are put out, together with the electric
lighting 40 lights on the parapet of Embankment, and 10 on the bridge, costs 834l. for the
gas and 663l. for the electric light per annum. Gas costing 3s. 2d. per 1000 cubic feet
showed a cost of nearly 1s. per hour for every 1000 candle power of light. The electric
lights cost 1¹⁄₂d. per light per hour, which is stated to represent 5·66 pence per 1000
candle power of light; each electric light as now used, it is said, gives a photometric light
of 265 candles, frosted glass globes being found to pass much more light than the
opalescent globes.

These are by far the most important and reliable comparisons that have hitherto been
made, and it will be seen that the cost is in favour of the electric light.
There is no doubt that the acme of all artificial lighting is the prolongation of the light
of day, and whether this is proposed to be effected by electricity or gas, it should be the
goal aimed at by all who make this question their study.

[112] Since writing these lines the following letter has appeared in the Standard and has
never been refuted, which shows that electric lighting for streets is not yet all that can be
desired:
Electric Lighting.

To the Editor of the Standard.
Sir,—At this time, when the question of lighting by means of electricity is receiving so
much attention, and as Chesterfield is the only town in England whose lighting is done
throughout by electricity, it may be interesting to your readers to know what our experience
has been.
I need not detail the stages which led to our abandoning gas, and taking up the electric
light after being in darkness some months. I may briefly state that, after going carefully
into the question, we decided to adopt the system whose praise was in everyone’s mouth a
year ago, namely, “The Brush,” and, though we were applied to by other companies, we
placed the execution of the work in the hands of the one that we considered the most
suitable—the Hammond Company. During the negotiations of the contract, Mr. Hammond
particularly pressed us not to stipulate for incandescent lamps, as he acknowledged that
their Company were not in a position to cope with incandescent lighting for public
purposes. We, however, decided upon the town being lighted with the Lane-Fox
Incandescent Lamps, as well as the Brush Arc Lights.
After waiting many weary months for the completion of the incandescent lighting, it is
now, when declared by the contractors complete, in my opinion a decided failure. The
Lane-Fox lamps, which have been supplied by the Brush Company, are most variable in
their lighting power; whilst some are good, others only give a feeble light instead of a light
equal to that of fifteen candles, as expected. The arc lights are doing good service in some
of the large streets, but as a whole I think it has been fully demonstrated in a year’s trial in
Chesterfield, that the field for arc lighting is very limited indeed.
Though the tradesmen have been canvassed by the Hammond Company with a view to
introducing the arc lights into their shops and hotels, in not one single case has the light
been adopted. Indeed, it is evident to us who have them under our eyes every night, that
they are only fit for lighting works and large, open spaces. The experience that has been
thus gained at Chesterfield at the present juncture must be of value to all towns intending
to adopt the electric light, and is my reason for troubling you with this letter, although I
believe the time will shortly come when lighting by electricity may be advantageously
adopted, both for public and private purposes.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
Geo. Edwd. Gee,
Alderman of the Borough of Chesterfield.
High Street, Chesterfield, October 10, 1882.
[113] The Surveyor of Folkestone says: “Sugg’s self-acting regulator is used, adjusted as
nearly as may be practicable to consume 4 feet per hour, and so very satisfactory is this
apparatus that for the last two years, after burning 7294 hours, it is found by the average
meter to have consumed 29,227 feet, as against 29,176 feet as per regulator, being only 51
feet in excess of that which the apparatus is adjusted to consume.” Vide Ellice Clark on gas

in Public Streets, ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and
Surveyors,’ vol. ii. P. 193.
[114] Bracket lamps may not be fixed by an urban authority to houses within their
district without the previous consent of the owners of such houses. Vide ‘Fitzgerald’s
Public Health Act,’ third edition, p. 182.
[115] Meeting of the ‘Société Technique de l’lndustrie du Gaz en France’ in 1882.
[116] “Faure’s” batteries can store electricity, but at present this cannot be manipulated
on a very large scale.
[117] Published by Messrs. Spon, 16 Charing Cross, London.
[118] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and
Surveyors,’ vol. vi. p. 9 et seq.
[119] Siemens’ light at Blackburn cost 2s. per hour per lamp of 6000 candle power.
[120] Vide ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and
Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 171, &c.
[121] On this point Mr. W. G. Laws, Borough Engineer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, says:
“Taking as an example a street a mile long, lighted by the arc system, the arrangement
would probably be lamps 60 yards apart, placed alternately on either side, giving 30 lamps
or 60,000 candles at a cost of about 800l. per annum. If lighted by ‘incandescent lamps’ we
should have them placed about 30 yards apart on both sides: that is, 120 lamps giving 2400
candles at a cost of about 420l. per annum. The number of gas lamps for the same distance
might be 150, giving about 2250 candles at a cost of 300l. per annum.” (‘Proceedings of
the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 65.)

CHAPTER XIV.
STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING.

It was not until the commencement of the present century that
inconvenience was apparently felt from the want of any distinguishing
names of streets, or numbers to houses, either in London or provincial
towns; the first Act of Parliament on the subject being one passed in the
year 1819, which gave powers to vestries and district boards to put up the
names of streets, and even then for some considerable period afterwards
houses or premises were not marked with numbers, but with distinguishing
trade signs or names.
The Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, however, contains the
following clauses which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875,
by the 160th section of that act:
“The commissioners shall from time to time cause the houses and
buildings in all or any of the streets[122] to be marked with numbers as they
think fit, and shall cause to be put up or painted on a conspicuous part of
some house, building or place at or near each end, corner, or entrance of
every such street the name by which such street is to be known; and every
person who destroys, pulls down, or defaces any such number or name, or
puts up any number or name different from the number or name put up by
the commissioners, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for every
such offence” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, sec. 64).
“The occupiers of houses and other buildings in the streets shall mark
their houses with such numbers as the commissioners approve of, and shall
renew such numbers as often as they become obliterated, or defaced; and
every such occupier who fails within one week after notice for that purpose
from the commissioners to mark his house with a number approved of by
the commissioners, or to renew such number when obliterated, shall be
liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s.; and the commissioners shall cause
such numbers to be marked or to be renewed as the case may require, and

the expense thereof shall be repaid to them by such occupier, and shall be
recoverable as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 65).
Some difference even now exists as to the manner in which streets are
named, there being considerable diversity in the sizes, colours, and
materials of the name plates, as well as in the spaces allowed for the letters.
The following list is given to show how this diversity existed in the
metropolis even so late as the year 1870.
Table taken from a “Memorandum by the Superintending Architect of the
Metropolitan Board of Works, relative to the enforcement of the Law
regulating the naming of Streets and numbering of Houses in the
Metropolis” (1871):

Parish A. Parish B.
Names on houses at corners of streets 237 281
„ on piers of railings 24 36
„ on iron plates 6 44
„ on wooden boards 18 36
„ on enamelled plates 1 2
„ impressed in terra cotta 2 3
„ in cement letters 14 9
„ in Minton’s china letters 2 1
„ engraved on stone 5 13
„ on porcelain plates 1 1
„ with raised letters on iron girder 1
„ on board on posts 11
„ on zinc 2

And to this table are added the words “Some names are completely hidden
by vines, names given for ‘streets’ are put up as ‘roads.’” Since this table
was prepared however, the confusion has been rectified by the energetic
action of the Metropolitan Board of Works.
It is no doubt essential that for postal, telegraphic, and social reasons
there should be uniformity in the manner in which the naming and
numbering of streets is carried out, and the following particulars and
suggestions may be of use.
Names of streets should be marked up in such a manner as to be legible
both by day and lamp light, and the materials of which the name-plates are
composed should be of sufficient strength to prevent any damage accruing
to them from stone-throwing or other wilful or accidental injury, or from the

action of changes of temperature or climatic influences of any kind, and the
following list is given descriptive of some of the modern methods of
effecting this:
Minton’s China Tiles.—These are white glazed china tiles 6 inches
square, on which either blue or black letters are
burnt in, one letter on each tile (except in the case of St. which is on one
tile); they are fixed by chasing them into walls of buildings, and setting
them in cement. They are the best description of name-plate with which I
am acquainted, their cost being only 6d. each, with the additional
advantages of being not easily broken, they can be removed and re-used
with facility, weather has no effect upon them, and they require no attention
whatever after they are once fixed.
Cast-iron Plates with Embossed Letters.—These are generally painted
with a white ground, and black
letters; they are liable to become broken, and as they are fixed with screws
these rust through in course of time, when the plate may suddenly fall in a
dangerous manner into the street; another disadvantage is that they require
to be painted about once every three years.
Painted Names on Walls of Buildings.—This method requires no special
mention; it is an economical plan
and is more adopted than any other, but the letters must be painted every
three years at least, and they are apt to be defaced if the premises are
painted by the owner or occupier.
Enamelled Iron Plates.—These look very well, but they are apt to get
loose, and a blow from a stone will shiver them.
Wooden or Metal Figures cut out and fastened on to Boards or against
Walls.
—The same objection holds good with this method as with others of the
same description, the fastenings fail in time, and the name disappears.
Enamelled Glass Tablets in Street Lamps.—This is an excellent method
of recent introduction, and has
many advantages. The name can be seen very plainly either by day or night,
no private premises have to be interfered with in fixing them,[123] a
uniformity of position or “where to look” for the name of the street is
secured, and there is no limit to the number of times the name may be
repeated.

Where the names of streets are placed against buildings the letters which
compose the name should not be less than 4 inches in height by 2 inches in
breadth, with a space between each letter of not less than 1 inch; a light
colour should always where practicable be used for the back ground, and
black or blue for the letters. One great objection to painted letters is that
they must be frequently repainted, and in order to do this, ladders have to be
raised against the building, which the occupiers naturally object to without
previous notice: it is always very annoying to any citizen to have the head
of a painter appearing outside his bed-room window at any time, and more
especially at an inconvenient hour in the morning.
In selecting names for streets it is very important that they should not be
duplicated in a town, and also that there should be some sense in their
nomenclature; generally some local association can be found with a family
or historical name which is suitable for the street. Nothing is more
ridiculous than to see such names as Bath Street or York Road given to
streets which have as much association with such places as with Jericho.
The street having been properly and conspicuously named, the next point
to consider is that of the manner in which it shall be numbered, there being
three methods in vogue by which this can be effected.
(1.) By allotting even numbers on one side of the street and odd numbers
on the other side.
(2.) By allotting consecutive numbers up one side of the street, and down
the other side.
(3.) By allotting corresponding numbers to both sides of the street, which
are distinguished by a prefix of north and south, or east and west, as the
case may require.
The first is by far the best method to pursue, for the following reasons:
If the street is ever extended after being numbered, the sequence is in no
way disturbed. By this method any house can be more easily found, as on
reference to a directory it will at once be seen at which end of the street it is
situated. If the second method had been adopted this would be impossible,
except for the first few numbers, and where a street is of considerable
length with branch streets running into it this is of the greatest importance.
It is the best method also for the Post-Office officials, as it facilitates the
district sorting of the letters.
Giving each side of the street distinctive prefixes to its name, such as
north and south, &c., is evidently a bad plan, and leads to much confusion.

In allotting numbers to premises in a street, if it has been already
numbered care should be taken to disturb existing numbers as little as
possible, for an altered number involves considerable expense as well as
inconvenience to the occupier of business or trade premises, owing to the
necessity of altering bill heads, letter paper, &c., and sometimes even
considerable trouble and expense in order to secure the validity of the title.
Avoid numbering from right to left, and take care to allot sufficient
numbers to vacant spaces which may eventually be built upon, and to do
this the length of frontage may be divided into such lengths as (in the
surveyor’s judgment) will represent the new frontages. In any case it is
better to have too many numbers in a street than too few, and large
premises, and any public or other buildings which may be removed, and
other buildings substituted should have numbers allotted to them, although
it will not be necessary to serve the notices to have them affixed. Most large
shops prefer to have more than one number, although I have heard the
rather far-fetched contention urged, that more than one number means extra
rating.
Considerable care must be exercised to ensure that no separate premises
are passed over in allotting the numbers, often only a door or side passage
denoting the existence of another claimant for a number. Nothing looks
worse in a freshly numbered street than to see such numbers as 37A or 96¹⁄₂
placed upon premises that should have had a distinct numeral, and thus
showing that they must have been left out.
The manner in which streets are numbered is generally as follows:
The town surveyor or one of his assistants walks through the street, and
with a piece of chalk legibly marks each house with its correct number,
taking care to observe the precautions I have enumerated; having done this
throughout its entire length, these numbers must be entered in a book with
the name of the occupier written opposite to the number. Upon returning to
the office the surveyor must then fill up and serve the necessary notice upon
each of these occupiers, the following being given as a specimen of such
notice:

Urban Sanitary Authority for the .
Town Surveyor’s Office, 188 .
____________

I beg leave to give you notice, that the Town Council of , as the
Urban Sanitary Authority, have approved of the number for the house
in your occupation, in .
You are therefore required, within one week from the date of this notice
[to obliterate the present number, and][124] to mark the said house with the
number so approved of, and to renew the same from time to time in the case
of its becoming obliterated.
A penalty of 40s. will be incurred in the event of default in compliance
with this notice.
I am,
Your obedient Servant,
_________________________
Town Surveyor.
To __________________
No. __________________

In the event of the old number with which any premises were marked not
being obliterated by the occupier, the following notice may be served:

Urban Sanitary Authority for the .
Town Surveyor’s Office, 188 .
____________
It has been reported to the Town Council that you have neglected to
obliterate the old number of your premises, No.
Street, after receiving notice of a new number being allotted to such
premises by the Town Council, whereby you have incurred a penalty of 40s.
The duplication of numbers in the same street was found to be the
occasion of so much inconvenience, that the Council were obliged to re-
number the street in question, and it is manifest that if a number allotted to
another house is retained by you, the inconvenience sought to be removed
will still remain.
I am therefore instructed to inform you that unless the old number of
your premises is obliterated within seven days from the date of this notice,
proceedings will be taken against you for the recovery of the penalty
incurred.
Yours faithfully,

_________________________
Town Surveyor.

Of course, if nothing is done after service of this second notice, it only
remains to summon the offender as provided by the sections of the Act,
which I have given in the early part of this chapter.

[122] “Street” includes any highway (not being a turnpike road), and any public bridge
(not being a county bridge), and any road, lane, footway, square, court, alley, or passage,
whether a thoroughfare or not. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4.)
[123] The law apparently gives the Sanitary Authority power to fix names of streets
against any premises they may choose, without first applying for or obtaining any consent
from either the occupier or owner of such premises. (Vide 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 64.)
[124] If the premises have no existing number, these words can be left out.

CHAPTER XV.
BREAKING UP STREETS.

In nearly every city and town of the United Kingdom, except those where
the gas and water undertakings are the property of the urban authority, the
town surveyor is constantly annoyed by having some portions of his streets
broken up and greatly damaged by the action of the gas or water companies
of the district.
With regard to the lasting character of the damage caused to the street by
this disturbance of its surface, I shall have something to say in this chapter,
but it is first necessary to see what legal powers the companies have to
break up the streets, and what powers the surveyor has to enforce the work
being properly carried out.
It will be found that the sections bearing upon this point are almost
precisely similar in their wording in the following Acts:
“The Gas Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 15).
“The Water Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17).
“The Electric Lighting Act 1882” (45 & 46 Vic. c. 56).
but with regard to the powers of the Government to lay telegraph and
telephone wires, &c., the clauses are different, and are contained in,
“The Telegraphs Act 1863” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112).
As the clauses on this subject of “the Water Works Clauses Act” are those
which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875, I shall select the
sections from that Act, the first of importance being as follows:
“The undertakers, under such superintendence as is hereinafter specified,
may open and break up the soil and pavement of the several streets and
bridges within the limits of the special Act, and may open and break up any
sewers, drains, or tunnels, within or under such streets or bridges, and lay
down and place within the same limits pipes, conduits, service pipes, and
other works, and engines, and from time to time repair, alter, or remove the
same, and for the purposes aforesaid remove and use all earth and materials

in and under such streets and bridges, and do all other acts which the
undertakers shall from time to time deem necessary for supplying water[125]
to the inhabitants of the district included within the said limits; doing as
little damage as can be[126] in the execution of the powers hereby or by the
special Act granted, and making compensation for any damage which may
be done in the execution of such powers” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17 s. 28).
The next clause deals only with the powers of laying pipes, &c., in
private property, and here it will be well to remark that if the water
undertaking is in the hands of the urban authority they have much more
power of entry for these purposes than companies possess (Vide ss. 16, 18,
32, and 54, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55), but this is a matter which does not affect
the questions dealt with in this chapter.
The next clause is upon the subject of giving the necessary notices, and is
as follows:
“Before the undertakers[127] open or break up any street, bridge, sewer,
drain, or tunnel, they shall give to the persons under whose control or
management the same may be, or to their clerk, surveyor, or other officer,
notice in writing of their intention to open or break up the same, not less
than three clear days before beginning such work, except in cases of
emergency arising from defects in any of the pipes or other works, and then
so soon as is possible after the beginning of the work or the necessity for
the same shall have arisen” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 30).
The next clause is of great importance, as it gives the surveyor the
necessary powers to dictate the manner in which the interference with his
streets is to be conducted.
“No such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel shall, except in the cases
of emergency aforesaid, be opened or broken up except under the
superintendence of the persons having the control or management thereof,
or of their officer, and according to such plan[128] as shall be approved of by
such persons or their officer, or in case of any difference respecting such
plan, as shall be determined by two justices; and such justices may, on the
application of the persons having the control or management of any such
sewer or drain, or their officer, require the undertakers to make such
temporary or other works as they may think necessary for guarding against
any interruption of the drainage during the execution of any works which
interfere with any such sewer or drain. Provided always, that if the persons
having such control or management as aforesaid, and their officer fail to

attend at the time fixed for the opening of any such street, bridge, sewer,
drain, or tunnel, after having such notice of the intention of the undertakers
as aforesaid, or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the
same, or shall refuse or neglect to superintend the operation, the undertakers
may perform the work specified in such notice without the superintendence
of such persons or their officer” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 31).
There are several points to which it is necessary to draw attention whilst
considering the above clause. I am afraid that the “attendance” of the
surveyor “at the time fixed for the opening” or even of one of his assistants
could not always be managed, nor would it be practicable to prepare a
“plan” for every opening that might be made by a gas or water company for
new services, leaks in mains, &c.; but where it is proposed to carry out any
extensive works, such as laying a considerable length of new main or
removing an old one, it is certainly necessary that there should be some
“plan” of the manner in which such work is proposed to be carried out by
the company.
On referring to the clause it is evident that the first “plan” mentioned
must be prepared by and on behalf of the company proposing to carry out
the work, and this plan must show the exact position on each street of the
proposed excavations, and their depth, &c., which “shall be approved of by
such persons (having the control of the streets) or their officer,” their officer
really being the surveyor.
Lower down in the clause another “plan” is referred to in the following
words: “or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the same.”
This plan, or more correctly speaking, a specification of the manner in
which the company shall proceed with the work, must be prepared by the
surveyor, and if it meets with the approval of his corporation it can be
enforced.
In order to assist town surveyors who may be required to act under this
clause, I now give a verbatim copy of a “plan” or specification under which
I compelled a gas company to work after they had given me the usual
statutory notice of their intention to break up certain macadamised streets
for the purpose of removing some disused mains.

Plan of the manner in which the Gas Light and Coke
Company shall take up and remove the old mains in street,
commencing at or near street.

A trench to be excavated of not greater width than inches and of no
greater length than feet at a time.
Great care must be taken to keep the top facing metal separate from the
lower formation of the roadway, so that they may not become mixed
together; no metal is on any account to be removed from the street.
The mains must be taken up with all possible speed and instantly
conveyed away, without being allowed to remain at the sides of the streets.
[129]
The trench to be then at once filled in, care being taken to replace all the
materials of which the roadway is formed in their proper positions. All extra
filling in that may be required owing to the removal of the mains shall be
done on the surface with the best stone, broken so as to pass all
ways through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter, the top of the trench
being always kept flush with the surface contour of the roadway. No earth,
rubbish, or other material shall be allowed to be brought on to the ground
by the gas company for the purpose of filling in, nor shall any material of
any kind be allowed to be brought from any other excavations that may be
being made by the gas company in other parts of the town for the purpose
of laying or removing mains.
The filling in to be done in the proportion of one man filling to two men
ramming with punners of not less weight than lbs. each. During dry
weather a plentiful supply of water must be allowed to run into the trench
whilst the filling in is in progress, for the purpose of consolidating the
ground.
The traffic must not in any case be impeded, and planks must be placed
across the excavations, where necessary, for the convenience of foot
passengers.
The work shall if necessary be suspended on market days, or any other
days that the surveyor may deem proper for the convenience of the public.
* * * * * * * * *
The next clause of the Act deals with the manner in which the companies
shall reinstate and make good the road or pavement, and is as follows:
“When the undertakers open or break up the road or pavement of any
such street, or bridge, or any sewer, drain, or tunnel, they shall with all
convenient speed complete the work for which the same shall be broken up,
and fill in the ground and reinstate and make good the road or pavement, or

the sewer, drain, or tunnel so opened or broken up, and carry away the
rubbish occasioned thereby; and shall at all times whilst any road or
pavement shall be so opened or broken up cause the same to be fenced and
guarded, and shall cause a light sufficient for the warning of passengers to
be set up, and kept there against every night during which such road or
pavement shall be continued open or broken up, and shall after replacing
and making good the road or pavement which shall have been so broken up,
keep the same in good repair for three months thereafter, and such further
time, if any, not being more than twelve months in the whole, as the soil so
broken up shall continue to subside” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 32).
The conditions embodied in the above clause are easier written than
carried out.
It is well known that a trench cut longitudinally through a street takes a
very long time to heal. Asphalte shows it the least if there is a good backing
of concrete, but all other pavements suffer considerably in the process, as it
is almost impossible to maintain their strict contour, and with macadamised
roadways the result is simply disastrous.
Opening a macadamised roadway does it more harm than the heaviest
and most persistent traffic, and it is surprising for what a length of time the
surface will show the treatment it has received.
It is unfortunately the practice generally for the men in the employ of a
gas or water company, after laying a pipe, to try and ram into the trench all
the material they have removed, without allowing for the cubical contents
taken up by the pipe, or if they do condescend to cart anything away it is
generally the metal, which they think will come in nicely for the repairs of
the trench during their liability for such repairs. What ought to be done is
that no filling of ordinary earth, &c., should be allowed to come within at
least six inches of the top of the trench, which should then be filled in with
good road metal, and as this wears down it should be brought up to the
proper level with more metal. In the former plan a hump is seen over the
trench, and this hump is a mass of mixed dirt and road-metal for which
there is no cure but its entire removal to a depth of at least six inches, and
the substitution of good clean road-metal, which would have been the best
and most economical plan in the first place.
The clauses following those I have quoted are “penalty clauses” for non-
compliance with the provisions of the Act, and need not be here given, but
there is one more clause of the Water Works Clauses Act 1847, dealing with

the powers of private individuals to break up streets for the purpose of
laying service pipes, which it is necessary to give in extenso.
On the question of similar powers to private individuals to break up
streets for drains, &c., I shall speak later on in this chapter:
“Any such owner or occupier may open or break up so much of the
pavement of any street as shall be between the pipe of the undertakers and
his house, building or premises, and any sewer or drain therein, for any
such purpose as aforesaid, doing as little damage as may be and making
compensation for any damage done in the execution of any such work;
provided always, that every such owner or occupier desiring to break up the
pavement of any street or any sewer or drain therein, shall be subject to the
same necessity of giving previous notice, and shall be subject to the same
control, restrictions, and obligations in and during the time of breaking up
the same, and also reinstating the same, and to the same penalties for any
delay in regard thereto, as the undertakers are subject to by virtue of this or
the special Act” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 52).
It would also seem that the consent of the urban authority must be
obtained (as well as notice given to them) before a street is broken up (38 &
39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).
Very often, however, the companies prefer to execute all this work
themselves, as they do not like anyone else to interfere with their mains or
put in services which may be unfitted for the purpose; consequently they
give the necessary notices, execute the work themselves, and charge the
owner or occupier with the expense.
The powers under which streets are broken up for telegraphic or
telephonic purposes are, as I have previously stated, contained in the
“Telegraphs Act 1863,” the following being the clauses which refer to this
subject:
“The company shall not place a telegraph under any street within the
limits of the district over which the authority of the Metropolitan Board of
Works extends, or of any city or municipal borough or town corporate, or of
any town having a population of thirty thousand inhabitants or upwards
(according to the latest census), except with the consent of the bodies
having the control of the streets within such respective limits” (26 & 27 Vic.
c. 112, s. 9).
“Where the company has obtained consent to the placing, or by virtue of
the powers of the company under this Act intends to proceed with the

placing of a telegraph under a street or public road, the depth, course and
position at and in which the same is to be placed shall be settled between
the company and the following bodies:
“The body having the control of the street or public road.
“The body having the control of the sewerage or drainage thereunder.
“But if such settlement is not come to with any such body, the following
provisions shall take effect:
“(1.) The company may give to such body a notice specifying the depth,
course and position which the company desires.
“(2.) If the body to whom such notice is given does not, within 28 days
after the giving of such notice, give to the company a counter-notice
objecting to the proposal of the company, and specifying the depth, course
and position which such body desires, they shall be deemed to have agreed
to the proposal of the company.
“(3.) In the event of ultimate difference between the company and such
body, the depth, course and position shall be determined in England or
Ireland by two Justices, and in Scotland by two Justices or the Sheriff” (26
& 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 10).
“Subject to any special stipulations made with a company by the body
having the control of a street or public road, and to any determinations,
orders, or directions of the Justices, or Sheriff, as aforesaid, where the
company proceeds to open or break up a street or public road, the following
provisions shall take effect.
“(1.) The company shall give to the bodies between whom respectively
and the company the depth, course and position of a telegraph under such
street or public road are hereinbefore required to be settled or determined,
notice of their intention to open or break up such street or public road,
specifying the time at which they will begin to do so, such notice to be
given in the case of an underground work ten days at least, and in the case
of an above-ground work five days at least before the commencement of the
work, except in case of emergency, in which case notice of the work
proposed shall be given as soon as may be after the commencement thereof.
“(2.) The company shall not (save in case of emergency) open or break
up any street or public road except under the superintendence of the bodies
to whom respectively notice is by the present section required to be given,
unless such bodies respectively refuse or neglect to give such

superintendence at the time specified in the notice for the commencement
of the work or discontinue the same during the work.
“(3.) The company shall pay all reasonable expenses to which such
bodies respectively may be put on account of such superintendence” (26 &
27 Vic. c. 112, s. 17).
It will be seen by the above section that the time required before the work
is commenced after service of the notice is considerably longer than that for
gas or water mains or for electric lighting wires, and subsection 3 authorises
a payment for the services of the surveyor or other officer attending to
superintend the work, which is not the case in the other Acts.
The next clauses are as follows:
“Subject to any such special stipulations as aforesaid, after the company
has opened or broken up a street or public road they shall be under the
following further obligations:
“(1.) They shall with all convenient speed complete the work on account
of which they opened or broke up the same, and fill in the ground and make
good the surface, and generally restore the street or public road to as good a
condition as that in which it was before being opened or broken up, and
carry away all rubbish occasioned thereby:
“(2.) They shall in the meantime cause the place where the street or
public road is opened or broken up to be fenced and watched, and to be
properly lighted at night:
“(3.) They shall pay all reasonable expenses of keeping the street or
public road in good repair for six months after the same is restored, so far as
such expenses may be increased by such opening or breaking up” . . . (26 &
27 Vic. c. 112, s. 18).
“Whenever the permanent surface or soil of any street or public road is
broken up or opened by the company it shall be lawful for the body having
the control of the street or road, in case they think it expedient so to do, to
fill in the ground, and to make good the pavement or surface or soil so
broken up or opened, and to carry away the rubbish occasioned thereby,
instead of permitting such work to be done by the company; and the cost
and expenses of filling in such ground and making good the pavement or
soil so broken up or opened, shall be repaid on demand to the body having
the control of the street or road by the company, and in default thereof may
be recovered by the body having the control of the street or road from the

company, as a penalty is or may be recoverable from the company” (26 &
27 Vic. c. 112, s. 19).
“The company shall not stop or impede traffic in any street or public
road, or into or out of any street or public road, further than is necessary for
the proper execution of their works. They shall not close against traffic
more than one third in width of any street or public road or of any way
opening into any street or public road at one time; and in case two-thirds of
such street or road are not wide enough to allow two carriages to pass each
other, they shall not occupy with their works at one time more than fifty
yards in length of the one-third thereof except with the special consent of
the body having the control thereof” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 20).
It will be seen that these are much more elaborate clauses, restricting the
rights of the telegraph companies than those of the gas and water
companies, &c., and as the Telegraphs Act containing these strict clauses
was passed in the year 1863 and the Water Works Clauses Act in 1847, it is
fair to assume that the clauses of the Telegraphs Act 1863 were framed to
meet certain objections to these clauses and upon experience of their
working, and are consequently better and more adapted for the case in
point.
To obviate all the difficulties and complications arising out of this
constant breaking up of streets, with the attendant inconvenience to the
public and damage to the surfaces of the roadways, it was suggested many
years ago that subways should be constructed under the surface of the
principal streets, in which should be placed all the gas and water mains then
existing.
There is no doubt that there are many advantages in this plan as well as
some disadvantages. It must be recollected that probably the subways
would have been constructed of sufficient capability to carry all the mains
and wires then existing, with a margin for future extensions of size, but
when we see the enormous growth of many towns, notably that of the
metropolis, and the consequent increase necessary in the number and
diameters of the mains, it is to be feared that sufficient space would not
have been left, and competition between rival gas and water companies
might consequently have been crippled.
Still there would be great convenience in many respects if all water and
gas mains, telegraph and telephone wires could be carried in subways, as
they would be easily accessible for repairs, and hidden leaks would be

unknown. With regard to the one great objection so constantly urged, that in
the case of a leaky gas main or service a most terrible and damaging
explosion might take place, it is true that this is a very grave and serious
objection, but it must also be recollected that although this danger may be
enhanced by the necessarily solid masonry of which the subway is
constructed, still there would be every precaution taken to prevent leakage
of gas, and in the present system liability to explosion is not altogether
remote. In Percy Street, Tottenham Court Road, only a year or two ago,
there was a terrible explosion in trenches and mains which had become full
of gas and atmospheric air in the proportions of one volume of gas to fifteen
volumes of air, and if gas mains were laid in subways greater precautions
would no doubt be taken.
There would be also great danger in conveying the wires used for electric
lighting purposes in these subways, as they might fuse and thus cause
danger, and at all events they would have some considerably disturbing
influence upon the wires of the telegraph and telephone systems, if laid too
near.
I will now pass on to consider the powers of individuals to break the
surface of public streets for the purpose of putting new drains to their
premises or of repairing existing drains.
With regard to the former question I have given full particulars with
regard to new drains or connections with sewers in the chapter upon “house
drainage,” but with regard to the latter question it will be necessary to make
a few remarks.
There is no doubt that the public streets vest in the urban authority, and it
is contended that the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875
prevents any person from breaking up any street without their permission,
although it is sometimes questioned whether the words “wilfully displaces”
do not mean the doing of an illegal act, such as taking up a stone in a street
to annoy or injure a neighbour or from sheer mischief, rather than that of a
legal act for a proper purpose; the clause in question is as follows:
“All streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by
the inhabitants at large within any urban district, and the pavement stones
and other materials thereof and all building implements and other things
provided for the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the control of
the urban authority. . . . Any person who without the consent of the urban
authority wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures the pavement,

stones, materials, fences or posts of or the trees in any such street, shall be
liable to a penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of
pavement, stones or other materials so displaced taken up or injured; he
shall also be liable in the case of any injury to trees to pay to the local
authority such amount of compensation as the court may award” (38 & 39
Vic. c. 55, s. 149).
Even, however, granting that application must be made before any
individual can break up a street, the urban authority would not be likely to
withhold their consent if it was for a legitimate purpose, and having
disturbed the street, a person must light and guard the opening, and the
“hole,” as it is called in the clauses following must be “filled up or
otherwise made secure;” but it is very doubtful if he can be called upon to
keep the surface of the road in repair for any length of time, as can be done
in the case of water and gas companies, &c.; the following are the clauses
in question:
“When any building materials, rubbish or other things are laid or any
hole made in any of the streets, whether the same be done by order of the
commissioners or not, the person causing such materials or other things to
be so laid or such hole to be made, shall at his own expense cause a
sufficient light to be fixed in a proper place upon or near the same, and
continue such light every night from sun-setting to sun-rising while such
materials or hole remain. And such person shall at his own expense cause
such materials or other things and such hole to be sufficiently fenced and
enclosed until such materials or other things are removed or the hole filled
up or otherwise made secure” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 81).
“In no case shall any such building materials or other things or such hole
be allowed to remain for any unnecessary time.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s.
82).
“If any building, or hole, or any other place near any street be for want of
sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous to the passengers along
such street, the commissioners shall cause the same to be repaired,
protected, or inclosed, so as to prevent danger therefrom, and the expenses
of such repair, protection, or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners
by the owner of the premises so repaired, protected or inclosed, and shall be
recoverable from him as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83).
These three sections are incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875, by
38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160, and the last clause undoubtedly gives power to

the urban authority to repair a “hole” which for want of “sufficient repair”
is “dangerous to passengers” but not otherwise, in however unsightly a
manner the trench may have been repaired.
The result of this uncertainty has been that a great many towns have
inserted in their private improvement Acts, clauses making it compulsory
upon all persons to give them from 3 to 7 days’ notice of their intention to
break up the streets, specifying the manner in which the work shall be done,
and also compelling them to deposit a sum of money in order to secure that
the repairs of the street are properly executed.[130] A better method than this
is to insert in any private improvement Act a clause giving powers to the
urban authority to execute all drain-work themselves and charge it upon the
owners of the property, thus ensuring that any interference with the surface
of the street shall be done in a proper manner by men accustomed to the
work, and also that the drain itself shall be of perfect workmanship.
Where the town surveyor has no private improvement Act dealing with
this question, it is well to frame some regulations as to the manner in which
the notice of intention to break up the surface of the street shall be given to
him by the person intending to do the work, and if possible to obtain a
deposit of a few shillings as a guarantee that the surface of the street shall
be kept in something like decent repair. Although this may not be strictly
legal, it is a very universal practice amongst town surveyors.
The following forms of notices are given as specimens of the description
of notice now in use, and are copied verbatim from those which are now
enforced in a very large borough in this country:

Borough of .
To the Borough Surveyor,
I hereby apply for permission to break up the footway or roadway, and
make excavations in for the purpose of , and I hereby
undertake to light, watch and fence the place during the progress of the
works, to temporarily make good the surface of the footway or roadway, to
remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete the work to the satisfaction
of the borough surveyor. I also deposit the sum of five shillings for the
repair of the surface, and agree to pay the balance if it should cost more
than that sum.

(Signature)
(Address)
Witness and receiver .
Received by accountant 188 .
Surface repaired 188 .
At a cost of .

Borough of .
188 .
To Mr.
This is to certify that you have paid a deposit of five shillings, and that
you are hereby permitted to take up the footway or roadway and make
excavations in for the purpose of on the undertaking
you have given to light, watch and fence the place during the progress of
the works, to temporarily make good the surface of the footway or roadway,
to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete the work to the
satisfaction of the borough surveyor; also that you will pay the balance if
the surface repairs should cost more than the aforesaid sum of five shillings.
________________________
______
Borough Surveyor.
Note.—If the surface repairs should cost less than the deposited sum, the
balance will be returned to you by the accountant, who will notify you of
the fact.

Notice must be given to the Building Inspector when the work is ready for inspection, and no
drainage work must be covered up until it has been examined by the Inspector.

It may be well to add to this authority to break up the streets, the
following words—
“This authority may be revoked at any time if found necessary, and it
does not in any way relieve the person to whom it is granted from any
liabilities he may incur in respect of accidents from anything done in
pursuance thereof.”
In some towns the following custom prevails in regard to this question.

The person desirous of opening the street for the execution of any work
has to apply to the surveyor for a licence, and at the same time deposit a
sum sufficient to cover the expense of the work, such sum being estimated
and fixed by the surveyor. The corporation then supply one labourer whilst
the job is in hand, who, whilst working, takes care that the soil is properly
rammed and the surface made good; a mason is also supplied to make any
drainage or sewer connections. The deposit is kept for about 3 months, and
the cost of the labourer and mason, and of any subsequent making good the
surface of the street, is then deducted, and the balance returned to the
person who made the deposit.
This arrangement seems an excellent plan, and is said to work
remarkably well where it is in vogue, but whether it is strictly legal is open
to considerable question.

[125] Or gas or electricity, as the case may be.
[126] These words apply only to the manner of doing the work, not to alternative ways
of doing it. (Vide ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and Local Government Act, 1875,’ 3rd
edition, p. 45.)
[127] In the “Electric Lighting Act 1882,” the words “proceed to” have been inserted
before the word open, which is an obvious improvement.
[128] It is incumbent upon the undertakers intending to break up a road to communicate
beforehand their proposed plan or method of executing the work to the road authority, and
this in a sufficient manner to enable the road authority to judge whether what is proposed
ought to be done without modification. The plan should, therefore, show the position on
the road of the proposed excavation, and its depth. (Edgware Highway Board v. Colne
Valley Water Company, 46 L. J. ch. 889.)
[129] This precaution was necessary, as the smell of the old mains was naturally very
offensive and a nuisance.
[130] In some towns it is the practice to give the builder a junction pipe or block for
nothing, thus ensuring his calling to give notice, but this is only successful in the case of
new attachments to sewers, in which case the law is much more strict.

CHAPTER XVI.
OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS.

For convenience, I propose to treat in this chapter some subjects which,
strictly speaking, do not come under the head of “obstructions,” but they are
all questions which have to be considered by the town surveyor; temporary
obstructions and other offences with which it is the province of the police to
deal are omitted.
The following subjects will therefore be discussed:
(1.) Improving the line of frontages of streets.
(2.) Removing projections.
(3.) Doors and gates opening outwards.
(4.) Vault or cellar coverings.
(5.) Rain-water shutes and down-pipes.
(6.) Blinds or awnings over footpaths.
(7.) Trees over-hanging roadways.
(8.) Surface water from private premises running over footpaths.
(9.) Hoardings and scaffolds.
(10.) Dangerous buildings.
(1.) Improving the Line of Frontages of Streets.—By the Towns
Improvement Clauses Act
1847, certain powers were granted which enabled the commissioners to
agree with owners of property to set back for the purpose of widening any
street,[131] but this was often found to be difficult and wearisome of
accomplishment, consequently in the Public Health Act 1875, the following
important clause bearing upon this point was inserted.
“Where any house or building situated in any street in an urban district,
or the front thereof, has been taken down in order to be rebuilt or altered,
the urban authority may prescribe the line in which any house or building,
or the front thereof, to be built or rebuilt in the same situation shall be
erected, and such house or building or the front thereof shall be erected in

accordance therewith. The urban authority shall pay or tender compensation
to the owner or other person immediately interested in such house or
building for any loss or damage he may sustain in consequence of his house
or building being set back or forward, the amount of such compensation in
case of dispute to be settled by arbitration in manner provided by this Act”
(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 155).
This clause gives an excellent power to the sanitary authority, especially
in older towns, to lay down improved building lines upon the plan of their
town, and thus set back the line of buildings as opportunity offers.
In assessing the value of compensation to be paid to the owner for setting
back his property, the following points should be considered:
(1.) The value of the area of the land given up to the public.
(2.) The loss of available and useful space to the premises.
(3.) If any use is made by the owner of the land given up to the public by
constructing cellars underneath, the amount of compensation should be less.
(4.) The amount the owner will have to expend to make good the sides of
the neighbouring premises thus exposed by his setting back must be
considered.
A surveyor should be very careful to recollect if any building line has
been laid down in any street when the plans of new buildings are deposited
with him for approval. If these plans are approved without any notice being
given to the owner to set back, it is questionable whether he can afterwards
be called upon to do so.[132]
(2.) Removing Projections of Buildings.—The Towns Improvement
Clauses Act 1847 made provision
for setting back any house or building, or any part which projected beyond
the regular line of street when taken down, on payment of compensation,
[133] and this and the following sections were incorporated in the general
Public Health Act 1875.[134]
“The commissioners may give notice to the occupier[135] of any house or
building to remove or alter any porch, shed, projecting window, step, cellar,
cellar-door, or window, sign, sign-post, sign-iron, show-board, window
shutter, wall, gate, or fence, or any other obstruction or projection erected or
placed after the passing of the special Act, against or in front of any house
or building within the limits of the special Act, and which is an obstruction
to the safe and convenient passage along any street, and such occupier shall
within fourteen days after the service of such notice upon him, remove such

obstruction or alter the same in such manner as shall have been directed by
the commissioners, and in default thereof shall be liable to a penalty not
exceeding forty shillings; and the commissioners in such case may remove
such obstruction or projection, and the expense of such removal shall be
paid by the occupier so making default, and shall be recoverable as
damages; provided always, that except in the case in which such
obstructions or projections were made or put up by the occupier, such
occupier shall be entitled to deduct the expense of removing the same from
the rent payable by him to the owner of the house or building.”
The wall of a garden in front of a house, and shrubs in the garden, which
encroach on the street, come within the words “any other obstruction” in
this section.[136]
It is doubtful, however, if trade signs projecting at such a height as not to
be “an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage along any street” can
be removed under this section, however unsightly they may be, nor does it
appear that flag poles or flags can be ordered to be removed when at such a
height as to cause no obstruction.
The following clause, however, of the Public Health Act 1875 affects the
question of new projections much more closely.
“It shall not be lawful in any urban district, without the written consent of
the urban authority, to bring forward any house or building forming part of
any street or any part thereof, beyond the front wall of the house or building
on either side thereof, nor to build any addition thereto beyond the front of
the house or building on either side of the same. Any person offending
against this enactment shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for
every day during which the offence is continued after written notice in this
behalf from the urban authority” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 156).
Here some difficulty is frequently experienced as to the question if the
building has really been brought beyond the common line of neighbouring
buildings, especially where the houses are detached; but it is apparently left
to the tribunal before whom the case is heard to decide this point, and the
surveyor can only give his evidence, as in many other cases, to the best of
his ability and knowledge, and trust to obtaining a verdict in his favour.
With regard to obstructions erected before the passing of the special Act,
the commissioners may cause the same to be removed or altered as they
think fit—

“Provided that they give notice of such intended removal or alteration to
the occupier[137] of the house or building against or in front of which such
alteration or removal is begun; and if such obstructions or projections shall
have been lawfully made, they shall make reasonable compensation to
every person who suffers damage by such removal or alteration.”[138]
Here the words “reasonable compensation” are difficult of construction
and lead frequently to long litigation.
(3.) Doors or Gates opening outwards.—
Section 71 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts that “All
doors, gates and bars put up after the passing of the special Act within the
limits thereof, and which open upon any street, shall be hung or placed so
as not to open outwards, except when in the case of public buildings the
commissioners allow such doors, gates or bars to be otherwise hung or
placed; and if (except as aforesaid) any such door, gate or bar be hung or
placed so as to open outwards on any street, the occupier of such house,
building, yard or land shall, within eight days after notice from the
commissioners to that effect, cause the same to be altered so as not to open
outwards; and in case he neglect so to do the commissioners may make
such alteration, and the expenses of such alteration shall be paid to the
commissioners by such occupier, and shall be recoverable from him as
damages, and he shall in addition be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s.”
Section 72 of the same Act further enacts, “If any such door, gate or bar
was before the passing of the special Act hung so as to open outwards upon
any street, the commissioners may alter the same so that no part thereof
when open shall project over any public way.”
It is naturally necessary that doors or gates of all public buildings should
hang so as to open outwards, so as to give a free and easy exit in case of
panic, many serious accidents having arisen from a want of this precaution;
but with regard to private premises the case is altogether different, and if
doors and gates were allowed to open outwards, they would soon become a
dangerous and intolerable nuisance.
It will be seen that there are two courses to be pursued in connection with
this offence.
The first is where the door, gate or bar has been placed before the passing
of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act in 1847, in which case the
“commissioners may alter the same, so that no part thereof when open shall
project over any public way.” This duty of course rests with the town

surveyor, and in many cases it is not easy of execution, as structural
difficulties may have to be encountered and overcome.
In the second case, where the door, gate or bar has been placed since the
passing of the Act in 1847, certain penalties are incurred by the occupier or
owner, and the commissioners may also alter the door, gate or bar at his
expense.
The following specimen form of notice to be served in connection with a
case of this description may be of use:

Town Surveyor’s Office.
Sir,
I beg leave to give you notice that of the premises in your
occupation opens outwards, and when open, projects into the street called or
known as .
I have therefore to require that you will be good enough to have such
altered so that it shall not open outwards into the said street,
within eight days next after your receipt of this notice.
I beg leave also to give you notice that if you neglect to make the
alteration required within the period specified by this notice, you render
yourself liable to a penalty of 40s., and I shall proceed to make the
necessary alterations, and recover the costs and penalties from you as the
law directs.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
______________________________
Town Surveyor.
To______________________________

(4.) Vault or Cellar Coverings.—
Section 73 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts, “When
any opening is made in any pavement or footpath within the limits of the
special Act, as an entrance into any vault or cellar, a door or covering shall
be made by the occupier[139] of such vault or cellar, of iron, or such other
materials, and in such manner as the commissioners direct, and such door or
covering shall from time to time be kept in good repair by the occupier of
such vault or cellar: and if such occupier do not within a reasonable time
make such door or covering, or if he make any such door or covering
contrary to the directions of the commissioners, or if he do not keep the

same when properly made in good repair, he shall for every such offence be
liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds.”
Besides the penalty, the person negligently leaving the covering in a
dangerous condition would be liable to an action for damages at the suit of
anyone who had sustained an injury in consequence of the covering being
so kept.[140]
There is another clause incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875 from
the Towns Police Clauses Act 1847 upon this subject, which is as follows:
“Every person who leaves open any vault or cellar, or the entrance from
any street to any cellar or room underground, without a sufficient fence or
hand rail, or leaves defective the door, window or other covering of any
vault or cellar . . . . shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for each
offence, or in the discretion of the justice before whom he is convicted may
be committed to prison, there to remain for a period not exceeding 14 days”
(10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28).
But the former section I have quoted is that upon which the town
surveyor generally acts.
In connection with this duty the following is given as a specimen notice:

Sir,
I beg to call your attention to the fact that the door or covering to the
vault or cellar in your occupation, No. Street, is not in
good repair (and is slippery and dangerous to foot-passengers),[141] you are
in consequence liable to a penalty of 5l.
I must request you will be good enough to have such door or covering
properly repaired and made good in accordance with the construction
required by law, within days from the date hereof, and in the event of
your failing to do so, proceedings will be taken to enforce the penalty to
which you are liable without further notice.
I am, your obedient Servant,
______________________________
Town Surveyor.
To _______________

In accordance with the provisions contained in the section of the Towns
Improvement Clauses Act 1847 which I have quoted, that the “door or
covering shall be made by the occupier of such vault or cellar of iron or

such other materials, and in such manner as the commissioners direct,”
most towns in this country have prescribed the size and materials of which
they shall be made, the size being often limited to 6 feet in length, by 20
inches projection, from the line of plynth of the building, for cellar
coverings or pavement lights as they are sometimes called, and 12 inches in
diameter for coal plates.
Hayward’s patent hexagonal and semiprismatic pavement lights,
however, have obviated the danger of slipping upon this description of
covering, and consequently little or no inconvenience is experienced, even
if the greater portion of the foot pavement is covered by them.[142]
Coalhole plates should be so firmly fixed as to prevent the possibility of
their shifting, even when the rebate of the flag stone into which they are
dropped is worn, and also to prevent mischievous persons from raising
them.
Here let me state that no person can without the written consent of the
urban authority cause “any vault, arch or cellar to be newly built or
constructed under the carriageway of any street” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 26);
but from this section it does not appear illegal to construct a vault, arch or
cellar under the footpath, which would generally be the extent to which
such constructions would be extended. However, the more general powers
contained in section 149 of the same Act, by which all “streets and the
pavement stones and other materials thereof” vest in and are under the
control of the urban authority, give the necessary powers to prevent the
construction of cellars under any portion of the foot-pavement without the
consent of the urban authority.
The usual practice adopted is for any person who requires to construct a
cellar under the foot-pavement or carriageway of any street, to apply to the
urban authority for the necessary permission to do so. In granting the
permission, the urban authority call upon the owner of the premises to
which the proposed vault or cellar is attached, to enter into an agreement
acknowledging that the cellar or vault is only an easement, and agreeing to
remove the encroachment whenever called upon by the urban authority to
do so.
These agreements and any other similar easements should be kept
together in a book, which may be called the “Easement Book,” and indexed
in such a manner that a reference can be easily made at any time to any
easement that has been granted.

(5.) Rain-water from Shutes or Down Pipes.—
Water may not be allowed to drip on to the pavements of the streets from
the adjoining houses, and the following clause from the Towns
Improvement Clauses Act 1847 has been incorporated with the Public
Health Act 1875:
“The occupier of every house or building in, adjoining, or near to any
street shall, within seven days next after service of an order of the
commissioners for that purpose, fit up and keep in good condition a shoot
or trough of the whole length of such house or building, and shall connect
the same either with a similar shoot on the adjoining house, or with the pipe
or trunk to be fixed to the front or side of such building from the roof to the
ground, to carry the water from the roof thereof in such a manner that the
water from such house or any portico or projection therefrom shall not fall
upon the persons passing along the street or flow over the footpath; and in
default of compliance with any such order within the period aforesaid, such
occupier shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for every day that he
shall so make default” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 74).
In many private Town Improvement Acts, the cost of the repair necessary
under an order to do so from the urban authority may be deducted by the
occupier from the rent payable to the owner of the premises, thus ensuring
the work being done more quickly.
The following is a specimen notice to be served upon the occupier to
repair or put new shuting to his house:

I beg to give you notice that the eaves, shuting, or projecting cornice[143]
to the house or building No. in your occupation, is out of
repair. A penalty of 40s. will be incurred if this shuting be not repaired
within seven days from the date of this notice (and under the Special
Improvement Act the cost of such repair may be deducted from the rent
payable to the owner).[144]
I am, your obedient Servant,
______________________________
Town Surveyor.
To______________________________

It is a common practice in most towns for the urban authority to provide
and fix trunks or troughs across their footpaths into which the down pipes

from the rain-water shutes can empty their contents.
(6.) Blinds or Awnings over Footpaths.—
These may be dealt with as obstructions under sec. 69 of the Towns
Improvement Clauses Act 1847, which I have already quoted,[145] but they
are more particularly alluded to in the Police Clauses Act 1847 in the
following section:
“Every person who . . . places any blind, shade, covering, awning, or
other projection over or along any such footway, unless such blind, shade,
covering, awning or other projection is 8 feet in height at least in every part
thereof from the ground, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for
each offence, &c.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28).
Thus legalising the fixing of shop-blinds, &c., provided they are at least 8
feet in height and consequently no obstruction to the traffic.
In order to make the blinds or awnings sufficiently secure where they are
of large dimensions, it is very usual for the owner or occupier of the
premises to which the blind or awning is to be attached, to seek and obtain
the consent of the local authority to fix iron sockets in the kerb of the
footpath into which iron or wood standards are inserted for the purpose of
supporting the outer part of the blind or awning, and there can be no
objection to this practice provided that the work is efficiently performed
and to the satisfaction of the town surveyor.
(7.) Trees overhanging Roadways.—
It used formerly to be considered by road surveyors and others[146] that
great injury was caused to roadways by overhanging branches of trees or
bushes, which were supposed to exclude the light and air from the roadway
and thus damage it, hence powers were given to local authorities, as
surveyors of highways, to compel occupiers of premises adjoining the
roadways to cut back and prune their trees or hedges in order to prevent this
damage. The following being the form of notice usually adopted for this
purpose:

To___________________________
You are hereby required to cut, prune, and trim your hedges adjoining the
highway leading from to and also to cut down, prune,
or lop the branches of trees, bushes and shrubs growing in or near such
hedges and other fences adjoining thereto, in such manner that the said
highway shall not be prejudiced by the shade thereof, and that the sun and

wind may not be excluded therefrom. And you will further take notice, that
if you shall neglect so to do within five days of the delivery hereof, I shall
proceed to have the said hedges, trees, and bushes cut and pruned,
according to the power and provisions of the various Acts of Parliament
relating thereto. And further, that I shall also proceed to recover from you
the penalties in this respect imposed by the said Acts of Parliament.
Dated this day of
____________________________
Surveyor.

It is however now very seldom that overhanging branches of trees or
hedges cause any damage to the roadways within an urban district, and
unless they are an actual obstruction to the traffic, the growth of trees near
urban roads and streets should be encouraged; indeed it is now a common
practice to plant trees close alongside the roadway, the branches of which
must of necessity hang over it, and cause no damage if the roadway is
properly formed and attended to.
(8.) Surface Water from Private Premises running over Footpaths.—
It frequently happens that the rain-water which falls upon a front garden
or courtyard finds its way, for want of a sufficient drain, out of the gate and
across or along the public footpath, thus causing annoyance to pedestrians
even if it does no injury to the path. There does not seem to be any clause in
the Public Health Act 1875 to meet this objection, for the section which I
have given with reference to rain-water shutes and down pipes (10 & 11
Vic. c. 34, s. 74), does not apply to such cases, as it only refers to water
from the “roof or any portico or projection” and not to water falling upon
the surface of a garden or courtyard, nor is there anything in the Highways
Acts which can be brought to bear upon the subject.
If, however, any injury is caused to the footpath, no doubt the cause of
offence may be stopped or the perpetrator prosecuted or indicted in default.
(9.) Hoardings and Scaffolds.—
When buildings are in course of erection, or repairs are being carried out
to them, it is generally necessary that the person engaged in the work
should construct either a hoarding or inclosure, or at all events a scaffold, so
as to execute the work properly. Upon this point the following clause of the
Towns Improvement Clauses Act has been incorporated with the Public
Health Act 1875:

“Every person intending to build or take down any building within the
limits of the special Act, or to cause the same to be so done, or to alter or
repair the outward part of any such building, or to cause the same to be so
done, where any street or footway will be obstructed or rendered
inconvenient by means of such work, shall, before beginning the same,
cause sufficient hoards or fences to be put up in order to separate the
building where such works are being carried on from the street, with a
convenient platform and handrail if there be room enough, to serve as a
footway for passengers, outside of such hoard or fence, and shall continue
such hoard or fence with such platform and handrail as aforesaid standing
and in good condition, to the satisfaction of the commissioners, during such
times as the public safety or convenience requires, and shall, in all cases in
which it is necessary in order to prevent accidents, cause the same to be
sufficiently lighted during the night.[147] And every such person who fails to
put up such fence or hoard or platform with such handrail as aforesaid, or to
continue the same respectively standing and in good condition as aforesaid,
or who does not, while the said hoard or fence is standing, keep the same
sufficiently lighted in the night, or who does not remove the same when
directed by the commissioners within a reasonable time afterwards, shall for
every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding 5l., and a further
penalty not exceeding 40s. for every day while such default is continued”
(10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 80).
Hoardings and scaffoldings are now so scientifically erected as to be little
or no inconvenience to foot-passengers. Care must, however, be taken to
see that in the erection of a hoarding the doors or gates in it shall not open
outwards, and the police should be instructed to prevent carts being backed
in and left standing across the footpath.
The surveyor must exercise great discretion in the length of time he
allows a hoarding to remain; without undue hardship on the builder, he
must study at the same time the more important question of the public
convenience.
(10.) Dangerous Buildings.—
This is the last, although by no means the least, of the series of
“obstructions” I have enumerated. Here, again, very grave responsibility
rests with the surveyor to determine what is a dangerous building, and in
what manner it shall be rendered safe and secure, for his opinion is
apparently legally conclusive on this matter.

The following is the clause of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act
which deals with ruinous or dangerous buildings:
“If any building or wall, or anything affixed thereon, within the limits of
the special Act, be deemed by the surveyor of the commissioners to be in a
ruinous state and dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of the
neighbouring buildings, such surveyor shall immediately cause a proper
hoard or fence to be put up for the protection of passengers,[148] and shall
cause notice in writing to be given to the owner of such building or wall, if
he be known and resident within the said limits, and shall also cause such
notice to be put on the door or other conspicuous part of the said premises,
or otherwise to be given to the occupier thereof, if any, requiring such
owner or occupier forthwith to take down, secure or repair such building,
wall or other thing, as the case shall require. And if such owner or occupier
do not begin to repair, take down or secure such building, wall or other
thing, within the space of three days after any such notice has been so given
or put up as aforesaid, and complete such repairs or taking down or
securing as speedily as the nature of the case will admit, the said surveyor
may make complaint thereof before two justices to order the owner, or in
his default the occupier (if any) of such building, wall, or other thing, to
take down, rebuild, repair or otherwise secure, to the satisfaction of such
surveyor, the same, or such part thereof as appears to them to be in a
dangerous state, within a time to be fixed by such justices. And in case the
same be not taken down, repaired, rebuilt or otherwise secured within the
time so limited, or if no owner or occupier can be found on whom to serve
such order, the commissioners shall with all convenient speed cause all or
so much of such building, wall, or other thing as shall be in a ruinous
condition and dangerous as aforesaid, to be taken down, repaired, rebuilt or
otherwise secured in such manner as shall be requisite, and all the expenses
of putting up every such fence, and of taking down, repairing, rebuilding or
securing such building, wall or other thing shall be paid by the owner
thereof” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 75).
Great care must be observed in seeing that the notices are properly
prepared and served in accordance with sections 266 and 267 of the Public
Health Act 1875, and the town clerk, as the legal adviser of the sanitary
authority, should be consulted (in this as in all cases requiring notices) by
the surveyor.

It sometimes happens that a tall chimney shaft, wall, or other erection
may apparently be perfectly safe, whereas in a high gale of wind it may be
blown down.
Many tall chimney shafts rock in an alarming manner in a high wind,[149]
but he would be a bold surveyor who would order some of these expensive
structures to be pulled down in the face of the opposition he would receive.
[150]
A curious case of some difficulty in connection with dangerous buildings
has come under my notice, where a house was built with the approval of the
urban authority, and after completion and occupation the attention of the
surveyor was called to the fact that a large piece of rock at the back of the
house, from which the site had been excavated for the purpose of its
erection, was in a dangerous condition and likely to fall at any moment and
cause great damage to property, or even loss of life. The clerk to the urban
authority, when consulted, was of opinion that the surveyor could do
nothing in the matter, as the case was not met in any way by the Act.
The following is given as a specimen notice to serve with reference to a
dangerous structure:

Notice.
To (A) the Owner of the ruinous and dangerous (B)
under-mentioned and the occupier thereof.

Whereas a certain (B) situated at within
the borough of , in the county of , is deemed by me,
the undersigned, the surveyor of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the
said borough of , acting by the council as the urban sanitary
authority for the same, to be in a ruinous state and dangerous to passengers
or to the occupiers of neighbouring buildings:
Therefore take notice, that you are hereby required, in pursuance of the
provisions in that behalf of the Public Health Act 1875, and the Towns
Improvement Clauses Act 1847, to take down, repair or secure the said (B).
And that if you do not or if neither of you does begin to take down,
repair, or secure the said (B) within the space of three days after
this notice has been served upon you or put upon the said premises, and
complete such taking down, repairing or securing as speedily as the nature

of the case will admit, I shall cause complaint thereof to be made before
two justices in accordance with the provisions of the statutes aforesaid.
Dated this day of 18 .
____________________
Surveyor of the said Urban Sanitary
Authority.
A. The name and description of the owner or occupier, or the names, &c., of both should
be here inserted.
B. Building, wall, or anything affixed thereon.

Before closing this chapter upon “Obstructions in Streets” I give the
following clause from the “Towns Improvement Clauses Act,” which comes
after two other sections of the same Act principally dealing with building
materials, rubbish, or holes in streets, and although in this clause the word
“building” is used, the section cannot be taken as referring to dangerous
buildings, although it may undoubtedly be used where it is required on
account of waste land, &c., being left in an unprotected and dangerous
state:—
“If any building or hole or any other place near any street be, for want of
sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous to the passengers along
such street, the commissioners shall cause the same to be repaired,
protected or inclosed so as to prevent danger therefrom; and the expense of
such repair, protection or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners by
the owner of the premises so repaired, protected or inclosed, and shall be
recoverable from him as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83).
I have purposely omitted any reference to temporary obstructions in the
streets, which are naturally subjects for the interference of the police, but I
think I have enumerated all those which require the attention of the town
surveyor.

[131] Vide 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 67.
[132] Vide Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd edition, p.
166.
[133] Vide 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 68.
[134] Ibid. ss. 69 and 70.
[135] Or Owners, see s. 160, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55.
[136] Vide Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd edition, p.
174.

[137] Or owner, see 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160.
[138] Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, s. 70.
[139] Or owner.
[140] Vide ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd edition, p.
175.
[141] Care must be taken that the mode of construction “directed by the commissioners”
authorises this part of the notice.
[142] In the City of London these patent lights have been fixed in the pavement round
the whole of the frontage of Mansion House Buildings, at the corner of Queen Victoria
Street, and also over the whole of the pavements in Draper’s Gardens, besides many other
equally crowded thoroughfares, without the least inconvenience being experienced.
[143] In the Act the words used are “shoot” and “trough.”
[144] These words must be omitted if there is no special Improvement Act.
[145] Vide p. 176.
[146] Sir Fred. Parnell in his celebrated work upon roads has the following paragraph
upon this subject:—
The great advantage of having a road perfectly exposed to the action of the sun and wind
will be more accurately conceived by referring to writers of science on evaporation. Dr.
Hailey states that one-tenth of an inch of the surface of the sea is raised per diem in vapour.
He also says that the winds lick up the water somewhat faster than it exhales by the heat of
the sun. Other writers say the dissipation of moisture is much accelerated by the agency of
sweeping winds, the effects being sometimes augmented five to ten times.
Trees are particularly injurious by not allowing the sun and wind to have free action on
the surface of roads producing evaporation. Besides the benefit which a road receives from
its drying rapidly by an open exposure to the atmosphere, there is another of great
importance, namely, that of affording to horses the advantage of free respiration; for it is
well known that the powers of a horse to perform work with ease, particularly when
moving rapidly, depends upon the quantity of cool and fresh air that he can pass through
his lungs. If the cause of horses tiring or becoming ill under their work be carefully
examined into, it will often be found that it is not their muscles or limbs that fail them, but
their wind; and therefore, it is particularly important to have a road so circumstanced that a
horse may on all parts of it have the benefit of a free current of air.
[147] No person can put up hoards or scaffolds in the streets without first obtaining the
consent of the urban authority, vide sections 144 and 149 of the Public Health Act 1875.
Many towns also have private improvement Acts with very binding clauses on this subject,
empowering the surveyor to demand a fee for a licence to erect a hoarding, and
empowering him to remove these after notice, &c.
[148] This is scarcely ever feasible, or of the slightest use if done.
[149] Mr. Cooper states that “a tall chimney will rock 1 inch in a moderate wind, and
even to an extent of ¹⁄₈th of an inch at a distance of only 16 feet up from its base, and yet be
safe.” (Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxvii. p.
100.)
[150] Whilst this work was in the press the terrible disaster arising from the falling of an
immense chimney shaft at Bradford took place, the result of which was the death of
upwards of forty persons and great destruction of property.

CHAPTER XVII.
IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS.

Prior to the passing of the Public Health Act 1875 the improvement of
private roads and streets was dealt with under section 69 of the Public
Health Act 1848, but the clause under which the town surveyor now works
is that which is so well known as the 150th section of the Public Health Act
1875, and is as follows:
“Where any street within any urban district (not being a highway
repairable by the inhabitants at large) or the carriageway, footway, or any
other part of such street is not sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged,
channelled and made good, or is not lighted to the satisfaction of the urban
authority, such authority may, by notice addressed to the respective owners
or occupiers of the premises fronting, adjoining or abutting on such parts
thereof as may require to be sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged or
channelled, or to be lighted, require them to sewer, level, pave, metal, flag,
channel or make good, or to provide proper means for lighting the same
within a time to be specified in such notice.
“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and
sections of any structural works intended to be executed under this section,
and an estimate of the probable cost thereof, to be made under the direction
of their surveyor, such plans and sections to be on a scale of not less than
one inch for eighty-eight feet for a horizontal plan, and on a scale of not
less than one inch for ten feet for a vertical section, and, in the case of a
sewer, showing the depth of such sewer below the surface of the ground:
such plans, sections and estimate shall be deposited in the office of the
urban authority, and shall be open at all reasonable hours for the inspection
of all persons interested therein during the time specified in such notice;
and a reference to such plans and sections in such notice shall be sufficient
without requiring any copy of such plans and sections to be annexed to such
notice.

If such notice is not complied with, the urban authority may, if they think
fit, execute the works mentioned or referred to therein; and may recover in
a summary manner the expenses incurred by them in so doing from the
owners in default, according to the frontage of their respective premises,
and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the urban authority,
or (in case of dispute) by arbitration in manner provided by this Act; or the
urban authority may by order declare the expenses so incurred to be private
improvement expenses.
“The same proceedings may be taken and the same powers may be
exercised in respect of any street or road of which a part is or may be a
public footpath or repairable by the inhabitants at large, as fully as if the
whole of such street or road was a highway not repairable by the inhabitants
at large” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 150).
One has only to look at the number of footnotes that follow this clause
both in “Glenn” and “Fitzgerald” to see that it requires some considerable
interpretation. I propose in this chapter to call attention to some of its
engineering discrepancies and to point out the duties of the town surveyor
in connection with its enforcement.
First then, I conclude that it is the duty of the surveyor to call the
attention of the urban authority to the fact that any street within his district
(not being a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large) is not “sewered,
levelled, paved, &c.” but there is no express order for him to do so, but with
whoever this duty rests, it is no doubt the surveyor’s duty to be certain that
the street in question has never been dedicated to the public or repaired at
the cost of the rates, but is really a private street within the meaning of the
Act.
Before proceeding to give the manner of putting the 150th section into
force, it is necessary to draw attention to some of its wording.
The word “sewered” no doubt is also meant to include all drains both for
house sewage and surface water falling on the street, &c., and may be used
in the same comprehensive manner that the word “sewerage” is generally
employed.
“Levelled” is also rather a vague term, but it has been held to refer only
to the level or cross section of the street itself, there being no power to
charge the adjacent owners with the expense of altering the level of the
street so as to make it conform to a street with which it connects. The word
“formed” would in this case have therefore been a more appropriate phrase.

“Paved, metalled, flagged, channelled and made good” are very precise
directions, but why both the words “paved” and “metalled” are used is not
clear. Is the paving to be placed on the top of the metalling or vice versâ? It
seems ludicrous to have used both words. The word “kerbed” also ought no
doubt to have been inserted, as no street either urban or suburban can be
formed without this necessary adjunct.
These very precise directions, if carried out in their entirety, would cause
great injustice to the adjacent owners of the property who had to bear the
expense, for although “paving” and “flagging” may be necessary for streets
situated in a town itself, they would be perfectly unnecessary for a suburban
road, and it is to this latter class of work that the section is more frequently
applied. There are generally very few badly maintained private streets in the
heart and busiest parts of a town, much difference of opinion consequently
exists in different localities as to what the requirements shall be.
Some urban authorities insist that the roadways shall be paved with
granite setts or wood blocks, the footpaths being flagged or paved with
asphalte, while others are content with ordinary macadamised roadways and
gravelled paths.
There can be no doubt that the town surveyor must use considerable
discretion in deciding what class of work should be demanded, and he must
be greatly guided by the situation and requirements of the street in question
and the description and value of the adjoining property.
With reference to the words “or is not lighted,” my opinion is that nearly
all private streets are at once lighted by the urban authority out of the rates,
so soon as buildings are erected at its sides or it is found necessary for the
public convenience to do so. A reference to section 161 of the Public Health
Act 1875 will show that there is no exclusion of private streets for that
purpose, and for many obvious reasons it is better that the urban authority
should themselves undertake this duty rather than throw it upon private
individuals.
Having thus far drawn attention to some of the wording of the clause, it is
now necessary to discuss the duties of the town surveyor in connection with
it.
It will be seen that notice has to be addressed to the owners or occupiers
of “premises fronting, adjoining or abutting on such parts thereof as may
require to be sewered, levelled, paved, &c.” It is often found that although
the greater portion of a certain private street may be in a shocking state of

repair, perhaps just a small length here and there opposite portions of
different frontages may not be so bad: for instance, the path may be well
gravelled and kerbed and a narrow channel gutter inserted against a
wretchedly constructed roadway. It is often open to question if the owners
of these properties against which these partial improvements have been
effected can expect to escape their liability. If they can, it complicates still
more the working of an already greatly complicated clause.
“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and
sections . . . to be made under the direction of their surveyor.”
This order involves some considerable amount of work. Very accurate
surveys must be made and plotted to a large scale, levels must be taken, and
where sewers have to be included in the notice it is often necessary to
extend the survey considerably, in order to make provision for future
extensions of streets or buildings or for the existing sewerage system. The
clause is very particular in stating that the “depth of such sewer below the
surface of the ground” must be shown, but no mention is made about the
size. The latter point being of quite as great importance it would be thought
as the depth, the question also at once arises, whether the new sewer must
be specified of such a size as only to meet the requirements of the street
alone, or may it be made of such an area as will carry the sewage of a
considerable district? It would be most unjust to expect the owners of
property to pay for a sewer larger than was required for the street in respect
of which they were responsible, and if legal, the better plan would be for
them to be charged with the cost of such a sewer as would be sufficient for
their purpose and let any extra size that the surveyor found was requisite be
paid for out of the public rates.
It should be noted that in addition to the plans and sections “an estimate
of the probable cost” must also be prepared by the surveyor, and this must
be very carefully prepared, for it has been held to be a “condition precedent
to the recovery of the expenses, that such estimate should have been
properly made” (Vide ‘Fitzgerald’ p. 160, 3rd edition).
No mention is however made in the Act of a specification, which is of
course absolutely essential.
It may here be of use if I give a specimen form of notice to be served in
connection with carrying out the duties involved by this clause; of course
each town surveyor must alter the work specified to meet the requirements
of the case;

To the Owner or Owners of certain premises fronting, adjoining, or abutting
upon a certain street, called in the parish of
in the borough of in the county of

Whereas the said street is not levelled, paved, metalled, channelled and
made good to the satisfaction of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of
, the urban sanitary authority of the above-named borough:
And whereas your said premises front, adjoin, or abut on certain parts of
the said street which requires to be levelled, paved, metalled, channelled
and made good as aforesaid:
Now therefore, the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of , the
urban sanitary authority of the said borough as aforesaid, hereby give you
notice (in pursuance of the statute in that case made and provided) to level,
pave, metal, channel and make good the portion of the said street in which
your said premises front, adjoin, or abut as aforesaid, within the space of
one month from the date hereof, in manner following, that is to say:
(If a sewer is to be formed, fill in this first.)
The carriage-way and water tables thereof to be formed in the mode,
according to the sections, and on the levels and at the rates of inclination
shown upon the plan, sections, and in accordance with the specification of
the work prepared by the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority, and
now open for public inspection at his office, during the
usual office hours.
The carriage-way to be bottomed, formed, and carefully levelled up to
the form shown by the said sections; and in the following manner:
(Here fill in specification of method.)
Construct gullies, fitted with five-bar cast-iron gratings and
frames of the form and pattern to be seen at , these gullies to
be placed in such positions as are shown on the aforesaid plan and sections;
each gully to have a six-inch glazed stoneware socket-pipe drain connecting
it with the sewer, to be laid on a solid bed, and at an uniform inclination
from gully to sewer, with joints made of neat Portland cement.
The existing kerb to be taken up and replaced by inches by
inches granite kerb in lengths of not less than inches, to the lines
shown on plan, and to the levels marked on sections.

The water-tables or gutter to be channelled with properly
laid, and bedded on fine gravel to the levels and inclinations marked on
sections.
The footpaths shall be properly formed, bottomed, and drained where
required; the formation level made to the inclination shown on section, and
afterwards coated with .
The whole of the above-mentioned works to be executed by you in
accordance with the plan and sections hereinbefore referred to and now
open for inspection at the surveyor’s office as aforesaid, and of the
dimensions, widths and levels shown thereon, and to be done in a good,
workmanlike and substantial manner, to the satisfaction of the said urban
sanitary authority and of their surveyor.
An estimate of the probable cost of the said work, prepared under the
direction of the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority, is also lying
for inspection at the office of the said surveyor, in manner required by
section 150 of the Public Health Act 1875.
Dated this day of 18 .
_________________________
Town Clerk.

The clause then goes on to say “If such notice is not complied with.”
It would be a most difficult and costly proceeding for any individual
owner of property to execute the work for half the width of the street
opposite his length of frontage, and the result would be anything but
satisfactory if the owners of the properties were to comply with the notices
in this manner.
If the owners do intend to comply with the notice, and carry out the work
themselves, the best method for them to adopt is to hold a meeting and
decide upon having it done, then to appoint one of their number, or some
other person to superintend or carry out the work, and afterwards collect the
money, but this is very seldom done, and the wisest course (which is
generally adopted) is not to comply with the notice, but let the urban
authority execute the work themselves. This again entails considerable
labour upon the town surveyor, who has to superintend the work and see
that all the details contained in the statutory notices are properly carried out,
but his labour does not end here. Upon the completion of the work the
amount expended has to be recovered “from the owners in default

according to the frontage of their respective premises, and in such
proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the urban authority, or (in case of
dispute) by arbitration.”
It is scarcely necessary to point out what an immense amount of
responsible work this involves. First, a separate account of all the labour
and materials employed on the street must be most carefully kept and
totalled at the end of the work, with such additional sum for supervision,
&c., as the urban authority may think necessary.[151] The exact length of
each property “fronting, adjoining or abutting” on the street, must be most
carefully measured. A proportionate sum has then to be calculated for each
of these, and this sum is often complicated by cross roads, cul-de-sacs,
narrow passages, strips of land intervening between the street and the
properties, and many other perplexing intricacies, in addition to those
persons who are legally exempted from any payment under the following
clause of the Public Health Act 1875:
“The incumbent or minister of any church, chapel, or place appropriated
to public religious worship, which is now by law exempt from rates for the
relief of the poor, shall not be liable to any expenses under the last
preceding section as the owner or occupier of such church, chapel, or place,
or of any churchyard or burial ground attached thereto, nor shall any such
expenses be deemed to be a charge on such church, chapel or other place, or
on such churchyard or burial ground . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 151.).
The town surveyor, having ascertained what is the amount of the sum due
from each owner, shall proceed to fill in the amount upon a form a
specimen of which is now given:

To the Owner of certain premises fronting, adjoining or abutting upon a
certain street called in the parish of
in the borough of in the county of

Whereas the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the urban sanitary
authority for the said , by a notice in writing pursuant to the
statute in that behalf made and provided, dated the day of
, 18 , required you being the owner of certain premises
fronting, adjoining or abutting upon a street or highway called
, within the said (and not being a street or

highway repairable by the inhabitants at large) to level, pave, metal, channel
and make good the said street or highway within the time and in the manner
specified in the said notice, and according to the plans and sections
deposited at the office of the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority at
:
And whereas the said notice not having been complied with by you
within the time limited by the said notice, the said urban sanitary authority
have executed the works mentioned or referred to therein:
And whereas the expenses incurred by the said urban sanitary authority
in levelling, paving, metalling, channelling and making good the said street,
amount to pounds shillings and pence:
Wherefore take notice that I the undersigned, being the surveyor of the
said urban sanitary authority, in pursuance of the statutes in that case made
and provided, do hereby apportion the sum of pounds, shillings
and pence as the proportion of the said sum of pounds,
shillings and pence, to be paid by you as such owner aforesaid, such
apportionment being according to the frontage of your said premises,
fronting, adjoining or abutting upon the said street or highway.
Further take notice that the aforesaid apportionment will be binding and
conclusive upon you unless within the period of three months from the day
of the date of this notice you shall by written notice to the said urban
sanitary authority dispute the same.
Dated this day of , 18 .
______________________
Surveyor to the said Urban Sanitary
Authority.
______________________
Clerk of the said Urban Sanitary
Authority.

There seems to be no power on the part of any owner to dispute the
question as to whether the works carried out have been necessary or not, or
whether the cost of the works have been excessive; the only point upon
which they can go to arbitration is that as to whether the proportion settled
by the surveyor is accurate or not, and this point the arbitrator is left to
decide.

It must not be lost sight of that there is a clause in the Public Health Act
1875, which makes the expenses so settled by the surveyor very binding
upon the owner of the property in question, unless he appeals within three
months from the service of the notice, as the following extract from the
clause will show:
. . . “Where such expenses have been settled and apportioned by the
surveyor of the local authority as payable by such owner, such
apportionment shall be binding and conclusive on such owner, unless
within three months from service of notice on him by the local authority or
their surveyor of the amount settled by the surveyor to be due from such
owner, he shall by written notice dispute the same” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55,
s. 257)[152] and it must also be borne in mind that the person from whom
these expenses may be recovered “is the owner of the premises at the time
when the work was done, not the owner to whom notice requiring the work
to be done may be given” (vide Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act, p. 301, 3rd
edition); so that the town surveyor must be very careful to make sure that
any of the property abutting on the street has not changed hands before he
commences the work.
After the 150th section of the Public Health Act has been carried out and
a private street has been thus put into thorough repair, the urban authority
may take possession of it and declare it to be a highway repairable by the
inhabitants at large; the following section of the Act gives the modus
operandi necessary to effect this:
“When any street within any urban district, not being a highway
repairable by the inhabitants at large, has been sewered, levelled, paved,
flagged, metalled, channelled and made good and provided with proper
means of lighting to the satisfaction of the urban authority, such authority
may if they think fit, by notice in writing put up in any part of the street,
declare the same to be a highway, and thereupon the same shall become a
highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, and every such notice shall
be entered among the proceedings of the urban authority.
“Provided that no such street shall become a highway so repairable if
within one month after such notice has been put up, the proprietor or the
majority in number of proprietors of such street, by notice in writing to the
urban authority, object thereto, and in ascertaining such majority, joint
proprietors shall be reckoned as one proprietor” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 152).

The necessary notices in conformity with this section are usually
prepared by the town clerk, so that the town surveyor has nothing to do with
this proceeding except to maintain the street after it has been declared a
highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, in the same manner as he
does the rest of the public streets within his district.
There is still one other clause of the Public Health Act 1875, which deals
with the question of private roads, and it is as follows:
“Any urban authority may agree with any person for the making of roads
within their district for the public use through the lands and at the expense
of such person, and may agree that such roads shall become and the same
shall accordingly become on completion, highways maintainable and
repairable by the inhabitants at large within their district; they may also
with the consent of two-thirds of their number agree with such person to
pay and may accordingly pay any portion of the expenses of making such
roads” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 146).
This clause is very explicit and requires no comment, it would however
be much better for the urban authority in contemplating a case of this
description to execute the necessary works themselves and agree with the
person about the expense, for if they are intended to be afterwards taken
over it is to be feared that the roads would be very improperly constructed
in the first place by the person intending to hand them over. It must be
noted that the word “roads” is used in the above clause instead of “streets”
as in the other clauses I have quoted, and also that the word “maintainable”
is added to repairable.
Street is the term legally used in the Public Health Act 1875, and is thus
defined:
“Street includes any highway (not being a turnpike road) and any public
bridge (not being a county bridge), and any road, lane, footway, square,
court, alley or passage, whether a thoroughfare or not” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55,
s. 4.) so that whereas in the 150th section of the Public Health Act 1875,
any of the above can be dealt with, it is only open for the urban authority to
deal with roads under the 146th section of the Act, and it is sometimes
rather difficult to define a road for the purposes of the latter section.

[151] In some districts the urban authority make an additional charge of 5 per cent. upon
the total outlay to cover the cost of preliminary surveys and supervision of the work by
their surveyor; this 5 per cent., however, is not paid to him, but is paid to the city treasurer,
and thus becomes a set off against his salary.

[152] See also 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55, s. 268, where a person who deems himself aggrieved
may memorialise the Local Government Board, &c.

CHAPTER XVIII.
NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS.

One of the most important duties devolving upon a “town surveyor” is that
of exercising control over any new streets that may be constructed, or any
new buildings that may be erected, within the limits of his jurisdiction.
This duty is imposed on him by the following clause of the Public Health
Act 1875:
“Every urban authority may make byelaws with respect to the following
matters; (that is to say,)
“(1.) With respect to the level, width and construction of new streets, and
the provisions for the sewerage thereof;
“(2.) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and
chimneys of new buildings, for securing stability and the prevention of
fires, and for purposes of health;
“(3.) With respect to the sufficiency of the space about buildings to
secure a free circulation of air, and with respect to the ventilation of
buildings;
“(4.) With respect to the drainage of buildings, to waterclosets, earth
closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools, in connexion with buildings, and to
the closing of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human habitation, and
to prohibition of their use for such habitation;
“And they may further provide for the observance of such byelaws by
enacting therein such provisions as they think necessary as to the giving of
notices; as to the deposit of plans and sections by persons intending to lay
out streets or to construct buildings; as to inspection by the urban authority,
and as to the power of such authority (subject to the provisions of this Act)
to remove, alter, or pull down any work begun or done in contravention of
such byelaws. Provided that no byelaw made under this section shall affect
any building erected in any place (which at the time of the passing of this
Act is included in an urban sanitary district) before the Local Government

Acts came into force in such place, or any building erected in any place
(which at the time of the passing of this Act is not included in an urban
sanitary district) before such place becomes constituted or included in an
urban district, or by virtue of any order of the Local Government Board
subject to this enactment.
“The provisions of this section, and of the two last preceding sections,
shall not apply to buildings belonging to any railway company, and used for
the purposes of such railway under any Act of Parliament” (38 & 39 Vic. c.
55, s. 157).
The result of this power having been so given to urban authorities, is that
they have all framed sets of byelaws, which having received the sanction of
the Local Government Board, are now law in the several districts.
In the year 1877, it being found that considerable variation existed in the
requirements set forth in the byelaws, according to the districts from which
they emanated, and experience having shown that the forms of byelaws
previously issued by the Local Government Board were inadequate, the
Local Government Board in order to assist urban authorities issued a series
of model byelaws; amongst the series being a set of byelaws regulating the
manner in which new streets should be constructed and buildings erected.
[153]
These model byelaws are too extensive to give in detail, as they contain
99 clauses, but every town surveyor should at once procure a copy, even if
his corporation have not adopted them, nor intend to do so.
One of the first difficulties that often presents itself to those who have to
enforce the observance of the necessary “giving of notices and deposit of
plans and sections by persons intending to construct new buildings” is to
prove that the building is “new” so as to bring it under the operations of the
Act.
In many cases, of course, there can be no doubt where bare land is being
built upon, but often after buildings have been partially destroyed by fire, or
where extensive alterations are being carried out, some considerable
elements of uncertainty as to what is a “new building” are introduced.
The law attempts to settle the question as follows:
“For the purposes of this Act, the re-erecting of any building pulled down
to, or below the ground floor, or of any frame-building of which only the
frame-work is left down to the ground floor, or the conversion into a
dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for human

habitation, or the conversion into more than one dwelling house of a
building originally constructed as one dwelling house only, shall be
considered the erection of a new building” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 159).
But the difficulty at once presents itself as to what is meant by the words
“ground floor.” Does this mean the actual floor level, or the cubical space
contained by the walls, floor and ceiling of the “ground floor” (or as it is
sometimes called “ground story”) of the building? The latter may be
assumed to be the correct interpretation, for if we order a man to hang a
picture, or to fix a chandelier on the “ground floor,” we certainly do not
expect to find them placed upon the floor.
It is important that this point should be settled definitely, or some more
explanatory term employed in the Act in order to determine what is a new
building, for in the present state of uncertainty it may be urged that the
whole building must be razed to the ground, whereas if the proper meaning
of “ground floor” is taken, would the removal of the superstructure and
destruction of the ceiling only of the “ground floor” bring the new work
under the definition of a new building and within the operation of the
byelaws?
This uncertainty is now taken advantage of by builders and others, who
sometimes find it irksome and inconvenient to be obliged to construct a
building in accordance with the byelaws of any town. Somewhat sharp
practices are consequently resorted to in order to evade the law, and old
buildings are converted into new ones without any powers of interference
by the urban authority or their surveyor. This is greatly to be regretted, as
unless the building comes within the operation of the byelaws, it is
frequently erected without any sanitary precautions or even stability.
Sometimes a so-called repair of a building is commenced by adding a
new roof perhaps, at a higher level than the old one; when sufficient time
has elapsed to allay suspicion, a new front is erected, and then new back
and side walls in due course, the alteration of the interior floors not
attracting much attention.
Cases of this description are very troublesome to the town surveyor, as if
legal proceedings are to be taken against the offender, it is necessary for the
surveyor to make surveys and drawings of the works as they are in progress
in order to prove his case, and these might extend over a considerable
period of time.[154] In order to make these surveys it would be necessary for
him to enter the premises whilst the works were in progress, but there does

not seem to be any powers conferred on him by any Act of Parliament for
such a purpose, so that really he has no power to prevent the occurrences I
have mentioned.
It must also not be forgotten that what may sometimes appear to be an
entirely new building, may only be an addition to one that existed before
the passing of the Act, and although the new work may be ten times as large
as the old, still much conflicting evidence may be brought to bear before it
can be proved to be a “new building” within the meaning of the Act.
Turning again to section 159 of the Public Health Act 1875, these words
will be found as defining also what is a new building: “or the conversion
into a dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for human
habitation.”
It would have been better in the interests of sanitation if the Act had
prohibited the conversion of any building at all into a dwelling house
without the approval of the urban authority, for as the law stands at present,
it is open for an owner of property to convert stables or warehouses, &c.,
into dwelling houses, by simply asserting and bringing witnesses or other
evidence to prove that they were “originally constructed for human
habitation” irrespective of whether they are adapted for the purpose or not,
thus defeating the intention of the Public Health Act to secure a better
description of dwellings than those that were erected before the passing of
the Act.
When a dispute does arise with anyone as to whether a building comes
within the definition of “new” or not, it is well if possible to agree upon
certain points of fact and upon plans, &c., before the case comes into court,
and then to endeavour to get the magistrates to “view.” This course if
pursued often saves lengthy litigation, and a great waste of time and money.
With reference to the deposit of plans of new streets or buildings, the
following clause of the Public Health Act 1875 provides that this shall be
done:
“Where a notice, plan or description of any work is required by any
byelaw made by an urban authority to be laid before that authority, the
urban authority shall, within one month after the same has been delivered or
sent to their surveyor or clerk,[155] signify in writing their approval or
disapproval of the intended work to the person proposing to execute the
same; and if the work is commenced after such notice of disapproval, or
before the expiration of such month without such approval, and is in any

respect not in conformity with any byelaw of the urban authority, the urban
authority may cause so much of the work as has been executed to be pulled
down or removed” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 158.).
The result of these clauses of the Act with reference to new streets and
buildings is, that some of the most arduous and irksome duties of the town
surveyor are embodied in the few words they contain. These duties consist
of, first, the careful examination of, and report upon all plans of new streets
and buildings; secondly, the constant supervision of these streets and
buildings whilst the works are in progress; and each of these duties will be
considered in the course of this chapter.
First then, as to the deposit and examination of the plans of new streets or
buildings.
The byelaws of which I have already made mention should contain some
such clause as the following:
“Every person who shall intend to make or lay out any new street,
whether the same shall be intended to be used as a public way or not, shall
give notice to the urban authority of such intention, by writing delivered to
them at their office, or at the office of their surveyor, and shall at the same
time leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority, or of their
surveyor, a plan and section of such intended new street, drawn to a scale of
not less than 1 inch to every 44 feet, and shall show on every such plan the
names of the owners of the land through or over which such street shall be
intended to pass, the level, width, direction, the proposed mode of
construction, the proposed name of such intended new street, and its
position relatively to the streets nearest thereto; the size and number of the
intended building lots, and the proposed sites, height, class, and nature of
the buildings to be erected therein, and the proposed height of the division
and fence walls thereon; and the name and address of the person intending
to lay out such new street, and he shall himself sign such plan, or cause the
same to be signed by his duly authorised agent.
“Such person shall show on every such section the level of the present
surface of the ground above some known fixed datum, the level and rate or
rates of inclination of the intended new street, the level and inclination of
the streets with which it will be connected, and the level of the lowest floors
of the intended new buildings.
“Every person who shall intend to erect any new building shall give
notice to the urban authority of such intention by writing delivered to them

at their office or at the office of their surveyor, and shall at the same time
leave or cause to be left at the said office detail plans and sections of every
floor of such intended new building, drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch
to every 8 feet, showing the position, form and dimensions of the several
parts of such building, and of the watercloset, earth closet, privy, cesspool,
ashpit, well, and all other appurtenances; and together with such plans and
sections he shall leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority,
or of their surveyor, a description of the materials of which the building is
proposed to be constructed, of the intended mode of drainage, and means of
water supply.
“Such person shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the office
of the urban authority, or of their surveyor, a block plan drawn to a scale of
not less than 1 inch to every 44 feet, and shall show the position of the
buildings and appurtenances of the properties immediately adjoining, the
width and level of the street in front, and of the street, if any, at the rear of
such building, the level of the lowest floor of such building, and of any yard
or ground belonging thereto.
“Such person shall likewise show on such plan the intended lines of
drainage of such building, and the intended size, depth and inclination of
each drain; and the details of the arrangement proposed to be adopted for
the ventilation of the drains.”
With reference to the deposit of plans as required by the above byelaw,
the following suggestions as to the best manner of effecting this may be of
some use:
(1.) The town surveyor should see that the person, or his agent, intending
to carry out the work, deposits tracings of the proposed street or building
signed by himself, so that there should be no after dispute as to what really
has been deposited; these tracings should be on good paper properly inked
in and coloured so as to be indelible. In some towns it is the practice for
original plans to be deposited temporarily with the surveyor, who is
expected to have them traced and then returned to the owner, but this not
only tends to the possibility of dispute as to the correctness of the tracings,
but it also takes up a large amount of the surveyor’s time, or of such other
officer as may have charge of this branch of the duties.
In order to insure that the plans deposited shall not be afterwards claimed
by the person making the deposit, it might be well to add these words to the
clause of the byelaws which I have quoted:

“All such plans and sections so left at the office of the urban authority or
of their surveyor, shall remain the property of the urban authority.”
(2.) It is advisable for the town surveyor to have in his possession a
number of printed forms on which application should be made by the
person intending to erect a new building and filled in and signed by him or
his duly authorised agent. The following is given as a specimen form for
this purpose:

To the Surveyor of the Urban Authority of
I hereby give you notice that it is my intention to erect certain buildings
in street, and that the following particulars relate thereto:

No. Questions. No. Answers.

1 Christian and Surname in full, Address 1
and Occupation of persons for
whom buildings to be erected.

2 Number of drawings deposited. 2
3 Name of architect, if any. 3
4 Description of buildings and of the 4
materials to be used in construction
of same.
5 Situation of buildings. 5
6 Level, or intended level of cellar, or 6
ground floor, with reference to
surface of street.
7 Thickness of walls. 7
8 Height of building in stories. 8
9 Area of clear open space at rear or 9
side of buildings exclusively
belonging thereto.
10 Distance across such open space. 10
11 Description of ventilation. 11
12 Width of street or open space opposite 12
buildings.
13 Size and description of drains, and 13
traps, and if ventilated.
14 Inclination of drains. 14
15 Description of outlet to drains. 15
16 How supplied with water. 16
17 Situation, dimensions, and particulars 17
of apparatus of w.c.’s.

And I herewith leave detail plans and sections of every floor of such
intended new buildings, drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every 8
feet, showing the position, form, and dimensions of the several parts of such
buildings, and of the watercloset, privy, cesspool, earthcloset, ashpit, well,
and all other appurtenances; and also, a block plan drawn to a scale of not
less than 1 inch to every 44 feet, showing the position of the buildings and
appurtenances of the properties immediately adjoining, the width and level
of the street, the level of the lowest floor of the intended building, and of
the yard or ground belonging thereto.
Dated this day of 18

Signature in full,
Address,
Occupation,

A similar form may be prepared relating to plans of proposed new streets,
but of course the number of the questions contained in it will be less.
(3.) When the necessary notices have been given and the tracings
properly deposited with the surveyor, he should carefully examine them to
see if they are in accordance with the byelaws which are in force in his
district. They should then be folded and placed in a large envelope, which
should be endorsed with the name of the person proposing to carry out the
work, the description of the work proposed, the name of the architect, if
any, the name of the builder, if any, the date of the deposit, and a blank left
for the date of approval. Each envelope should also have a large number
stamped upon it.
(4.) These particulars should be entered in a book of reference against a
corresponding number, so that at any future date it may be easy to find and
refer to any plans that have been deposited by means of an index and the
number on the envelope.
(5.) If on examining the plans the surveyor finds anything in them which
does not conform to the byelaws, he should be empowered by the urban
authority to return them at once to the person depositing them, without
having to wait to lay them before a committee, as this is a great saving of
time. In returning the plans the surveyor should write a letter setting forth a
schedule of his objections and the particulars of the manner in which the
plans and sections fail to comply with the requirements of the byelaws.

(6.) If the plans are redeposited unaltered or showing still some non-
compliance with the byelaws, the surveyor must lay them before his
committee and explain in what respects they are defective, leaving it to the
committee to decide whether they shall be approved or not.
(7.) If the plans are in accordance with the byelaws, the surveyor reports
the fact to the committee, whereupon the plans should be at once signed by
the chairman of the committee.
(8.) All plans which the committee decline to approve of should be at
once returned to the person who deposited them with a written notification
of the reasons.
(9.) Plans which are approved of by the committee and afterwards
ratified by the general meeting of the urban authority, should be carefully
put away in pigeon-holes, so that by means of the reference book previously
described they can be easily found at any future time. This is very
important, as no extension of a building the plans of which have been thus
approved by the urban authority can ever afterwards be carried out without
their consent; and the plans of any alteration which would not involve
building upon an increased area must be deposited as in the case of a new
building.
(10.) A notification in writing should be sent to the person who has
deposited the plans when they have been approved by the urban authority;
and in sending this notification it is well to draw his attention to the fact that
notice must be given to the surveyor of the commencement of the work, in
order that the foundations, drains, &c., may be examined by him before the
ground is filled in.
The importance and necessity for the deposit of plans with a sanitary
authority cannot be over-estimated, but this deposit is of but little practical
good unless it can be insured that all the buildings are erected strictly in
conformity with these plans, and this, according to the Act, is the duty also
of the town surveyor. As a matter of fact, it is quite impossible for any
single person in any large town to perform this duty, and a staff of assistants
is consequently necessary if the sanitary authority really wish their byelaws
to be enforced.
Anyone who is practically acquainted with the difficulties that even
architects experience in superintending buildings they have themselves
designed, and how much they have to trust to the clerk of works (of which
there is generally one to every building), will readily see what an absurdity

it is to suppose that a town surveyor, with his multitude of other duties and
attendances at committees and meetings, can even pretend to see that the 99
detail clauses of such byelaws as those emanating from the Local
Government Board Office, or even those of a less stringent character, can
possibly be enforced, especially when it is remembered that many of the
buildings he has to inspect have no superintending architect, but are being
erected for purposes of speculation by what are commonly known as jerry
builders.
Laws may be passed, books on sanitary questions may be written, but
until a change is made in the machinery and manner of the inspection of
buildings in the course of erection, and a large staff of inspectors or sanitary
police or some such officials are kept by a sanitary authority, very little real
advancement will be made with the poorer classes of buildings.
It must in fairness to the builder be stated that to erect houses in strict
accordance with the model byelaws would probably mean loss of money to
him, as they could not possibly be built with any prospect of a reasonable
return upon the outlay. This partly arises from the stringent clauses inserted
with respect to the structure of walls and other precautions for the
prevention of fires. I cannot help thinking that too much interference is now
made by sanitary authorities for the protection of property from fire.[156] It
is not a sanitary question, and is certainly one which chiefly affects
insurance companies. Every one should be able to pay his small insurance
premium and the companies should look after their own interests, and not
expect it to be done by others. If the sanitary authority wish to interfere in
the question of fire, why should not the protection of life be considered as
much as property? Yet no clause can be discovered in the model byelaws
rendering it compulsory to make some provision in dwelling-houses or
factories for the easy escape of the inmates in case of fire. Indeed, as the
Public Health Act does not authorise the enactment of a byelaw for such a
purpose, such a clause would most probably be held to be ultra vires.
Another cause of expense to builders is the necessity imposed on them to
provide a comparatively large open space at the back or sides of new
dwelling-houses, thus sacrificing land, and sometimes making it almost
impossible to build at all. This necessity for open gardens or yards at the
back of even small labourers’ dwellings is in some towns pushed to an
extreme. If such houses are erected in a thoroughly sanitary manner in all
points of detail, it is questionable if this open space is really beneficial. My

experience has shown me that the space is often misused, animals, such as
rabbits, chickens, pigeons, &c., being kept there, or it is made into a so-
called garden, really a refuse heap which is a receptacle for all the garbage
and filth of the house, soon becoming a fruitful source of disease to the
occupants of the house itself and the neighbours. It is also difficult to ensure
that the space thus provided and approved of in the deposited plans shall not
be built upon at some future period. It would be better if the streets in front
of such dwellings were wide, and a narrow street or “drangway”
constructed at the back for the dust-cart service, supply of coals, &c. The
houses themselves should have their rooms properly and thoroughly
ventilated; underground kitchens or living rooms should be prohibited. The
drainage, water-supply, and all the apparatus in connection with them,
should be perfect but simple. At the back of the house should be a small
yard or court well paved with asphalte or other impervious material, in
which should be placed the wash-house, w.c., &c. These and public parks
and plenty of fresh air in the streets and in the dwelling-houses themselves
should take the place of the large open spaces at the back of small dwelling-
houses, which, as I have already stated, are generally so much misused.
The model byelaws with regard to new streets and buildings issued by
the Local Government Board contain most admirable clauses—valuable
suggestions which should receive attention from any town surveyor who
has to advise his corporation upon the subject of framing a set of byelaws
for his district—but they necessarily contain many clauses which are not
suitable equally well for towns in the north, south, east, and west of
England.
Many of the clauses are too stringent to be enforced, but this arises not
from any fault in the byelaws themselves, but rather from the machinery
employed in carrying them into effect. To secure all that they require
adequate inspection is needed, and this might be effected if there was a fee
charged by the urban authority of any town for the purposes of proper
inspection of buildings in course of construction; and although it must be
admitted that any provision which increases the cost of construction of
small dwelling-houses which shall be complete in all sanitary requisites is
undesirable, the extra cost of such inspection would be too small to be
appreciable, while the advantages arising from such improved supervision
would, even from a pecuniary point of view, be of immense advantage not
only to the community as tending to improve the public health, but also to

the owner as ensuring good honest work in return for his money. In larger
and more expensive buildings this supervision is exercised by the architect,
but as a rule there is no architect employed in the case of small houses, and
the builder is accordingly left to his own devices, with frequently
unfortunate results.

[153] ‘Model Bye-laws issued by the Local Government Board for the use of sanitary
authorities. New Streets and Buildings, IV.’ Printed by George E. Eyre and William
Spottiswoode, 1877.
[154] It is open also to question whether in the case of an old building being gradually
altered into a new one, it would be possible to prosecute, as there is the following
limitation as to proceedings in the Public Health Act 1875: “Any complaint or information
made or laid in pursuance of this Act shall be made or laid within six months from the time
when the matter of such complaint or information respectively arose” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c.
55, s. 252). The complaint could not be made when the work was first commenced, as no
offence would have been committed, and if made after the work was finished, it might be
urged that the offence was commenced more than six months prior, and that the complaint
should have been made “when the matter of such complaint or information respectively
arose.”
[155] Plans are usually deposited with the surveyor as being the officer who would be
most likely to understand them.
[156] Nothing can be more vexatious than the bye-law compelling the party walls of
new buildings to be carried up above the roof to at least 12 inches; not only does this
frequently spoil the architectural appearance of a building, but it causes great expense in
order to keep the wet out: a very difficult thing with a wall treated in this manner.

CHAPTER XIX.
SCAVENGING.

In a great number of towns in this country the town surveyor has charge of
the unostentatious, though very necessary sanitary work of the scavenging
of the district over which he has charge, and the following are the clauses of
the Public Health Act 1875, under which he carries out his duties:
“Every local authority may, and when required by order of the Local
Government Board shall, themselves undertake or contract for—
“The removal of house refuse from premises;
“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools;
either for the whole or any part of their district: Moreover every urban
authority and any rural authority invested by the Local Government Board
with the requisite powers may, and when required by the said board shall,
themselves undertake or contract for the proper cleansing of streets, and
may also themselves undertake or contract for the proper watering of streets
for the whole or any part of their district.
“All matters collected by the local authority or contractor in pursuance of
this section may be sold or otherwise disposed of, and any profits thus made
by an urban authority shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate
applicable by them for the general purposes of this Act; and any profits thus
made by a rural authority in respect of any contributory place shall be
carried to the account of the fund or rate out of which expenses incurred
under this section by that authority in such contributory place are defrayed.
“If any person removes or obstructs the local authority or contractor in
removing any matters by this section authorised to be removed by the local
authority, he shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five
pounds: Provided that the occupier of the house within the district shall not
be liable to such penalty in respect of any such matters which are produced
on his own premises and are intended to be removed for sale or for his own

use, and are in the meantime kept so as not to be a nuisance” (38 & 39 Vic.
c. 55, s. 42).
The next clause imposes a penalty on the local authority if they fail
“without reasonable excuse after notice in writing from the occupier of any
house” to cleanse the ashpit, &c., within seven days if they have
“themselves undertaken or contracted for the removal of house refuse” &c.,
and the next clause is as follows:
“Where the local authority do not themselves undertake or contract for,
“The cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any premises;
“The removal of house refuse from any premises;
“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools belonging
to any premises;
“They may make byelaws imposing the duty of such cleansing or
removal, at such intervals as they think fit, on the occupier of any such
premises.
“An urban authority[157] may also make byelaws for the prevention of
nuisances arising from snow, filth, dust, ashes, and rubbish, and for the
prevention of the keeping of animals on any premises so as to be injurious
to health”[158] (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 44).
There is also another clause in the Public Health Act 1875, which is as
follows:
“Any urban authority may, if they see fit, provide in proper and
convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit and collection of
dust, ashes, and rubbish; they may also provide fit buildings and places for
the deposit of any matters collected by them in pursuance of this part of this
Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 45).
The result of the above comprehensive clauses upon the subject of
scavenging is that the following duties fall upon the town surveyor where
that officer is responsible for such work:
(1.) “The removal of house refuse from premises.”
This work, like all the rest which follows, can be done either by the local
authority themselves or by contract, the former method, as I hope presently
to show, being much the best system.
In connection with this first duty of the removal of house refuse, the
following points will have to be considered:
(a.) What is house refuse?

(b.) What is the best manner of storing it on the premises pending the
visit of the scavenger?
(c.) Which are the best methods for its collection?
(d.) Which are the best methods for its disposal?
(2.) “The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools.”
This work where necessary (owing to the want of a system of sewerage)
can be carried out simultaneously with the collection of house refuse and in
almost the same manner.
(3.) “The proper cleansing of streets.”
In connection with this duty the following points must be considered:
(a.) The best methods for sweeping and cleansing streets.
(b.) If machinery effects such work better and more economically than
hand labour.
(c.) The extra work involved by the bad construction of streets, or the ill
chosen materials of which they are formed.
(d.) Whether private streets, courts and alleys, “not repairable by the
inhabitants at large,” should be swept and cleansed by the local authority?
(e.) The ultimate disposal of excessive accumulations of mud.
(f.) The removal and disposal of snow.
(4.) “The proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their
district.”
In considering this question it is necessary to note:
(a.) The best form of vehicle for carrying and spreading the water.
(b.) The number, position, and description of standpipes.
(c.) Whether vehicles, or fixed standpipes and hose are best.
(5.) If the local authority do not impose a byelaw they must themselves
cleanse the “footways and pavements adjoining any premises;” and this in
excessively muddy weather, or after a heavy fall of snow, is no
inconsiderable work.
(6.) An urban authority may make provision for the “temporary deposit
and collection of dust, ashes and rubbish.”
This involves public dust-bins being placed in suitable positions in the
town, the points in connection with this work being,
(a.) The most suitable sites for such accommodation.
(b.) The materials and form of which they shall be constructed.
Having thus stated all the heads under which the work of scavenging may
be grouped, it is necessary to decide what is “house refuse;” for unless this

is satisfactorily settled, considerable onus and expense will be put upon the
local authority if they are to include in the removal trade, garden, and other
similar refuse.[159]
It may be assumed that all house refuse which it is the duty of the
scavenger to remove, is really so removed by the direction of the local
authority without dispute, but that the following articles, which frequently
find their way into a domestic dust-bin, are not in the strict terms of the Act
expected to be removed by him. (1) Plaster from walls and brick bats, (2)
Large quantities of broken bottles and flower pots, (3) Clinkers and ashes
from foundries and green-houses, (4) Wall paper torn from the rooms of a
house, (5) Scrap tin (but not old tins which have contained meats, &c., and
which, although very useless and bulky, may be fairly assumed to be house
refuse), (6) All garden refuse such as grass cuttings, dead leaves, and the
loppings from trees and shrubs.[160]
As a matter of fact, out of ninety towns with which I communicated on
this subject only thirteen of them directed the removal of both trade and
garden refuse without any special extra payment being made by the
householder, and this is only done when these materials are placed in the
ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house. Several towns, however, it
appears remove such materials on special payments being made of sums
varying from 1s. 6d. to 3s. per load.
Disputes frequently arise between the men employed in scavenging and
the householder on these vexed questions as to the difference between
house, trade or garden refuse: a dispute often raised by the scavengers
themselves, in the hope of obtaining a gratuity or reward for the clearance
of a dustbin, which no doubt, legally, they are perfectly justified in refusing
to empty; and in order to lessen the chance of such disputes and to attempt
to settle this question, the following suggestions may be of value.
It would no doubt be vexatious if any sanitary authority were to
absolutely refuse to remove the “garden” refuse from those houses to which
a small flower garden was attached, whilst it would on the contrary be an
unfair tax upon the general community if the refuse of large gardens was
removed without payment. A good rule would therefore be to remove only
such garden refuse as was contained in the ordinary dustbin or ashpit
attached to a house, and that as the removal of any kind of trade refuse
would no doubt lead to abuses if done gratuitously by the sanitary authority,
that this material should only be removed on payment of some sum, which

should be previously fixed by the local authority, and each case should be
reported to the officer superintending the work before it was removed.
The next question is the important one of the manner and place in which
house refuse shall be temporarily stored pending the visit of the scavenger.
The Public Health Act of 1875 enacts that: “Every local authority shall
provide that all drains, waterclosets, earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and
cesspools within their district be constructed and kept so as not to be a
nuisance or injurious to health” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 40).
And section 35 of the above Act states, “It shall not be lawful newly to
erect any house or to rebuild any house pulled down to or below the ground
floor without a sufficient watercloset, earth closet, privy, and an ashpit
furnished with proper doors and coverings. Any person who causes any
house to be erected or rebuilt in contravention of this enactment shall be
liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 35).
The same Act also gives power to local authorities to enforce provision
of ashpit accommodation for houses where such accommodation does not
already exist, and to frame byelaws with respect to ashpits.
There can be no doubt that the position of the dustbin or ashpit, as
regards its site with reference to the main dwelling-house, is of primary
sanitary importance, for if the garbage and domestic accumulations therein
are allowed to remain for a few days, especially when the weather is close,
damp, and warm, they become very offensive, and the emanations
therefrom may even be highly deleterious and dangerous to health; this
effect is aggravated by persons emptying vegetable refuse and other matters
which are wet into the dustbin, as decomposition of these matters is greatly
assisted by this addition, and it would be well that all such matters should
be burnt on the kitchen or scullery fire along with a large percentage of the
ashes which could be sifted and saved from those which too readily find
their way into the dustbin, and are thus wasted. Care would of course have
to be taken in this process that no smell or nuisance was caused by the
process of burning.
It is open to considerable doubt if the fixed dustbin or ashpit is the best or
most sanitary receptacle for the house refuse; they may be necessary and
suitable for Public Institutions, or for large isolated private dwellings, or for
schools or any places where excessive quantities of refuse may accumulate,
but where this refuse is systematically and properly removed by the order of
the local authority, at such times and in such manner as will be hereafter

pointed out, moveable or portable dustbins, boxes or baskets are far
preferable to the large immoveable, inconvenient fixed ashpit,
recommended and enforced under the Act.
The next point to consider is that of the collection of the house refuse,
which should be effected satisfactorily, economically and expeditiously.
The following are the three methods by which this is attempted:
(1.) By a house to house call at intermittent periods.
(2.) By the scavengers giving notice of their approach by ringing a bell or
by other signal, and requiring the householder to bring out the refuse to the
cart.
(3.) By placing public dustbins in different localities, and expecting
householders in their vicinity to place the house refuse in these dustbins,
which are then cleared from time to time by the local authority.
Experience alone can teach which of these is the best method to adopt in
any district, and it is usually found that some modification of all three is
necessary.
It is, however, difficult sometimes to adopt public dustbins not only on
account of their first cost, but from the objections raised by the occupiers of
adjacent houses to their being fixed in their neighbourhood.
If these dustbins were constructed with properly balanced self-closing
lids, these objections might be overcome, and their first cost would be but
trifling when compared with the benefit to be derived by placing them in
some of the thickly populated courts and alleys which are unfortunately to
be found in nearly every town. Where there are no public dustbins the
inhabitants of these courts throw their waste products upon the surface of
the streets or courts, from time to time throughout the day, as it cannot be
expected nor desired that such materials should remain, even for twenty-
four hours, in their one living room, which is frequently over crowded, and
has but little spare space even for the common necessities of life; but that
these waste products should be thus strewn over the surface of the street or
court is almost equally objectionable, and points to the advantage to be
gained by placing in convenient situations covered dustbins which could be
easily emptied once a day.
Undoubtedly the best method for the removal of refuse is the house to
house call, but except in suburban districts and for the collection of refuse
from the better class of dwelling-houses and public institutions, the
expense, delay and difficulty which would be incurred in calling at every

house throughout a town, would make it almost impracticable, and
consequently this system is universally combined with that which is known
as the bell or signal system, which simply means that the scavenging cart in
going its rounds has a bell attached to it, or the horse, which bell rings
automatically as the cart proceeds on its way; or the man in charge blows a
trumpet, or calls in stentorian tones, “Dust oh!” On hearing this signal, but
not before, the householder is expected to bring out the refuse in some
convenient receptacle, which is then emptied into the cart by the scavenger.
As a matter of fact, the receptacles containing all the waste products of
these householders are brought out and are placed in the gutter of the street
close to the kerb, long before the cart makes its appearance or can be
reasonably expected to do so.
The result of these (generally inappropriate) receptacles filled with
heterogenous collections of house refuse being left unprotected in the
public streets, is that their contents are quickly strewn about the surface of
the street, by their being upset accidentally, or purposely, and the
appearance of the street, which has probably been carefully swept and
garnished during the night or early in the morning, quickly assumes,
especially in a high wind, a very offensive character, and probably has to be
entirely re-swept and cleansed before the ordinary traffic of the day
commences.
To obviate this evil I must refer my readers to a small book on the subject
of scavenging, entitled ‘Dirty Dustbins and Sloppy Streets,’ published by
Messrs. Spon & Co., written by myself, in which I have suggested
moveable iron cylinders being placed in the streets for the reception of the
house refuse.
The “house to house” call system in the suburbs of a town may be greatly
assisted by a very simple remedy, which has already been tried in some
towns with considerable success. It consists in the householder placing a
card bearing the letter D, or some other distinguishing mark, in a
conspicuous place in a window, when the services of the scavengers are
required; these cards should be printed and circulated by the Sanitary
Authority of the district, who should state on the back of the card the days
on which the scavengers would visit each neighbourhood, with the
approximate hour of the day in which they would appear, in order that the
householder may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced by being obliged to
keep the card for any length of time in his window.

The scavengers in passing observe the signal, and call at the house;
otherwise they pass on, unless specially called in by the occupants, thus
avoiding any unnecessary delay in their rounds.
A visit from the scavengers either before seven or after ten in the
morning is generally very inconvenient for households of a superior class,
and should be, if possible, carefully avoided by the sanitary authority.
The cart usually employed for scavenging is that known as the ordinary
“tip cart,” strongly, if not clumsily, constructed of an oak frame, with elm or
deal sides of considerable height; it holds about a couple of cubic yards of
material, and costs from sixteen to twenty pounds.
These carts are not only clumsy and heavy, but they give an
overweighted diminutive appearance to the horse between the shafts,
especially as the quality of horses employed for work of this character is
frequently none of the best. The height, too, of the cart is often so great as
to necessitate the use of a short ladder, up which the scavenger has to climb,
the result being a shower of dust when it is being loaded with house refuse,
and spatterings of mud, when it is being used as a slop cart.
It is difficult also to effectually cover a cart of this description. The
imperfect mode at present adopted is to cover it with a tarpaulin, which is
tied down as tightly as the circumstances of the case will admit, but which
as a rule does not effectually answer the purpose for which it is intended. In
towns where the house refuse is not collected separately from the road
scrapings, a judicious mixture of the two in the cart considerably assists in
preventing any mud from splashing over or the dust from blowing about.
The employment of wooden carts for this work is bad economy, their
rough usage, and the mode adopted for emptying them by “tipping,” renders
their life a short one; a cart in constant work frequently costs from 4l. to 5l.
per annum in repairs, and having but little of the original material of which
it was constructed left in it at the end of six years. They are also difficult to
cleanse or disinfect.
With a view to obviate these and other objections, several improved carts
and waggons have been introduced by different makers, who have styled
them by a variety of names. Amongst others they are called dust carts,
general purpose carts, sanitary carts, slush carts, tumbler carts, mud
waggons, tip waggons, slop waggons, &c. These are constructed with iron
bodies fixed upon wooden frames and wheels; they are of various forms
and designs, the principal objects aimed at being lightness of construction

combined with strength, so balanced as to bear with a minimum of weight
upon the horse; economy in their cost has not been lost sight of, and they
are usually provided with some special means for emptying, either by being
tipped by a chain and windlass, or by some mechanical arrangement of the
tailboard; they are built very low upon their axles, so as to be easily filled,
are either completely covered over with a moveable lid, or are fitted with
hinged side boards, so as to prevent any splashing over of their contents,
and as they are nearly all constructed with iron; they are easily cleansed and
disinfected whenever it is thought necessary to do so.
With reference to the important question of the ultimate disposal of house
refuse, street sweepings &c., no rules can be laid down, as so much depends
upon the position of every town and the character of the district in which it
is situated, as the following replies to some questions which I addressed to
several English towns will show.
In many towns it is stated that the whole of the refuse is used by brick
makers, in others it is simply “tipped to waste.” In one case the answer is,
“Sold by auction twice a year,” but to whom it is sold, and for what
purpose, does not transpire. In some towns it appears to be mixed with lime
and used as manure upon the fields, and in others it is mixed with the
sludge of the sewage farms, and is then ploughed or dug into the soil of the
farm. This seems a better plan than that of another town, where it is “given
or thrown away,” although the difficulty of disposing of the old iron, tins,
&c., is not touched upon in any of the foregoing answers. The next reply
states that “it is riddled, and the cinders and vegetable refuse are burnt to
generate steam, the fine dust is used with the manure manufactory (tub
system), the old iron is sold, and the pots, &c., used for the foundations of
roads.” In one case the whole of the refuse is taken out to sea in hopper
barges, and sunk in deep water.[161] In a great number of towns it is sold by
tender for the year, but what eventually becomes of it does not transpire.
But the most favoured methods, where it cannot be sold as manure to
farmers, seem to be either that of carting it away to some spot outside the
town, and there using it for the purpose of filling up hollows and
depressions, or that of giving or selling it to brick-makers.
The practice of filling up hollow places with such materials cannot be too
strongly deprecated if there is any chance of dwelling houses being erected
on them, as the unsanitary condition of sites thus formed has been
frequently demonstrated.

Where towns are unable to dispose of their refuse by sale to farmers or
market gardeners, the best method, and one which is gaining in popularity
every day, is that of its destruction by fire.
With this object in view a Mr Fryer has invented an apparatus which he
styles a “Patent Carboniser, for the conversion of garbage, street, and
market sweepings, also other vegetable refuse, into charcoal.” This
apparatus consists of a structure somewhat resembling, externally, a brick
kiln. It is divided into hopper-shaped compartments, which at the bottom
are furnished with a furnace, fitted with a reverberatory arch. A fire is
lighted in this furnace, the necessary combustion being obtained, and the
heat maintained, by burning the cinders, which are sifted out of the house
refuse for this purpose. All the street sweepings, refuse, garbage, &c., is
then thrown in at the top of the kiln, and it is there and then completely
destroyed by the action of the fire, and converted into charcoal, which is
withdrawn through a sliding door fixed at the bottom of the kiln.[162]
The next point which has to be considered, and which is the second in
order of the list of duties I have given at the commencement of this chapter,
is “the cleansing of earth closets, privies, ash-pits, and cesspools.”
This is generally effected in conjunction with the collection of the house
refuse and the work is carried out at night. Under the Goux-tub system the
ashes of the house refuse are largely used as a deodorant or absorbent as a
lining for the tub,[163] but in the pail systems this mixture is not effected
until the tubs and refuse arrive together at the depôt.
For descriptions of the manner in which the pail system for the collection
of excreta is carried out in Birmingham, I must refer my readers to an
article written by myself in a number of The Sanitary Engineer of New
York published on the 1st Sept. 1881, in which I have entered fully into the
method there adopted and its advantages and disadvantages, but which are
too long to recapitulate in this chapter.
The next duty which has to be considered is that of “the proper cleansing
of streets.”
There is no doubt that for the sake of the appearance as well as the health
of any town its streets cannot be too well cleansed. Muddy and wet streets
cause dampness in the subsoil of neighbouring dwellings, and dust is not
only injurious to tradesmen’s goods but also to the lungs of those who have
to breathe an atmosphere loaded with silicate and organic impurities.[164]

Street cleansing is effected either by hand-sweeping and hand-scraping,
or by machinery. As to which is the most economical much depends upon
the value of labour, and also upon the condition of the roads to be dealt
with, but in point of time and as a general rule the value of a horse rotary
brush-sweeping machine is undoubted, the only time at which such a
machine fails to do effective work is on the occasions when the mud to be
removed (owing to a peculiar condition of the atmosphere), has attained a
semisolidity, and is of a stiff and sticky consistency, when it either adheres
to and clogs the brushes of the machine, or is flattened by them on to the
road instead of being removed.[165]
The brushes of a machine last about 180 hours constant work, and then
the old stocks can be easily refilled with bass at no great cost. The
comparative work which can be done by a sweeping machine is about 11 to
1 of that effected by manual labour, so that the economy involved by the
former method is evident.
The strength and durability of the brooms used for the work of sweeping
the streets is of some importance, as affecting the ultimate cost of the work,
and some care and skill is required in their selection. Bass brooms are better
than birch brooms for this purpose, and the bass of which the brooms are
made should be sufficiently stout and of regular thickness; it should be
tough and elastic, not old, dry, and brittle, each knot should be of uniform
size and be firmly set, and the number of knots in each broom head is also a
matter of choice. A convenient and fair test of the soundness of a broom is
to soak it for a few days in water before issuing it to the sweeper, and then
note the time it will last. The handles of the brooms should be made of alder
wood.
On the question of the extra work involved in street cleansing by its bad
construction or by the materials of which it is constructed, climate must be
considered, as well as the amount of traffic it has to bear, and also its
gradient and the habits of the people residing in it.[166]
The Superintendent of the Scavenging Department at Liverpool has made
some observations and obtained some valuable information on these points,
which he has detailed in a report he presented to the Health Committee of
that borough in the year 1877, an abstract of which is as follows:

Gross Cost for Each Time of Cleansing 10,000 Yards Superficial of
Different Descriptions of Roadway in the Borough of Liverpool.

Gross Cost
per
Condition Loads Times
Description Area of 10,000
When of removed swept
Street. of Carriage- Yards
paved. repair of in one in one
Pavement. way. Superficial
Roadway. Month. month.
for each
cleansing.
Yds.
£ s. d.
supr.
Granite
setts,
Lord Street - - 1877 Very good 4,503 15 26 0 6 5¹⁄₂
asphalte
joints

North John
- Ditto - 1872 Good 3,287 17¹⁄₂ 26 0 810¹⁄₂
Street

Granite
Tithebarn setts, 1872 and
- - Bad 5,150 38 26 0 11 2
Street ordinary 1874
joints

Ditto,
West Derby
- asphalte - 1876 Very good 11,980 35 13 0 9 4³⁄₄
Road
joints

Great
Howard - Ditto - 1877 Good 16,860 85 13 0 14 4¹⁄₂
Street

Great Ditto, Not
Homer - ordinary - ascertain- Moderate 15,900 85 13 0 14 1
Street joints able

Macadam
Kensington
- breasted - Ditto Good 14,540 76 13 0 14 3³⁄₄
Street
with setts

Stanley
- Ditto - Ditto Bad 16,534 186 13 1 8 9¹⁄₄
Road

He adds that the full benefit of the impervious pavements as regards the
cost of scavenging has not yet been felt, for almost all the lines of streets so
paved are intersected at short distances by streets of ordinary jointed granite

setts or macadam, whence a quantity of mud and refuse is dragged by the
traffic on to the asphalted jointed roadways, which are consequently debited
with the cost of removal of some effete material not intrinsically belonging
to them.
Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, from investigations he
has made on this subject, says that for granite pavement 2 cart loads of mud
have to be removed from every 1000 square yards of surface, one third of a
load for wood pavement[167] and 4 loads three times a day (a total of 12
loads) for macadamised roadways.
The ultimate disposal of the material removed from the surfaces of
roadways especially when they are macadamised is a difficult matter, as,
being chiefly composed of silicate, it is valueless as a manure.
In small towns, except during abnormally muddy weather, it may be
mixed with the house refuse and sold to farmers, or the road scrapings
themselves may be used as an excellent sand, if thoroughly washed, to mix
with lime or cement to form mortar for public works; excessive
accumulations of mud, however, must be got rid of in the most economical
and speedy manner possible, and this is effected either by filling up old
disused quarries with it, or depositing it upon waste lands, or forming
embankments for new roads, but in no case should it be used, as I have
before stated, upon building sites; it is difficult and expensive to destroy it
or partially convert it into other matters by fire, so that if these methods
which I have enumerated are impracticable, the only other method left for
the disposal of the sweepings or scrapings from the streets is to take them
out to sea in hopper barges and sink them in deep water.
The last question that arises on the subject of scavenging before we
consider the disposal of snow, is whether the onus of cleansing private
courts and alleys which are not repairable by the urban authority should be
borne by them or not.
The great difficulty attached to this duty arises from the fact that these
private courts and alleys are generally very badly paved, if paved at all, full
of pits, where pools of stagnant mud and water collect, and even in the best
cases, the interstices between the pebbles, or other paving, are filled with
filth arising in great measure from the dirty habits of the people, and this
filth it is found exceedingly difficult to dislodge. The remedy for this is to
compel the owners of the abutting properties to have the courts and alleys
properly paved with asphalte, or other equally impervious material, after

which it would be easy for the urban authority to cause them to be swept at
least once a day, and flushed with water in the hot weather once a week, but
in order to compel the owners to execute this very desirable work it would
be necessary to put the complicated machinery of section 150 of the Public
Health Act 1875 in force, and the expense to the landlords would be in
many cases very disproportionate to the value of their property.
Out of the ninety towns to which reference has before been made, the
authorities of only nineteen of them cleanse the private courts and alleys in
their jurisdiction, although for the sake of sanitation it is very desirable that
such work should be so undertaken by them.
In most towns it is necessary to cleanse its principal streets at least once a
day, and this appears to be the practice of nearly all the ninety towns I have
referred to; only seven of them, however, appear to have this operation
repeated more frequently; in several towns, the horse droppings, &c., are
removed at once, under what is called the “orderly” system, and this is
especially necessary in streets that are paved with such materials as wood
paving, asphalte, or granite setts. The suburban streets of a town need only
be cleansed once or twice a week, except in special cases of extremes of
mud or snow, and I will now proceed to discuss the questions involved by a
heavy fall of the latter.
Experiments have shown that a cubic yard of fresh fallen snow may
weigh as much as 814 pounds or as little as 71 pounds. Assuming that a
cubic foot will weigh 16·38 pounds, I estimate that for a fall of 3 inches of
snow upon a street 36 feet in width, 20 tons, representing a bulk of about
100 cubic yards, would have to be removed for every 100 yards of length of
street if it was thought necessary to clear it away.
Assuming that there are 30 miles of street in a town from which the snow
must be removed; 21,144 loads must be carted somewhere, at a cost of at
least 1,500l., assuming that each cart could make ten trips a day, and even
then it would take 352 carts a whole week to effect it.
It may be contended that I have taken an extreme case, and that, of
course, the snow does not lie for very long upon the ground in the condition
in which it fell, and that hourly it is reducing in bulk and weight by being
ground up by the traffic, and finding its way in the form of water into the
sewers. This may be so, but at the same time it must not be forgotten that
the bulk is also being constantly increased by that which is shovelled off the
house tops[168] and brought out from private premises adjoining the streets.

Upon this point Mr. Hayward, the Engineer to the Commissioners of
Sewers of the City of London, says[169]:—
“Snow readily compresses under the traffic, and when removed in carts
and shot down elsewhere it may be assumed that on an average four cubic
yards of snow measured as it has fallen is equal to one cubic yard when
placed on the apparatus.” This computation, however, does not make any
allowance for the snow thrown from off the roofs, &c., and it of course
greatly consolidates whilst travelling in the cart.
Fortunately for a town surveyor in this country, exceptionally heavy falls
of snow are not very frequent, but when they do happen great pressure is
put upon his department to cope with it, and one of the greatest difficulties
he has to contend against is the disposal of the snow after it has been placed
in the cart.
If there is a river close by, it can be taken there and tipped, but this is
objectionable if it is a navigable river where dredging has to be done, as it is
surprising what a quantity of road scrapings and other matters are always
removed with the snow, and these materials naturally sink to the bottom,
and add considerably to the cost of dredging.
If there are public parks the snow may be heaped in them, provided no
damage is done to the grass or paths, but the snow thus heaped takes a
considerable time to melt, the first effect of a thaw being to consolidate it: a
better plan is to deposit it upon waste spots, if these are not too far from the
streets which have to be cleared.
Tipping the snow down the manholes into the sewers has been tried in
London and other cities, but has failed through the snow consolidating, and
although lighted gas jets have been turned on to the snow, it has still melted
too slowly to be of any practical utility.
Speaking of Clarke’s apparatus for melting snow, Mr. Haywood, in the
same report from which I have already quoted, says:
“It is seldom that a fall of snow occurs sufficiently large to cause serious
interruption to the traffic; heavy snowstorms in fact occur only once in six
or seven years; for some years therefore these apparatuses if fixed might not
be required. They would either have to be taken out, stored and refixed
yearly or maintained in their places and kept in order there, in either case at
an annual expense.”
In perusing Mr. Hayward’s report it also appears that the cost of this
apparatus fixed is about 120l., and the cost of melting the snow 9d. per

cubic yard.
In order to grapple with this question of the removal of snow, I am of
opinion that it is useless to attempt to cart it away while falling, but try to
make clear crossings for the foot passengers and to keep the traffic open. If
there should be a high wind at the time, and the snow drifts in consequence,
cut through the drifts so as to allow the vehicular traffic to continue.
Directly the snow ceases to fall put on all available hands to clear the
channel gutters and street gratings, in preparation for a sudden thaw, when,
if these precautions were not taken, serious flooding and great damage to
property might ensue; for the same reason cart away all the snow you can at
the bottom of gradients and in the valleys, and also from very narrow streets
and passages, &c. In the wider streets use the snow plough, or with gangs of
men (in the snow season there is generally plenty of labour obtainable),
shovel the snow into a long narrow heap on each side of the street, taking
care to leave the channel gutters and gratings quite clear, and a sufficient
space between the heaps for at least two lines of traffic. Passages must also
be cut at frequent intervals through the heaps, in order to allow foot
passengers to cross the street, and also to let the water reach the channel
gutters as soon as the snow begins to melt.[170]
The next point to be considered in this chapter is that of “The proper
watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district.”
One of the earliest methods for watering streets, but one which has, I
think, almost entirely died out, on account principally of the large quantity
of water used in the process, was that of allowing the water to run down the
channel gutters, ponding it back by means of canvas or leather aprons
placed across the gutter, and then spreading the water on to the surface of
the street by throwing it with wooden shovels. This method, which at first
sight may appear clumsy, is an exceedingly good one upon sanitary
grounds. It not only lays the dust, but it washes the surface of the street, and
it most effectually scours out the gutters and at the same time flushes the
sewers, which at the season that watering is necessary is also of great
importance to any town. By this process a delightful freshness is given to
the air, and the appearance of the cool and limpid water rushing along on
each side of the street acts favourably upon the inhabitants. The great
objections to this system are (1) the enormous quantity of water that is used
in the process, and (2) the difficulty of doing the work after the traffic of the
day has commenced.

Somewhat of a modification of this process is what is known as
“Brown’s System of Street Watering,” which may be described as follows:
—A lead pipe is laid in the footpath at the back of the kerb on each side of
the street to be watered, small gratings or shields being fixed in the pipe at
intervals of twelve inches, and the remaining space filled with asphalte;
small holes are then bored in the pipe through the openings in the shields.
The pipe is connected with the water main in the street, and is provided
with the necessary stopcocks, &c. On the water being turned on, fine jets
are thrown in different directions upon the surface of the street. The width
of roadway that can be watered by this process depends upon the pressure
of the water, but it may be fairly assumed that in most towns streets of fifty
feet width could be effectually watered in a few minutes by a pipe on each
side of the street.
This process has not gained much favour hitherto, principally on account
of the large first cost involved, which would amount to upwards of 800l. per
mile of street, but the expense afterwards should not much exceed the
wages of one man at about 3s. 6d. per day to manipulate the necessary
work, and the interest on the outlay and depreciation of the pipes, &c.
The other objections to this system are:—
(1.) The liability of the pipes and perforations to get out of order,
especially when allowed to lie idle for so many months in each year.
(2.) The unpleasantness to pedestrians which must be caused whilst the
watering is proceeding.
(3.) The inconvenience to the traffic during the process.
(4.) The effect upon the water by high winds, when in all probability it
would be blown back across the foot pavement.
(5.) In very broad streets it would be inoperative.
In Paris and other continental cities, and also in several towns in this
country, the watering is effected by hose and reels, or by portable iron
tubes.
Mr. Parry, C.E., the Borough Surveyor of Reading, has given the
following particulars of the system of hand watering adopted in that
borough, in which he gives the cost, and describes the utility of that method
as compared with the use of water carts:
A water cart (he states) will water twice a day a superficial area of 23,849
yards, and for a length watered one width that means 5,962 lineal yards, or
for a double width 2,981 yards, the cost per day of laying on being as

follows:—Horse, cart, and man, 8s. cost of maintenance of cart, harness,
shoeing, &c., 1s. 5d., making 9s. 5d. per day.
With respect to the hand machines he states that he has one of Headley’s
drum machines, and three of special make, somewhat similar to those used
in Paris. They are equal in point of work; and one machine will water
23,740 square yards twice a day, which, it will be observed, is very close to
the amount of work performed by a cart.
“Headley’s machine cost us (he continues), five years ago when new, 31l.
7s. 3d., and the repairs and maintenance since that date have been 22l., or
an average of 4l. 8s. per annum, and is just now almost past repair. The
other description of hand machine cost each when new 20l., and the repairs
and maintenance have amounted to an average of 3l. 18s. each year. They
were in use some time before Headley’s was obtained, and they will be of
use for a long time yet. The cost of labour per day by the hand machines is
for two men at 2s. 10d. each—5s. 8d.—as it requires two men to work the
machine properly, one to distribute the water, and the other to move the
machine and to attach and detach the apparatus to and from the hydrants;
add to this 7d. per day for maintenance and repairs, will make 6s. 3d. per
day. The quantity of water delivered by the water carts is 0·51 gallons per
square yard, and by the hand machine 1·30 gallons.”
It will thus be seen that in the case of the cart 24,324 gallons of water are
used per diem, and 61,724 gallons by the hand machines, the surface
watered being very nearly the same in both cases. Assuming that the water
has a commercial value of 6d. per 1000 gallons, and adding this to the cost
per diem in each case, the total cost stands thus:

Hand machines £1 10s. 10d.
Carts £1 1s. 7d.

the advantage in point of cost being in favour of the carts; but the hand
machine may water better, especially in broad streets, although in narrow
streets or where there is much traffic, this method would be impracticable.
In Paris both hose and carts are used for watering the thoroughfares, the
former for the boulevards, the avenues, and a certain number of first-class
streets.
The most commonly known method in this country for watering the
streets and roads of our towns is that of carrying the water in wheeled

barrels, carts, or vans, and distributing it therefrom through a perforated
pipe upon the surface of the road as the vehicle is drawn along by a horse
attached to the shafts.[171]
The old barrel upon wheels gave place to a cart, and now we have
“Bayley’s Patent Hydrostatic Van,” which is too well known to almost all
town surveyors to need much description. It holds about 450 gallons of
water and takes about 9 minutes to fill (this time of course varying with the
size of main and pressure of water), and ten minutes to spread the water
upon the surface of the road.
With regard to the work that one of these vans will accomplish in
comparison to that effected by an ordinary cart, the following table,
compiled from experiments on the question, will be useful:

No. of
Total
Cart Contents Loads Gain
quantity Differ-
or in to Time. per
of ence.
Van. Gallons. cover Cent.
Water.
beat.
Hrs. Mnts. Hrs. Mnts.
Bayley’s van 450 5¹⁄₂ 2475 1 23 .. ..
Ordinary cart 225 11 2475 1 50 0 27 24¹⁄₂
Bayley’s van 450 5¹⁄₂ 2475 1 38 .. ..
Ordinary cart 237 11 2607 2 10 0 32 25
Bayley’s van 450 6 2700 1 45 .. ..
Ordinary cart 290 11 3190 2 10 0 25 19¹⁄₄
Bayley’s van 450 8 3600 2 15 .. ..
Ordinary cart 260 17 4420 3 30 1 15 36

This shows a mean gain of 26 per cent. in favour of the van, and the
following tables, made by an inspector in 1873, showing the actual
occupation of the ordinary carts and Bayley’s vans during a day’s work, are
extremely interesting, as showing that while the van is engaged in spreading
the water the time of the cart is wasted in travelling to and from the stand
posts, and when it is borne in mind also that the van spreads water more
widely than the cart, there can be no doubt that a saving of at least 30 per
cent. can be effected by the substitution of these vans for the old-fashioned
cart.
CARTS

Travelling Travelling Waiting,
Filling. Spreading.
Full. Empty. &c.
H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M.
Paddington 1 45 2 9 1 58 0 20 1 30
St. Saviour’s 1 29 2 16 2 4 0 26 1 29
Strand 1 11 2 30 2 18 0 17 1 3
Kensington 4 40 2 2 1 57 0 0 1 54
Chelsea 2 44 1 15 2 14 0 35 1 6

VANS.

Paddington 3 33 1 9 1 3 0 0 3 0
St. Saviour’s 2 20 1 4 1 21 0 23 2 58
Strand 2 30 1 25 1 14 0 20 2 23

In the year 1856, Mr. Scott, C.E., the Chief Surveyor of the parish of St.
Pancras, kept an account of the daily round of an ordinary water cart, when
he found that through an average working day of 10¹⁄₄ hours, exclusive of
the breakfast and dinner hours, the cart took one hour and twenty minutes
filling, fifty minutes only in distributing the water on the roads, and eight
hours and seven minutes in travelling to spread the water and back to the
stand posts. It was obvious that these were placed too far apart, and by the
subsequent introduction of additional standposts Mr. Scott found, in the
year 1867, that the filling occupied two hours, the distribution one hour and
thirty minutes, and the travelling to and fro six hours and thirty minutes; so
that it may be assumed, with an ordinary two-wheeled water cart, that two-
thirds of the day is spent in travelling, one fifth in filling, and about one-
seventh in the actual spreading. But a watch should be kept upon the man
who is engaged in this work, otherwise he will idle away his time and the
streets remain unwatered. A good check upon this is Mr. Bayley’s Tell-Tale,
which registers automatically on a dial at the side of the van the number of
rounds a man goes each day.
Watering the streets with sea water should be adopted whenever it is
feasible, as it not only gives a delightful freshness to the air and dispels
iodine, but it also causes the surface of the street to maintain its humidity
for a longer period than when fresh water is used, as it impregnates the soil
with hygrometric matter. This has been often attempted artificially, by
adding common salt to the water used for watering, but it is rather too
expensive for the benefit derived.[172]

Watering the roads with a largely diluted disinfectant such as “Sanitas” in
the liquid form, is frequently of great benefit, and where it can be afforded,
it should be occasionally done, especially in the narrower streets and more
crowded districts of a city or town, or when an epidemic has broken out.
With reference to the very important question as to the cost of
scavenging, street-cleansing and watering. It is, of course, not possible to
lay down any hard and fast lines, as it must necessarily vary considerably
according to circumstances; much depends upon whether the district is an
urban one, consisting of houses closely packed together, or whether it is
suburban, with scattered villas and mansions standing in their own grounds;
the question, also, of the distance of the depôts to which the material has to
be carted, considerably affects the result of any estimate, as also does the
cost of horse hire, the rate of wages, and whether the district is of a hilly or
flat nature, and, as I have before shown, the manner in which the streets are
formed and paved, the habits of the people, the requirements as to cleansing
streets and watering, and last, but not least, the manner of the eventual
disposal of the rubbish after removal; all these points must bear with great
weight upon any question of cost, and make the results widely different.
On referring to the returns to which I have more than once alluded, it is
found that the cost of removing the house refuse and cleansing and
sweeping the streets combined, varies considerably in different localities. In
one case the sum amounts only to the rate of one half-penny per annum per
head of the population of the town, whereas in another case the amount is at
the rate of three shillings and sixpence per head. On calculating the average
cost per head of population per annum of the ninety towns from which I
received replies on this point, I find that it amounts to about tenpence half-
penny, after giving credit for any sum of money realised by the sale of the
refuse to farmers and others; so that if this work is costing the ratepayers of
a town or city anything under a shilling per head of the whole population
every year, they have no cause to grumble.
Before closing this chapter I will make a few observations upon the
subject of contracts for work of this description.
There is no doubt that the “dust and slopping” contractor is fast going out
of fashion,[173] as it has been found that the work is far more carefully and
systematically carried out without the intervention of a contractor; for if we
turn to the articles of agreement or contract usually drawn up between a
sanitary authority and a contractor for scavenging, we find that they must be

very binding in their phraseology, and enter fully into the details of the
work; they should state very clearly the number of times in every week that
the contractor shall cause all the ashpits in the districts enumerated to be
emptied and cleansed, the manner in which this work shall be performed,
and how the materials thus removed shall be disposed of and the place of
their ultimate destination. The conditions should further specify what
amount of manual, team labour, and carts, are necessary for the work, and
also what plant the contractor must keep in the way of ladders, baskets,
shovels, and brooms, &c. The conditions should also contain a carefully
prepared list of the streets to be swept, and the manner and number of times
this work must be executed, and arrange for the disposal of the materials
thus removed.
In many such contracts it is found necessary to insert clauses binding the
contractor, under all sorts of penalties, to be always at the disposal of and
under the commands of the inspector of nuisances, or such other officer or
officers as the sanitary authority may appoint. The contractor’s men also are
forbidden to accept gratuities, and are directed on no account to remove
either trade or garden refuse, and they are also enjoined to be “careful to
consult the convenience of the householders in their visits, and to
thoroughly clean up all dirt and litter that they may cause in the discharge of
their duties. If they fail in any or either of these injunctions and commands,
or for any other dereliction of duty, the inspector of nuisances, or such other
officer as the sanitary authority shall appoint, may summarily dismiss them,
without any reference being made on the subject to their employer the
contractor, and in fact the conditions have necessarily to be made so
stringent and binding as to be either totally inoperative or open to grave
abuses, or, on the other hand, the work can be carelessly and improperly
executed by the contractor.
The consequence of such binding clauses is that the officers, if they do
their strict duty, will probably be engaged in constant disputes and litigation
with the contractor as to the due and proper observance of the terms of his
contract, and thus their time is much occupied instead of in other more
important matters, which is naturally detrimental to the interests of the
ratepayers.
I am strongly of opinion that the work of the collection of house refuse
and cleansing the streets should be carried out by the local authority with
their own officers and staff, and that executing this work by contract is a

mistake and a false economy. It is, perhaps, true that it may be done in the
latter manner at less actual cost to the ratepayers, but all public work should
be done in the best manner possible, irrespective of cost, thoroughly, but
without extravagance, and the result of such work, especially where it
affects the cleanliness and the appearance of a town, soon fully repays any
moderate extra cost that may thus have been incurred, irrespective of the
enormous benefit that is conferred upon any community by the reduction of
disease and the death-rate by a proper attention to such necessary sanitary
work.

[157] A rural authority cannot apparently make any byelaw with regard to the
prevention of such nuisances.
[158] A byelaw under this section “must be limited to imposing upon the occupier the
duty of cleansing or removal at such intervals as the sanitary authority may think fit. The
mode of cleansing or removal and the precautions to be observed in connection with the
process are not matters within the range of such byelaws.” Vide ‘Memorandum to the
Model Byelaws issued by the Local Government Board for the use of Sanitary Authorities,
No. 1, Cleansing of Footways and Pavements, &c.,’ 1877.
[159] In Glenn’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ 8th edition, in a
footnote to section 44, p. 39, several instances are given of what is not refuse, such as ashes
from furnaces, &c., and it is stated that “the intention of the Act was that only the rubbish
arising from the domestic use of houses should be removed.”
[160] The Bromley Local Board issue a card on which is printed, amongst other
information with reference to the contract for the removal of house refuse, the following
suggestions:—“It is hoped that householders will as far as possible facilitate the systematic
removal of refuse by providing suitable dust-bins, and directing their servants that ordinary
house refuse only shall be deposited in such receptacles. The following are some of the
items of refuse which the contractors are bound to remove, viz.:—cinder ashes, potatoe
peelings, cabbage leaves, and kitchen refuse generally. But the contractors are not required
to remove the refuse of any trade, manufacture, or business, or of any building materials or
any garden cuttings or sweepings.”
[161] In New York about 800,000 tons of refuse are disposed of annually in this manner.
[162] For a description of the manner in which this is effected at Manchester, see my
book on scavenging, to which I have before referred.
[163] The ashes are mixed with chaff, chopped straw, refuse hay, grass cuttings, dry
street sweepings, wool and hair, shoddy, &c., and a small percentage of sulphate of iron or
lime.
[164] Professor Tyndall, in his beautiful experiments, has proved that dusty air is alive
with the germs of the bacteria of putrefaction, whilst the pure fresh air which he gathered
on a mountain peak in the Alps is innocent of such germs, and is absolutely powerless to
produce any organisms.
[165] Dry dust will absorb about ten times its bulk of water, thus swelling considerably
and producing the greasy mud so often seen after rain.

[166] In Boston, U.S.A., the macadamised roads are not swept at all, as it is considered
that by sweeping off the sand and detritus their durability is much lessened, but their
gutters are cleansed as required, and rubbish picked up. (Vide ‘Minutes of Proceedings
Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lxiii. p. 368.)
[167] In Regent Street, London, in November 1881, I saw four loads of mud removed
from about 1000 square yards of surface, it being then almost new wood pavement.
[168] See note under “Other Obstructions and Nuisances,” p. 155, 8th edition, Glen’s
‘Law of Public Health and Local Government.’
[169] Vide ‘Report to the Streets Committee of the Honourable the Commissioners of
Sewers of the City of London on Melting Snow by Clarke’s Apparatus,’ by William
Haywood, Engineer and Surveyor to the Commission, 1881, p. 9.
[170] With regard to the removal of snow from the footpaths, it is highly desirable that
this should be effected by the occupiers of the premises adjacent to the street, as otherwise
it adds immensely to the work of the local authority. The following interesting remarks by
the superintendent of the scavenging department of Liverpool will be no doubt read with
great interest:
“The only way to compass the removal of snow from the footwalks of the principal
thoroughfares within a comparatively short time, is by sprinkling them with salt, such as is
commonly used for agricultural purposes. It is certain that, unaided by the salt, a sufficient
number of men cannot be procured for the emergency of clearing snow from the footways
of the most important thoroughfares. It has been stated by medical authorities that the
application of salt to snow is detrimental to the health of people who have to walk through
the ‘slush’ produced by the mixture, and that the excessive cooling of the air surrounding
the places where the application has been made is injurious to delicate persons. It therefore
seems that the application of salt to snow should not be undertaken during the day time, but
should be commenced not before 11 p.m., nor continued after 6 a.m., and that only such an
area of footwalks should be so treated on any one night as the available staff of men can
clear by an early hour the following morning.
“To sweep snow from the footwalks whilst the fall of snow continues, and especially
during business hours, appears to be wasteful and futile, and to apply salt during the same
periods may be held to be injurious to health.
“That the snow of an ordinary fall can be removed from the footwalks by an application
of salt an hour or so before they are scraped is an ascertained fact, except at least when a
moderately severe frost has preceded, accompanied, or followed the snow-fall, or when the
snow has drifted into extensive accumulations. Were it not for the danger to health by
excessive cooling of the air, and for the expense attending the operation, all the impervious
pavements could be cleared of snow (unless the fall was a heavy one) in a comparatively
short time by a liberal application of salt and the employment of the horse sweeping
machines as soon as the snow had become sufficiently softened to admit of their use.”
[171] In the metropolis of London alone, the watering of the streets and roads employs,
in addition to a staff of inspectors and foremen, about 1500 men, and an equal number of
horses and carts; and in order to lay the dust effectually, about 30,000 tons of water must
be spread upon the streets every dry day, the cost of this gigantic work being nearly
200,000l. per annum upon an average of 120 days when watering becomes necessary.
[172] In Rouen, where chloride of calcium is obtained from the manufactories of
pyroligneous acid in the neighbourhood, it is mixed with the water for use on the roads,
and it is stated that on a mile of road, 16 feet in width, 5630 gallons of water were
necessary daily, but that the same result was attained with 1480 gallons of chloride

solution, marking 30° Baumé, and costing about ¹⁄₂d. per gallon, the humectation
remaining good for five or six days with the solution of chloride. With water only in 1093
yards, in four rounds daily, 3520 gallons were used, the cost being 48s.; with chloride of
calcium the cost was 32s. per day.
[173] Amongst the questions which I addressed to the surveyors of the principal towns
of England in 1879 was the following:—“Is the house refuse collected by the sanitary
authority or by a contractor?” and out of the ninety towns from which I received replies,
only thirty were found to employ contractors for this purpose, and of these the authorities
of two of them proposed to dispense with the services of the contractor, and to administrate
the work with their own staff, as they found the existing state of things was thoroughly
unsatisfactory.

CHAPTER XX.
SEWERAGE.

The Public Health Act 1875 contains a considerable number of clauses
dealing with the subject of the sewers of a town, but two of the shortest
sections in the whole Act, and yet those that involve a considerable amount
of work in the town surveyor’s department, are the following:
“Every local authority shall keep in repair[174] all sewers belonging to
them, and shall cause to be made such sewers as may be necessary for
effectually draining their district for the purposes of this Act”[175] (38 & 39
Vic. c. 55, s. 15).
“Every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to them to be
constructed, covered, ventilated,[176] and kept so as not to be a nuisance or
injurious to health, and to be properly cleansed and emptied”[177] (38 & 39
Vic. c. 55, s. 19).
As to what sewers do “belong” to the local authority, the following
section of the Public Health Act 1875 states:
“All existing and future sewers within the district of a local authority,
together with all buildings, works, materials, and things belonging thereto,
“Except
“(1.) Sewers made by any person for his own profit, or by any company
for the profit of the shareholders; and
“(2.) Sewers made and used for the purpose of draining, preserving, or
improving land under any local or private Act of Parliament, or for the
purpose of irrigating land; and
“(3.) Sewers under the authority of any commissioners of sewers
appointed by the Crown,
shall vest in and be under the control of such local authority.
“Provided that sewers within the district of a local authority which have
been, or which may hereafter be constructed by or transferred to some other
local authority, or by or to a sewage board or other authority empowered

under any Act of Parliament to construct sewers, shall (subject to any
agreement to the contrary) vest in and be under the control of the authority
who constructed the same, or to whom the same have been transferred” (38
& 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 13).
And as to the definition of the word “sewer,” the same Act states:
“‘Sewer’ includes sewers and drains of every description, except drains
to which the word ‘drain’[178] interpreted as aforesaid applies, and except
drains vested in or under the control of any authority having the
management of roads and not being a local authority under this Act.”
The result of this acquisition by the local authority of the sewers in their
district is, that in most of the old cities and towns a legacy of very defective
and imperfect sewers has been inherited, and considerable expense in their
repair and maintenance has thus been entailed.
A great number of books have been written on the subject of sewerage,
and much valuable information has been published from time to time, so
that it almost seems superfluous to say much upon the subject; however, a
few remarks which are particularly applicable to the work of a town
surveyor may be of some service.
The word sewerage may be taken as meaning a system of sewers
carrying sewage which is the fluid and feculent refuse from dwellings and
their yards, &c. Sewage is generally found mixed with rain water from the
surface of the streets and roofs of houses, together with the liquid waste
products from manufactories,[179] and sometimes, although very
improperly, with subsoil water.
A good system of sewerage should embrace the whole of the following
requirements:—
(1.) Each sewer should be laid at such a depth as will readily drain the
basements of the adjoining buildings.
(2.) Its area and gradient must be so regulated as to make it self-
cleansing, and at the same time carry off effectively the maximum quantity
of liquid for which it is intended.[180]
(3.) Each sewer should (unless quite impracticable) be laid in straight
lines and with even gradients between man- or lamp-holes, and these
gradients must not be excessive, or damage may be caused to the sewer. A
velocity of about 6 feet per second is sufficient.
(4.) Sewers must be laid at proper levels in respect of their intersection
with each other, bearing in mind that they are all generally converging to

one point.
(5.) Manholes should be of simple construction; circular brickwork upon
concrete is a convenient description. They may be made to serve the
additional purposes of ventilating shafts, flushing chambers, junction shafts,
storm overflows, and side entrances.
(6.) Tributary sewers or drains should not join the main sewers at right
angles unless the bottom of the manhole is so constructed as to give the
required curve in the direction of the flow of the sewage, and they should
join at a height (if of unequal section) equal to the difference of their
sectional diameters, the aim of all junctions being to cause as little
disturbance as possible in the proper flow of the liquids along their
respective channels.
(7.) Sewers should not be constructed of too large a sectional area, but
none should be less than 6 inches internal diameter, as house-drains in this
country are never less than 4 inches diameter, and the main sewer should of
course be larger than its tributaries. It is also rather difficult to ventilate a
smaller sewer than 6 inches, and very little is saved by putting in a smaller
sewer than that.
Stoneware pipes of greater diameter than 18 inches should never be used.
Where larger sewers are constructed they should be either concrete pipes,
[181] or brickwork or concrete should be employed.
The position of the sewer should, if possible, be behind the houses for the
following reasons:—
(1.) The waterclosets, sinks, &c., being nearly always at the back, a drain
under the house (which is always objectionable) is avoided.
(2.) Economy is secured to the owner of the property, as a shorter length
of drain is required than if the sewer was in the front.
(3.) A better fall is usually obtained.
(4.) Where there is a separate or partially separate system of sewerage, a
double sewer in the street is avoided.
The only objection to this method being that of the chance of the sewer
becoming choked or broken when entry has to be made into private
property to repair it, but this ought never to happen after once the sewer has
been properly constructed. Of course, where houses are closely packed
together it would not be possible to carry the sewer at the back, but where it
can be done I agree thoroughly with Mr. Rawlinson, C.B., C.E., &c., who,
speaking of this method, says, “I know nothing but good of it.”