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Title: The Dyeing of Woollen Fabrics

Author: Franklin Beech

Release date: December 1, 2006 [eBook #19985]
Most recently updated: March 14, 2015

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19985

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DYEING
OF WOOLLEN FABRICS ***

E-text prepared by Christine P. Travers, Jason Isbell,
and the Project Gutenbert Online Distributed Proofreading Team
(http://www.pgdp.net/)

Transcriber's note:

Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, and the original
spelling has been retained.

Additional notes are at the end of the text.

THE

DYEING OF WOOLLEN FABRICS

BY

FRANKLIN BEECH
PRACTICAL COLOURIST AND CHEMIST;
AUTHOR OF "THE DYEING OF COTTON FABRICS,"
ETC,

WITH THIRTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON
SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL, E. C.

CANADA: THE COPP CLARK CO., LTD., TORONTO
UNITED STATES: D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., NEW YORK

1902

[All rights remain with Scott, Greenwood & Son.]

PREFACE.

In this little book the author has endeavoured to supply the dyer of woollen
fabrics with a conveniently arranged handbook dealing with the various
branches of the wool dyeing industry, and trusts that it will be found to meet
the want which undoubtedly exists for such a book.

The text on which the book is based is expressed in the title "The Dyeing of
Woollen Fabrics," and in enlarging upon it the author has endeavoured to
describe clearly and in some detail the various processes and operations
generally, pointing out the principles involved and illustrating these by
numerous recipes, showing the applications of a great variety of dyes in the
production of the one thousand and one tints and shades the wool dyer is
called upon to produce on the fabrics with which he is working. In
pursuance of this plan nothing is said of the composition and properties of
the various dyes, mordants, chemicals, etc., which are used. This is
information every wool dyer should possess, but the author believes it is
better dealt with in books devoted to Chemistry proper.
May, 1902.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.
The Wool Fibre--

Structure, Composition and Properties.

CHAPTER II.
Processes Preparatory to Dyeing--

Scouring and Bleaching of Wool.

CHAPTER III.
Dyeing Machinery and Dyeing Manipulations--

Loose Wool Dyeing, Yarn Dyeing and Piece Dyeing
Machinery.

CHAPTER IV.
The Principles and Practice of Wool Dyeing--

Properties of Wool -- Methods of Wool Dyeing -- Groups of
Dyes -- Dyeing with the Direct Dyes -- Dyeing with Basic
Dyes -- Dyeing with Acid Dyes -- Dyeing with Mordant

Dyes -- Level Dyeing -- Blacks on Wool -- Reds on Wool --
Mordanting of Wool -- Orange Shades on Wool -- Yellow
Shades on Wool -- Green Shades on Wool -- Blue Shades on
Wool -- Violet Shades on Wool -- Brown Shades on Wool --
Mode Colours on Wool.

CHAPTER V.

Dyeing union (Mixed Cotton and Wool) Fabrics.

CHAPTER VI.

Dyeing of Gloria.

CHAPTER VII.
Operations Following Dyeing--

Washing--Soaping--Drying.

CHAPTER VIII.

Experimental Dyeing and Comparative Dye Testing.

CHAPTER IX.

Testing of the Colour of Dyed Fabrics.

Index.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

1. Microscopical Sketch of Wool Fibre.

2. Kempy Wool Fibres.

3. Sectional View of Wool Fibre.

4. Wool Fibres Showing Action of Alkalies.

5. Wool Fibres Showing Action of Acids.

6. Wool Washing Machine.

7. Wool Cloth Washing Machine.

8. Woollen Cloth Washing Machine.

9. Sulphur Bleach House.

10. Dyeing Tubs and Vat.

11. Section of Dye Vat.

12. Delahunty's Dyeing Machine.

13. Obermaier Dyeing Machine.

14. Holliday's Yarn Dyeing Machine.

15. Klauder-Weldon Yarn Dyeing Machine.

16. Dyeing Jiggers for Cloth.

17. Dyeing Jiggers for Cloth.

18. Jig Winch Dyeing Machine.

19. Cloth Dyeing Machine.

20. Plush Fabric Dyeing Machine.

21. Dye Beck for Cloth.

22. Hawking Machine.

23. Indigo Dye Vat for Cloth.

24. Squeezing Rollers.

25. Yarn Washing Machine.

26. Cloth Washing Machine.

27. Cloth Washing Machine.

28. Soaping and Washing Machine.

29. Hydro-extractor.

30. Hydro-extractor.

31. Yarn Drying Apparatus.

32. Cloth Drying Machine.

33. Experimental Dye Apparatus.

CHAPTER I.

THE WOOL FIBRE.

Wool is one of the most important textile fibres used in the manufacture of
woven fabrics of all kinds. It belongs to the group of animal fibres of which
three kinds are met with in nature, and used in the manufacture of textile
fibres; two of these are derived from quadruped animals, such as the sheep,
goat, etc., while the third class comprises the products of certain insects,
e.g., silk.

The skin of all animals is covered with more or less of a fibrous coat, which
serves as a sort of protecting coat from the weather to the skin underneath.
Two different kinds of fibres are found on animals; one is a stiff kind of
fibre varying in length very much and called hairy fibres, these sometimes
grow to a great length. The other class of animal fibres are the woolly
fibres, short, elastic and soft; they are the most esteemed for the
manufacture of textile fabrics, it is only when the hairy fibres are long that
they are serviceable for this particular purpose. There is a slight difference
in the structure of the two kinds of fibre, woolly fibres having a more scaly
structure than hairy fibres; the latter also differ in being more cylindrical in
form.

Wool.--By far the most important of the animal fibres is wool, the fibre of
the domestic sheep. Other animals, the llama or alpaca, the Angora and
Cashmere goats also yield fibres of a similar character, which are imported
under the name of wools. There are many varieties of wools Which are
yielded by the various breeds of sheep, but they may be roughly divided
into two kinds, according to the length of "staple," as it is called. In the
long-stapled wools the fibres average from 7-1/2 to 9-1/2 inches in length,

while the short-stapled wools vary from 1 to 2 inches long. The diameter
varies very considerably from 0.00033 to 0.0018 of an inch.

Two varieties of thread are spun from wool, one is known as "worsted," the
other as "woollen" yarns; from these yarns two kinds of cloths are woven,
distinguished as worsted and woollen cloths; the former are in general not
subjected to any milling or felting process, while the latter invariably are.

Physical Properties.--When seen under the microscope the wool fibres
show a rod-like structure covered with broad scales, the edges of which
project from the body of the fibre, and all point in one direction.

Fig. 1 shows typical wool fibres as viewed under the microscope; the sketch
shows very well the scales.

The shape of the scales varies in different breeds of wool. The outer scales
enclose inner medullary cells, which often contain pigment matter. A
transversed section of the wool fibre shows the presence of a large number
of cells. Sometimes wool fibres are occasionally met with which have a
peculiar white horny appearance; these do not felt or dye well. They are
known as "kempy" fibres. See figure 2. The microscope shows that they are
largely devoid of structure, and are formed of very horny, impenetrable
tissue, which is difficult to treat in the milling or dyeing process.

The curly or twisted character of the fibre is caused by the unequal
contraction of the outer scales, and depends in a great measure upon the
hygroscopic nature of the wool. It may be entirely removed for the time by
wetting the wool in hot water, then drying it in a stretched condition, or the
curl may be artificially induced by unequal drying, a fact which is turned to
practical account in the curling of feathers and of hair.

The amount of curl in different varieties of wool is very variable, being as a
rule greatest in the finer qualities, and diminishing as the fibre becomes
coarser. The diameter of the wool fibre varies from 1/2000 to 1/5000 of an
inch, and the number of curls from about 30 per cent. In fine wool as little
as 1 or 2 per cent. in the thicker fibres.

Elasticity and strength are properties which, in common with silk, wool
possesses in a greater degree than the vegetable fibres. When submitted to
strain the wool fibre exhibits a remarkable strength, and when the breaking
point is reached the fracture always takes place at the juncture of two rings
of the outer scales, the embedded edges of the lower layer being pulled out
of their seat. The scales themselves are never broken.

When first formed the cells are more or less of a spherical shape, and
contain a nucleus surrounded by the ultimate photoplasmic substance.
Those cells which constitute the core or central portion of the fibre retain to
some extent this original globular form and pulpy condition. Surrounding
this central portion or medulla, as it has been called (see fig. 3), and
forming the main bulk of the fibre, there is a comparatively thick layer of
partially flattened cells, which are also elongated in the direction of the
length of the fibre, and outside this again there is a thinner stratum which
may be compared to the bark of a tree. This outer covering differs
materially from the rest of the fibre in its physical structure, but is,
probably, nearly identical with it, though possibly not entirely so, in
chemical composition. It consists of a series of flattened horny scales, each
being probably an aggregation of many cells. The scales, which have been
compared to the scales of a fish or to slates on a housetop, overlap each
other, the free edges protruding more or less from the fibre, while the lower
or covered edges are embedded and held in the inner layer of cells. The free
edges always point away from the root of the fibre, just as do the bracts of a
fir cone.

When viewing a section of a wool fibre there is, of course, no sharp line of
division between the three portions above described, but the change from
the central spherical cells to the elongated cellular portion, and from these
again to the flattened horny scales, is quite gradual, so that the separation
into zones, though well marked, is very indefinite in respect of boundaries.

The scaly structure of wool is of great importance in regard to what is
known as felting property. When woollen fabrics are worked in boiling

water, especially in the presence of soap, they shrink in length and breadth,
but become thicker in substance, while there is a greater amalgamation of
the fibres of the fabric together to form a more compact and dense cloth;
this is due to the scaly structure of the wool fibres enabling them to become
entangled and closely united together. In the manufacture of felt hats this is
a property of very great value.

Variations in Physical Structure.--Wool fibres vary somewhat amongst
themselves; fibres from different breeds of sheep, or even from different
parts of the same animal, vary greatly, not only in thickness, length, etc., but
also in actual structure. A typical wool fibre, such as may be obtained a
good merino or Southdown fleece, will possess the typical structure
described above, but frequently the type is departed from to such an extent
that the central core of globular cells is entirely absent. Also the serrated
character of the outermost layer of cells reaches a much higher state of
development in some samples of wool than in others.

Wool is a much more hygroscopic fibre than cotton or any of the other
vegetable fibres, usually it contains about 18 per cent. of water, but much
depends upon the atmospheric conditions that prevail. This water is
contained in the wool in two forms: (1) as water of hydration amounting to
about 81 per cent., and (2) as hygroscopic water.

Experiments have shown that when a piece of dried wool is exposed to an
atmosphere saturated with water vapour it will absorb 50 per cent. of its
weight; cotton under the same conditions will take up 23 per cent.; flax,
27·5 per cent.; jute, 28·5 per cent., and silk, 36·5 per cent.

Heated to about 100° C. it parts with nearly the whole of its water and
becomes hard, horny and brittle, exposed to the air, the dry wool again
absorbs water and is restored to its former condition. When heated to
100° C. wool becomes somewhat plastic, so that whatever form is then
imparted to it it will retain when it becomes cold, this property is very
useful in certain processes of finishing wool fabrics, making hats, etc.

Chemical Composition.--In the natural or raw state each wool fibre is
surrounded by a considerable amount of foreign matter, so that in treating of
its chemical constitution it is necessary to distinguish between pure wool

and the raw fibre. The incrusting substance is technically known as "Yolk,"
or "Suint," and is principally composed of a kind of natural soap, consisting
of the potash salts of certain fatty acids, together with some fats which are
incapable of saponification.

The amount of yolk present upon different samples of wool varies greatly,
the finer varieties containing, as a rule, a larger proportion than the coarser,
and less valuable sorts.

The variation in the relative amount of pure fibres and yolk is well shown in
the following analyses which, however, do not by any means represent
extreme cases.

ANALYSES OF RAW MERINO WOOL. DRIED AT 100° C.

No. 1. No. 2.
Moisture 6·26 10·4
Yolk 47·30 27·0
Pure Wool 30·31 59·5
Dirt 11·13 3·1
------- -------
100·00 100·00

Yolk consists very largely of two complex substances which have been
termed wool perspiration and wool fat. The former is composed of the
potash salts of fatty acids, principally oleic and stearic acids; the latter of
the neutral carbohydrate, cholesterine, with other similar bodies. The wool
perspiration may be removed by a simple washing with water, and on the
Continent forms a valuable source of potash salts, since the ash after
ignition contains 70 to 90 per cent. of potassium carbonate. The wool fat is
insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in ether, benzene, carbon
disulphide, etc.

It is also removed from the wool by a treatment with alkali, and it is not
easy to explain the action in the case, since the wool fat is not a glyceride,
and will not form a soap, but is probably emulsified by the wool
perspiration.

Chemical Composition of the Pure Fibre.--The following analyses of
purified and dried wool fibre indicate its percentage composition:--

Carbon
50·5
per
cent.
50·8
per cent.
Hydrogen
6·8
"
7·2
"
Nitrogen
16·8
"
18·5
"
Oxygen
20·5
"
21·2
"
Sulphur
5·4
"
2·3
"
-------
-------
100·00
100·00

It is sometimes stated that wool fibre consists of a definite substance,
keratine, but this view cannot now be admitted, since wool appears to be
composed of a mixture or combination of several very complex substances.

It is possible and even probable that the outer epidermal scales have a
somewhat different composition to the bulk of the fibre, but whether that is
the case or not is not known with any degree of certainty, this much can be
asserted, that wool is not a simple definite chemical compound.

Sulphur is by far the most variable constituent of wool, sometimes as little
as 1·5 and occasionally as much as 5 per cent. being found. It appears to be
always present in two different forms, one portion being in very feeble
combination and easily removed by alkalies, the remainder, which,
according to Knecht, amounts to about 30 per cent. of the total sulphur,
cannot be removed without complete disintegration of the fibre. This latter
portion does not give a black coloration with plumbite of soda.

The amount of ash left on incinerating dry wool varies from 1 to 2 per cent.,
and some have considered this inorganic matter as an essential constituent.
It consists principally of salts of potassium, calcium and aluminum, with, of
course, sulphur.

The chemical composition of the wool fibre is evidently of a most
complicated nature; judging from its behaviour in dyeing it is evident that it
may contain two bodies, one of a basic character which enables it to
combine with the azo and acid series of dyes, the other possessing acid
characters enabling it to combine with the basic dyes of the magenta and
auramine type. Dr. Knecht has isolated from the wool fibre by extraction
with alkalies and precipitation with acids a substance to which the name of
lanuginic acid has been given. It is soluble in hot water, precipitates both
acid and basic colouring matters in the form of coloured lakes. It yields
precipitates with alum, stannous chloride, chrome alum, silver nitrate, iron
salts, copper sulphate. It appears to be an albuminoid body. From its
behaviour with the dyes, and with tannic acid and metallic salts, it would
appear that lanuginic acid contains both acidic and basic groups. It contains
all the elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, found in
wool.

If wool is dyed in a dilute solution of Magenta (hydrochloride of
rosaniline), the whole of the base (rosaniline) is taken up, and the whole of
the acid (HCl) left in the bath, not, however, in the free state, but probably

as NH4Cl, the ammonia being derived from the wool itself. A further proof
of the acid nature of lanuginic acid is that wool may be dyed a fine magenta
colour in a colourless solution of rosaniline base; for since rosaniline base is
colourless, and it only forms a colour when combined with acids, the fibre
has evidently acted the part of an acid in the combination.

Chemical Properties. Action of Alkalies.--Alkalies have a powerful action
on wool, varying, of course, with the nature of the alkali, strength of
solution and temperature at which the action takes place.

An ammoniacal solution of copper hydroxide (Schweizer's reagent), has
comparatively little action in the cold, but when hot it dissolves wool fairly
readily.

The caustic alkalies; sodium hydroxide, NaOH, or potassium hydroxide
KOH, have a most deleterious action on wool. Even when very dilute and
used in the cold they act destructively, and leave the fibre with a harsh feel
and very tender, they cannot therefore be used for scouring or cleansing
wool. Hot solutions, even if weak, have a solvent action on the wool fibre,
producing a liquid of a soapy character from which the wool is precipitated
out on adding acids.

This action of alkalies has an important bearing on the scouring of wool, for
if this operation be not carried out with due care there is in consequence
great liability to impair the lustre and strength of this fibre. From
microscopical examination this effect of alkalies is seen to be due to the fact
that they tend to disintegrate the fibre, loosen and open the scales, this is
shown by contrasting the two fibres A and B shown in figure 4, A being a
normal wool fibre, B one strongly treated with an alkali.

The alkaline carbonates have but little action on wool, none if used dilute
and at temperatures below 120° F.

Soap has practically no action on wool, and is therefore an excellent
scouring material for wool. The carbonate of ammonia is the best and has
the least action of the alkaline carbonates, those of potash and soda if used
too strong or too hot have a tendency to turn the wool yellow, the carbonate
of potash leaves the wool softer and more lustrous than the carbonate of
soda.

The influence of scouring agents on wool will be discussed in the chapter
on cleansing wool fabrics in more detail.

Caustic or quick-lime has a similar injurious action on the wool fibre as the
caustic alkalies.

Action of Acids.--Acids when dilute have but little influence on the wool
fibre, their tendency is to cause a separation of the scales (see fig. 5) of the
wool and so make it feel harsher. Strong acids have a disintegrating action
on the wool fibre. There is a very considerable difference between the
action of acids on wool and on cotton, and this difference of action is taken
advantage of in the woollen industry to separate cotton from wool by the
process commonly known as "carbonising," which consists in treating the
fabric with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid or some other acid, then
drying it; the cotton is disintegrated and falls away in the form of a powder,
while the wool is not affected, sulphuric acid is used very largely in dyeing
wool with the acid- and azo-colouring matters.

Nitric acid affects wool in a very similar manner to the acids named above
when used in a dilute form; if strong it gives a deep yellow colour and acts
somewhat destructively on the fibre.

Sulphurous acid (sulphur dioxide) has no effect on the actual fibre, but
exercises a bleaching action on the yellow colouring matter which the wool
contains, it is therefore largely used for bleaching wool, being applied either
in the form of gas or in solution in water; the method will be found
described in another chapter. Wool absorbs sulphur dioxide in large amount,
and if present is liable to retard any subsequent dyeing processes.

Action of Other Substances.--Chlorine and the hypochlorites have an
energetic action on wool, and although they exert a bleaching action they
cannot well be used for bleaching wool. Hot solutions bring about a slight
oxidation of the fibre, which causes it to have a greater affinity for
colouring matters; advantage is taken of this fact in the printing of delaines
and woollen fabrics, while the woollen dyer would occasionally find the
treatment of service. A paper by Mr. E. Lodge, in the Journal of the Society
of Dyers and Colourists, 1892 (p. 41), may be consulted with advantage on
this subject. Wool treated with chlorine loses its felting property, and hence
becomes unshrinkable, a fact of which advantage is taken in preparing
unshrinkable woollen fabrics.

When wool is boiled with solutions of metallic salts, such as the sulphate of
iron, chrome, aluminium and copper, the chlorides of tin, copper and iron,
the acetates of the same metals, as well as with some other salts,
decomposition of the salt occurs and a deposit of the metallic oxide on the

wool is obtained with the production of an acid salt which remains in
solution. In some cases this action is favourably influenced by the presence
of some organic acid or organic salt, as, for examples, oxalic acid and
cream of tartar (potassium tartrate), along with the metallic salt.

On this fact depends the process of mordanting wool with potassium
bichromate, alum, alumina sulphate, ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate, etc.
The exact nature of the action which occurs is not properly understood, but
there is reason for thinking that the wool fibre has the capacity of
assimilating both the acid and the basic constituents of the salt employed.

Excessive treatment with many metallic salts tends to make the wool harsh
to the feel, partly owing to the scales being opened out and partly owing to
the feel naturally imparted by the absorbed metallic salt.

The normal salts of the alkaline metals, such as sodium chloride, potassium
sulphate, sodium sulphate, etc., have no action whatever on the wool fibre.

Wool has a strong affinity for many colouring matters. For some of the
natural colours, turmeric, saffron, anotta, etc., and for the neutral and basic
coal-tar colours it has a direct affinity, and will combine with them from
their aqueous solutions. Wool is of a very permeable character, so that it is
readily penetrated by dye liquors; in the case of wool fabrics much depends,
however, upon the amount of felting to which the fabric has been subjected.

If wool be boiled in water for a considerable time it will be observed that it
loses much of its beautiful lustre, feels harsher to the touch, and also
becomes felted and matted together. This has to be carefully guarded
against in all dyeing operations, where the handling or moving of the yarns
is apt to produce this unfortunate effect.

After prolonged boiling the fibre shows signs of slight decomposition, from
the traces of sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia gases which it evolves.

When wool is dried at 212° F. it assumes a husky, harsh feel, and its
strength is perceptibly impaired. According to Dr. Bowman, the wool fibre
really undergoes a slight chemical change at this temperature, which
becomes more obvious at 230° F., while at about 260° F. the fibre begins to

disintegrate. According to the researches of Persoz, however, temperatures
ranging from 260° F. to 380° F. can be employed without any harm to the
wool, if it has previously been soaked in a 10 per cent. solution of
glycerine.

When wool is heated to 212° F. (100° Cent.) it becomes quite pliant and
plastic and may be moulded into almost any shape, which it still retains
when cold. This fact is of much interest in the processes of finishing various
goods, of embossing velvet where designs are stamped on the woven fabric
while hot, and in the crabbing and steaming of woollen goods, making hats,
etc.

CHAPTER II.

PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO DYEING, SCOURING AND
BLEACHING OF WOOL.

Wool scouring takes place at two stages in the process of manufacture into
cloth. First, in the raw state, to free the wool from the large amount of
grease and dirt it naturally contains; second, after being manufactured into
cloth, it is again scoured to free it from the oil that has been added to the
scoured raw wool to enable it to spin easily. This oiling is generally known
as wool batching, and before the spun yarns or woven fabrics can be dyed it
is necessary to remove it.

Raw wool is a very impure substance, containing comparatively little wool
fibre, rarely more than 50 to 60 per cent. in the cleanest fleeces, while it
may be as low as 25 per cent. in the dirtiest.

First there is a small quantity of dirt; there is what is called the suint, a kind
of soapy matter, which can be removed by washing in hot water. This soap
has for its base potash, while its acids are numerous and complex. The wool
contains a fatty-like substance of the nature of wax, called cholesterine, and
this imparts to the fatty matter, which be extracted from the wool fibre, very
peculiar properties. Besides these there are several other bodies of minor
importance, all of which have to be removed from the wool before it can be
manufactured into cloth.

Marker and Schulz give the following analysis of a good sample of raw
wool:--

Moisture
23·48

per cent.
Wool fat
7·17
"
Wool soap (suint), soluble in
water
21·13
"
Soluble in alcohol
0·35
"
Soluble in ether
0·29
"
Soluble in dilute hydrochloric
acid
1·45
"
Wool fibre
43·20
"
Dirt
2·93
"
-------
100·00

Two principles underlie the methods which are in use for this purpose. The
first principle and the one on which the oldest method is based is the
abstraction of the whole of the grease, etc., from the wool by means of an
alkaline or soapy liquor at one operation. This cannot nowadays be
considered a scientific method. Although it extracts the grease, etc., from
the wool, and leaves the latter in a good condition for after processes, yet
with it one might almost say that the whole of the soap or alkali used, as
well as the wool grease itself, is lost as a waste product; whereas any good
process should aim at obtaining the wool grease for use in some form or
another. The second principle which underlies all the most recent methods

for extracting the grease from the wool, consists in treating the fibre with
some solvent like benzol, carbon bisulphide, petroleum spirit, carbon
tetrachloride, etc., which dissolves out the cholesterine and any other free
fatty matter which is in the wool fibre, leaving the latter in such a condition
that by washing with water the rest of the impurities in the wool can be
extracted. By distilling off and recondensing the solvent can be recovered
for future use, while the wool fat can also be obtained in a condition to use
for various purposes. This is rather a more scientific method than the old
one, but it has not as yet come into extensive use.

Wool Scouring. Old Methods.--In the early days of wool scouring this
operation was done in a very primitive fashion, generally in a few tubs,
which could be heated by steam or otherwise, and in which wool was
worked by means of hand forks. These primitive processes are still in use in
some small works, especially where the wool is dyed in the loose condition,
but in all the large works machinery has been adopted, which machinery
has been brought to a high state of perfection, and does its work very well,
and without much attendant manual labour.

The alkaline substances used in this process of scouring demand some
notice. These comprise soda ash, soda crystals, caustic soda, silicate of
soda, potash, caustic potash, soaps of various kinds, stale urine, ammoniacal
compounds. Which of these may be used in any particular case depends
upon a variety of reasons. Potash is the best alkaline agent to use. It agrees
better with the fibre than any other, leaving it soft and elastic. Ammonia is
the next best, but it does not take out the grease as well as the potash. Soda
does not suit as well as potash, as it has a tendency to leave the fibre harsh
in feel and somewhat brittle, yet on account of its being so much cheaper it
is the most largely used. The use of silicate of soda cannot be
recommended, as it has a great tendency to leave the fibre hard, which may
be ascribed to the deposition of silica on the fibre.

The caustic alkalies cannot be used as they have too solvent an action on
the fibre. The carbonates, therefore, in the form of soda ash or potash, or
pearl ash, are used, or better still, soap is used as it has a greater solvent
action on the fatty matter of the wool than have the alkalies, and in this
respect a potash soap is better than a soda soap.

The character of the wool determines the alkali to be used; fine, long-
stapled wools, which are usually very free from grease in excess, should
always be treated with potash, or a potash soap, which will remove the
whole of the grease from the wool, leaving the latter in a fine, soft, silky
condition.

Short-stapled wools can be treated with soap and a little soda ash, but too
much of the latter is to be avoided. Coarse and greasy wools may be
scoured with soap and soda ash, or other alkali which is almost necessary to
remove the large amount of grease these wools contain.

Practically the only alkaline products now in use are the various hard and
soft soaps, and the carbonates of soda and potash in their various forms of
soda ash, soda crystals, potashes, pearl ash, etc. Ammonia and its
compounds are rarely used, while stale urine, which acts in virtue of the
ammonia it contains has practically gone out of use.

Hand-Scouring.--Wool scouring by hand is easily done and requires few
appliances, simple tubs or vats of sufficient capacity in which steam pipes
are placed, so that the scouring liquors can be heated up. The best
temperatures to use are about 130° to 140° F., and it is not advisable to
exceed the latter, as there is then some risk that the alkali may act on the
fibre too strongly.

The strength of the scouring liquor necessarily varies with the kind of wool
being treated, and with the kind of alkaline product used; if soft, fine wools
are being treated, then the liquor may be made with 1 to 2 lb. of soap to 10
gallons of water (if a mixture of soap and alkali is used, then it may contain
from 1/4 to 1/2 lb. soda ash, and 1/2 lb. to 1 lb. of soap). For coarse, greasy
wools these quantities may be increased by about one-half. The best plan of
scouring by hand is to treat the wool in a tub with a scouring liquor for
about half an hour, then to squeeze out the surplus liquor and to treat again
in a new liquor for half an hour; this liquor may be used for a new batch of
wool. The wool is often put into nets, and these are lifted up and down in
the liquor so as to cause it to penetrate to every part of the wool.

It is not advisable to work the wool about too much, otherwise felting might
ensue and this must be avoided. The felting of the wool is one of the

troubles of the wool-scourer and is often difficult to avoid, it is mostly
brought about by excessive working of the wool during the process, and by
the use of too high a temperature in the scouring bath. The remedies are
obvious to the practical man, as little handling of the wool as possible, and
at as low a temperature as possible. Still it is necessary to see that the
scouring liquor penetrates to every part of the wool which is being treated.

To ensure this, care must be taken not to scour too much at one time, so that
the wool is loosely placed in the scouring tub, if placed loose in the latter,
the workmen can by means of forks work it to and fro while in process of
treatment. After the wool has been through these scouring liquors it is
thrown on a scray to drain, and is next placed in cisterns which have
perforated false bottoms. In these cisterns it is washed with cold water two
or three times, the water being run off from the wool between each
washing; it is then spread out in a room to dry. As a rule, a man can wash
from 500 lb. to 600 lb. of wool in a day by this method. Another plan which
is sometimes adopted so as to avoid handling the wool as much as possible,
and thus prevent felting, is to place the wool in cages having perforated
sides which will hold about 1 cwt. of wool. They are lowered by means of
cranes into the washing liquors, and the wool in them is then worked for a
quarter of an hour, when the cages and their contents are lifted out and the
surplus liquor allowed to drain off. They are then lowered into the next
bath, treated or worked in this, again lifted out and dropped into the wash
waters.

There is by this plan a saving of handling, and more wool can be got
through in the same time, but it requires two men to work it. These hand
processes are only in use in small works, having been replaced in all large
works by mechanical methods described below.

Machine Scouring.--Wool-scouring machinery has been brought to a high
state of perfection by the successive efforts of many inventors, and by their
means wool washing has been much simplified and improved. Wool-
washing machinery is made by several firms, among whom may be
mentioned Messrs. J. & W. McNaught, and John Petrie, Junior, Limited,
both of Rochdale.

Fig. 6 shows one form of wool-washing machine. It consists of a long
trough which contains the scouring liquor. In this machine the wool enters
at the left-hand end, and is seized by a fork or rake and carried forward by it
a short distance, then another rake seizes it and carries it further forward to
another rake, and this to the last rake of the machine, which draws it out of
the machine to a pair of squeezing rollers which press out the surplus liquor,
and from these rollers the scoured wool passes to a travelling band for
delivery from the machine. Sometimes the wool is not entered into the
trough direct, but is put on a travelling apron which opens it and delivers it
in a more open form into the trough. The movement of the forks causes
some degree of agitation in the scouring liquor which facilitates the
penetration of the liquor through the wool, and thus brings about a better
scouring.

After the wool has passed through the machine it is taken and run once
more through the machine. Some scourers use the same liquor, but it is
better to use fresh liquors, after which it is washed in the same machine
with water two or three times. With a single machine there is some time and
labour lost in transferring the wool from one end to the other between the
separate treatments, and in large works where a great deal of wool is
scoured it is usual to place three or four of these machines end to end.

The first is filled with strong scouring liquor, the second with a weaker
liquor, while the third and fourth contains wash waters, and the wool is
gradually passed by the action of the machine through the series without
requiring any manual aid. Between each machine it is passed through
squeezing rollers as before, and finally emerges thoroughly scoured. A good

plan of working in connection with such a series of machines is to have four
as above, two washing machines and two soaping machines, the soap liquor
is run through these in a continuous stream, entering in at the delivery end
of the second soaper and passing out at the entering end of the first soaper.
The wool as it first enters the machine comes into contact with rather dirty
soap liquor, but this suffices to rid it of a good deal of loose dirt; as it passes
along the machine it comes in contact with cleaner and fresher soap liquor,
which gradually takes all grease and dirt out of it, and, finally, when it
passes out it comes in contact with fresh liquor, which removes out the last
traces of dirt and grease. In the same way it passes through the washers,
being treated at the last with clean water. By this plan the scouring is better
done, while there is some saving of soap liquor and wash water, for of these
rather less is required than by the usual system. These are matters of
consideration for wool scourers. The wool-washing liquors after using
should be stored in tanks to be treated for recovery of the grease which they
contain.

The temperature of the scouring liquors should be about 100° F., certainly
not more than 120° F., high temperatures are very liable to bring about
felting, while tending to increase the harshness of the wool, particularly
when soda is the agent used. By this method all the wool fat, suint, etc., of
the wool find their way into the soap liquors. These were formerly thrown
away, but they are generally treated with acid and the fat of the soap and
wool recovered, under the name of wool grease or Yorkshire grease. (Vide
G. H. Hurst, "Yorkshire Grease," Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., February, 1889.)

The wool fat consists largely of a peculiar fat-like body known as
cholesterine. This, however, is unsaponifiable, and cannot be made into
soap; at the same time when it gets into, as it does, the recovered wool
grease it spoils the latter for soap-making purposes.

Cholesterine has some properties which make it valuable for other
purposes; it is a stable body not prone to decomposition, it is capable of
absorbing a large quantity of water, and it is on these accounts useful for
medicinal purposes in the production of ointments, and it might be useful in
candle-making. When it gets into recovered grease it cannot be extracted
from it in an economical manner. The wool suint consists largely of the

potash soaps of oleic and stearic acids. These two fatty acids find their way
into the recovered wool grease but the potash salts are lost, while they
would be valuable for various purposes if they could be recovered.

Another form of wool-washing machine has a frame carrying a number of
forks arranged transversely to the machine. The forks are by suitable
gearing given a motion which consists of the following cycle of
movements. The forks are driven forwards in the trough of the machine,
carrying the wool along with them, they are then lifted out, carried back,
and again allowed to drop into the machine, when they are ready to go
forward again. Thus the forks continually push the wool from one end of
the machine to the other.

It is a common plan to have three machines placed end to end, so that the
wool passes from one to the other; in a set of this kind the first machine
should have a capacity of 1,500 gallons or thereabouts, the second 1,000
gallons, and the third 750 gallons.

Wool Scouring by Solvents.--Of late years processes have been invented
for the scouring of wool, either raw or spun by means of solvents, like
carbon bisulphide, benzol, petroleum spirit, etc. Such processes are in a
sense rather more scientific than the alkali processes, for whereas in the
latter the grease, etc., of the wool and the oil used in batching it are
practically lost for further use, and therefore wasted, being thrown away
very often, although they may be partially recovered from the used scouring
liquors, in the solvent processes the grease and oil may be recovered for
future use for some purpose or other.

The great objection to these processes is the danger that attends their use,
owing to the inflammable character of the solvents. Several other objections
may be raised, some of which are mechanical, and due to the want of proper
machinery for carrying out the processes. There are many ways in which
solvents may be applied, some are the subject of patents. It is not possible
to describe the details of all these, but two of the most recent will be
mentioned.

In Singer's process, which was described in detail by Mr. Watson Smith
some time ago before the Society of Dyers and Colourists, carbon

bisulphide is used. The raw wool is placed between two endless bands of
wire, and it is carried through a series of troughs containing bisulphide of
carbon; during its passage through the troughs the solvent takes out the
grease, and loosens the other constituents of the wool. After going through
the bisulphide the wool is dried and passed through water which completes
the process. The carbon bisulphide that has been used is placed in steam-
heated stills, distilled off from the grease, condensed in suitable condensers,
and used over again. In this process, with care, there is very little loss of
solvent. The grease which is recovered can be used for various purposes,
one of which is the manufacture of ointments, pomades, etc. The
disadvantages of bisulphide are: (1) It tends after some time to cause the
wool to acquire a yellow cast, due to the free sulphur which it contains, and
which being left in the wool gradually causes it to turn yellow. By using
redistilled bisulphide this defect may be avoided. (2) Another defect is the
evil odour of the solvent. This, however, is less with redistilled bisulphide
than with the ordinary quality, and with suitable apparatus is not
insuperable. (3) Another defect is the volatility and inflammability of
carbon bisulphide. On the other hand, bisulphide possesses the very great
advantage of being at once heavier than, and insoluble in, water, and it can
be, therefore, stored under water very much more safely than can any of the
other solvents which are used.

Burnell's machine has two troughs filled with benzoline. In these are
arranged a large central roller round which are some smaller rollers. The
wool passes round the large roller and is subjected to a number of
squeezings in passing the smaller rollers. A current of the benzoline is
continually passing through the machine. The whole is enclosed in a hood
to avoid loss of solvent as far as possible. After passing through the
benzoline trough the wool passes through a similar trough filled with water.
Benzoline is better than carbon bisulphide in that there is no tendency on
the part of the wool to turn yellow after its use, on the other hand it is more
inflammable, and when it does take fire is more dangerous, and being
lighter than water is not so readily and safely stored. Another feature is that
it is not so completely volatile at steam temperatures, so that a little may be
left in the grease and thus tend to deteriorate it. Coal-tar benzol, the quality
known as 90's, would be better to use.

The solvent processes are well worth the attention of wool scourers, all that
is required for their proper development being the production and use of
suitable machinery.

After the raw wool has been scoured it is batched, i.e., it is mixed with a
quantity of oil for the purpose of lubricating the wool to enable it more
easily to stand the friction to which it is subjected in the subsequent
processes of spinning and weaving by giving it greater pliability.

For this purpose various kinds of oil are used. Olive oil is the principal
favourite, the variety mostly used being Gallipoli oil. Ground-nut oil is also
extensively employed, and is cheaper than olive. Oleic acid a by-product of
the candle industry, is extensively used under the name of cloth oil, there is
also used oleine, or wool oil, obtained by the distillation of Yorkshire
grease.

So far as merely oiling the wool is concerned there is not much to choose
between these different oils, olive perhaps works the best and agrees best
with the wool. Mineral oils have been and can be used either alone or mixed
with the oils above mentioned, and so far as lubricating the wool is
concerned do very well and are much cheaper than the fatty oils named
above.

The following are some analyses of various oils used as cloth oils which the
author has had occasion to analyse.

1. 2. 3. 4.
Specific gravity at 60° F. 0·9031 0·9091 0·6909 0·8904
Free fatty acid 55·02 64·42 51·52 68·05
Unsaponifiable oil 34·56 9·95 32·80 9·52
Saponifiable oil 10·32 25·32 15·68 12·43
------ ------ ------ ------
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

Nos. 1 and 2 are prepared from Yorkshire grease. The unsaponifiable matter
in these is purely natural, it will be seen it varies within wide limits. Nos. 3
and 4 are made from the oleic acid of the candle factories, and the

unsaponifiable matter is due to their containing mineral oil which has been
added to them.

So far as regards the object for which the wool is oiled, the mineral oils will
answer almost as well as the fatty oils and with most satisfactory results
from an economical point of view, for they are much cheaper. But this is not
the only point to be considered. The oil has to be got out of the wool before
the latter can be dyed. Now while the fatty oils can be easily removed, by
treatment with soap, and they can be recovered along with the fat of the
soap, mineral oils cannot be entirely removed from the wool, what remains
in will interfere very much with the satisfactory dyeing of the wool, and
what is got out finding its way into the covered wool grease, spoils this for
soap making and other uses, so that on the whole what is gained in lessened
cost of oiling is lost by the increased liability to defects in dyeing and
consequently depreciation in value of the wool, and to decrease in value of
the recovered grease.

The amount of oil used varies from 7 per cent. with the best wools to 15 per
cent. with shoddy wools. The scouring agents generally used are the same
as those used in loose wool scouring, namely, carbonate of soda for coarse
woollen yarns, soap and soda for medium yarns, and soap and ammonia for
fine yarns. Prior to treating the yarns it is best to allow them to steep in hot
water at about 170° F. for twenty minutes, then to allow them to cool. The
actual scouring is often done in large wooden tubs, across which rods can
be put on which to hang the hanks of yarn, and in which are placed steam
pipes for heating up the bath. The best temperature to treat the yarn at is
about 150° F.; too high a temperature must be avoided, as with increased
heat the tendency to felt is materially augmented, and felting must be
avoided. The hanks are treated for about twenty minutes in the liquor, and
are then wrung out, drained, and again treated in new scouring liquor for the
same length of time. After rinsing in cold water they are dried and finished.

When the oiled wool has been spun into yarns, whether worsted or woollen,
and passes into the hands of the dyer, it is necessary to remove from it all
the oil before any dyeing operations can be satisfactorily carried out. This
oil is removed by the use of soap and weak alkaline liquors, using these at
about 110° to 120° F. The most common way is to have the liquor in a

rectangular wooden tank, and hang the hank of yarn in by sticks resting on
the edges of the tank; from time to time the hanks are turned over until all
the oil has been washed out, then they are wrung out and passed into a tank
of clean water to wash out the soap, after which the yarn is ready for
dyeing.

When the yarn is of such a character that it is liable to curl up, shrink and
become entangled, it is necessary that it be stretched while it is being
treated with the soap liquor; this is effected by a stretching apparatus
consisting of two sets of rollers connected together by a screw attachment,
so that the distance between the two sets of rollers can be varied. The hanks
are hung between each pair of rollers, and can be stretched tightly as may
be required.

For pressing out the surplus liquor from the hanks of yarn a pair of
squeezing rollers is used.

Scouring Woollen Piece Goods.--Very often before weaving the yarns are
not scoured to remove the oil they contain, as the weaving is more
conveniently done with oily yarn than with a scoured yarn. Before dyeing
the oil must be taken out of the pieces, and this can be conveniently done by
scouring in a washing machine such as is shown in figures 7 and 8, using
soap and soda liquors as before, and following up with a good rinse with
water.

The soap liquors used in scouring yarns and pieces become charged with
oil, and they should be kept, and the oil recovered from them together with
the fatty matter of the soap, by treatment with sulphuric acid. By subjecting
the grease or fatty matter so obtained to a boil with caustic soda soap is
obtained which may be again used in scouring wool.

Bleaching Wool.--The wool fibre has to be treated very differently from
cotton fibre. It will not stand the action of as powerful bleaching agents,
and, consequently, weaker ones must be used. This is a decided
disadvantage, for whereas with cotton the colouring matter is effectually
destroyed, so that the bleached cotton never regains its original colour, the
same is not the case with wool, especially with sulphur-bleached wool, here

the colouring matter of the fibre is, as it were, only hidden, and will under
certain circumstances return. The two materials chiefly used for bleaching
wool are sulphur and peroxide of hydrogen.

Sulphur Bleaching.--Bleaching wool by sulphur is a comparatively simple
process. A sulphur house is built, the usual size being 12 feet high by 12
feet broad, and about 17 feet long. Brick is the most suitable material. The
house should have well-fitting windows on two sides, and good tight doors
at the ends (see fig. 9). Some houses have a small furnace at each corner for
burning the sulphur, two of these furnaces are fitted with hoods, so that the

sulphur gases can be conveyed to the upper part of the chamber, but a better
plan, and one mostly adopted where the chamber is used for bleaching
pieces, is to construct a false perforated bottom above the real bottom of the
chamber, the sulphur being burnt in the space between the two floors. If
yarn is being bleached the hanks are hung on wooden rods or poles in the
chamber, while with pieces an arrangement is constructed so that the pieces
which are stitched together are passed in a continuous manner through the
chamber.

When all is ready the chamber doors are closed, and the furnaces are
heated, some sulphur thrown upon them, which burning evolves sulphur
dioxide gas, sulphurous acid, and this acting upon the wool bleaches it. The
great thing is to cause a thorough circulation of the gas through every part
of the chamber, so that the yarn or pieces are entirely exposed in every part
to the bleaching action of the gas. This is effected by causing the gas to pass
into the chamber at several points, and, seeing that it passes upwards, to the
ventilator in the roof of the chamber. Generally speaking, a certain quantity
of sulphur depending upon the quantity of goods being treated is placed in
the chamber and allowed to burn itself out; the quantity used being about 6
to 8 per cent. of the weight of the goods. After the sulphuring the goods are
simply rinsed in water and dried.

Sulphur bleaching is not an effective process, the colouring matter is not
actually destroyed, having only entered into a chemical combination with
the sulphur dioxide to form a colourless compound, and it only requires that
the wool be treated with some material which will destroy this combination
to bring the colour back again in all its original strength; washing in weak
alkalies or in soap and water will do this. Another defect of the process lies
in sulphur being volatilised in the free form, and settling upon the wool
causes it to turn yellow, and this yellow colour cannot be got rid of.

The goods must be thoroughly rinsed with water after the bleaching, the
object being to rid the wool of traces of sulphuric acid, which it often
contains, and which if left in would in time cause the disintegration of the
wool.

Sometimes the wool is washed in a little weak ammonia or soda liquor, but
this is not advisable, as there is too much tendency for the colour of the

wool to come back again, owing to the neutralising of the sulphur dioxide
by the alkali.

Instead of using the gas, the sulphur dioxide may be applied in the form of a
solution in water. The goods are then simply steeped for some hours in a
solution of the gas in water until they are bleached, then they are rinsed in
water and dried. In this method it is important that the solution of the gas be
freshly made, otherwise it is liable to contain but little sulphurous acid, and
plenty of sulphuric acid which has no bleaching properties, but, on the other
hand, is liable to lead to damage of the goods if it be not washed out
afterwards.

A better method of utilising the bleaching action of sulphur in a liquid form
is to prepare a bath of bisulphite of soda, and acidify it with hydrochloric
acid, then to enter the wool, stirring well for some time, and allowing it to
steep for some hours, next to expose to the air for a while, and rinse as
before.

It is better to allow the wool to steep for about an hour in a simple bath of
bisulphite, then enter into a weak hydrochloric acid bath for a few hours.
The acid liberates sulphur dioxide in a nascent condition, which then exerts
a more powerful bleaching action than if it were already free.

Even with liquid bleaching the bleach is not any more perfect than it is with
the gas bleaching; the colour is liable to come back again on being washed
with soap or alkali, although there is a freedom from the defect of yellow
stains being produced.

Goods properly bleached will stand exposure to air for some considerable
time, but those imperfectly bleached exhibit a tendency to regain their
yellow colour on exposure to air. One fault which is sometimes met with in
sulphur bleaching is a want of softness in the wool, the process seeming to
render the fibre harsh.

Washing in a little weak soft soap or in weak soda will remedy this and
restore the suppleness of the wool; at the same time care must be taken that
the alkaline treatment is not too strong, or otherwise the bleaching effect of
the sulphur will be neutralised as pointed out above.

Bleaching Wool by Peroxide of Hydrogen.--During recent years there has
come into use for bleaching the animal fibres peroxide of hydrogen, or, as
the French call it, oxygenated water. This body is a near relation to water,
being composed of the same two elements, oxygen and hydrogen; in
different proportions in water these elements are combined in the proportion
of 1 part of hydrogen to 8 parts of oxygen, while in the peroxide the
proportions are 1 of hydrogen to 16 of oxygen. These proportions are by
weight, and are expressed by the chemical formulæ for water H2O, and for
hydrogen peroxide H2O2. Water, as is well known, is a very stable body,
and although it can be decomposed, yet it requires some considerable power
to effect it. Now the extra quantity of oxygen which may be considered to
have been introduced into water to convert it into peroxide has also
introduced an element of instability, the extra quantity of oxygen being ever
ready to combine with some other body for which it has a greater affinity
than for the water. This property can be utilised in the bleaching industry
with great advantage, true bleaching being essentially a process of
oxidation. The colouring matter of the fibre, which has to be destroyed so
that the fibre shall appear white, is best destroyed by oxidation, but the
process must not be carried out too strongly, otherwise the oxidation will
not be confined to the colouring matter, but will extend to the fibre itself
and disintegrate it, with the result that the fibre will become tendered and be
rendered useless.

Peroxide of hydrogen is a weak oxidiser, and therefore, although strong
enough to destroy the colouring matter of the fibre is not strong enough to
decompose the fibre itself. Hydrogen peroxide is sold as a water-white
liquid, without any odour or taste. Its strength is measured by the quantity
of oxygen which is evolved when one volume of the liquid is treated with
potassium permanganate; the most common strength is 10 volume peroxide,
but 30 and 40 volume peroxide is made. On keeping it loses its oxygen, so
that it is always advisable to use a supply up as quickly as possible.

Articles of all kinds can be bleached by simply placing them in a weak
solution of the peroxide, leaving them there for a short time, then taking out
and exposing to the air for some time. The best plan of applying peroxide of
hydrogen is the following: Prepare the bleaching bath by mixing 1 part of
peroxide with 4 parts of water. The strength can be varied; for those goods

that only require a very slight bleach the proportions may be 1 to 12, while
for dark goods the proportions first given may be used. This bath must be
used in either a wooden or earthenware vessel. Metals of all kinds must be
avoided, as they lead to a decomposition of the peroxide, and therefore a
loss of material. To the bath so prepared just enough ammonia should be
added to make it alkaline, a condition that may be ascertained by using a
red litmus paper, which must just turn blue. Into the bath so prepared the
well-scoured goods are entered and worked well, so that they become
thoroughly saturated. They are then lightly wrung and exposed to the air for
some hours, but must not be allowed to get dry, because only so long as
they are moist is the bleaching going on; if they get dry the goods should be
re-entered into the bath and again exposed to the air.

If one treatment is not sufficient the process should be repeated. The
peroxide bath is not exhausted, and only requires new material to be added
to it in sufficient quantity to enable the goods to be readily and easily
worked in the liquor. Any degree of whiteness may be obtained with a
sufficient number of workings. No further treatment is necessary. It is found
in practice that an alkaline bath gives the best results.

Another plan of preparing the bleaching bath is to prepare a bath with
peroxide and water as before, then add to a sufficient quantity of a solution
of silicate of soda 4 parts of water to 1 of silicate of soda at 100° Tw., to
make the bath alkaline. Into this bath the goods are entered and are then
exposed to the air as before, after which they may be passed through a weak
bath of sulphurous acid, being next well washed in water and dried.

The advantage of bleaching with peroxide is that, as it leaves only water in
the goods as the result of action, there is no danger of their becoming
tendered by an after development of acid due to defective washing, as is the
case with the sulphur bleach. The goods never alter in colour afterwards,
because there is nothing left in that will change colour. Some bleachers add
a little magnesia to the bath, but this is not at all necessary.

Bleaching with Peroxide of Soda.--Peroxide of soda has come to the front
of late for bleaching wool. With it a stronger bleaching bath can be made,
while the product itself is more stable than peroxide of hydrogen, only it is
needful to keep it in tightly closed metal vessels, free from any possibility

of coming in contact with water or organic matter of any kind, or accidents
may happen. In order to bleach 100 lb. of wool, a bath of water is prepared,
and to this is added 6 lb. of sulphuric acid and then slowly 4 lb. of peroxide
of sodium in small quantities at a time. Make the bath slightly alkaline by
adding ammonia. Heat the bath to 150° F., enter the wool and allow to
remain five to six hours, then rinse well and dry. If the colour does not
come out sufficiently white repeat the process.

The Chlorination of Wool.

The employment of chlorine in wool dyeing and wool printing has of late
years received an impetus in directions previously little thought of. The
addition of a little chlorine to the decoction of logwood has been
recommended as increasing the dyeing power of the wool. Treating the
wool with chlorine has a material influence in increasing its capacity for
taking dye-stuffs, and although but little attention has been paid to this
circumstance by wool dyers, yet among wool printers it has come largely
into use, and enables them to produce fuller and faster shades than would
otherwise be possible.

The method involves the treatment of the wool first with an acid, then with
a solution of a hypochlorite. The staple becomes soft and supple and
assumes a silky character; in dyeing it shows a greater affinity for the dyes
than it did previously. Although not deteriorated in strength, it almost
entirely loses its felting properties. On account of this feature the process
cannot be adopted for wool which has to be fulled, but it is of service where
felting of the goods is to be avoided, for worsteds, underwear, woollen and
half woollen hosiery, etc., in which the felting property that occurs on
washing is rather objectionable.

By the chloring of the wool the intensity of the shade dyed is increased to
such a degree that when dyeing with Acid black, Naphthol black, Naphthol
green, Nigrosine, Fast blue, Water blue, and some others dyed in an acid
bath, but little more than half the dye used on unchlored wool is required,
while with Induline, more even and intense shades are obtained than is
otherwise possible.

The operation of chlorination can be done either in one or two baths. The
choice depends upon circumstances and the judgment of the dyer. The
process by the two-bath method, with subsequent dyeing in the second or
separate bath is (for 100 lb. of wool), as follows. The first bath contains, for
light cloths, yarn, etc., from 3 to 4 lb. sulphuric acid, 168° Tw., and for
heavier cloths and felt, where the penetration and equalisation of the colour
is difficult, from 8 lb. to 10 lb. of acid. Generally speaking, a temperature of
170° to 175° F. is sufficient, although for heavy wool and for wool with
poor dyeing qualities it is well to use the bath at the boil. The treatment lasts
for half an hour, in which time the acid is almost completely absorbed.

The second bath contains a clear solution of 10 lb. bleaching powder, which
solution is prepared as follows. Dry bleaching powder of the best quality is
stirred in a wooden vat with 70 gallons of water, the mass is allowed to
stand, the clear, supernatant liquor is run into the vat and the sediment
stirred up and again allowed to settle, the clear liquor being run off as
before, and 5 gallons more water is run in. The clear liquors of these three
treatments are then mixed together to form the chloring bath. Special care
should be taken that no undissolved particles of the bleaching powder
should be left in, for if these settle on the wool they result in too great a
development of chlorine, which injures the wool.

The goods after being in the acid bath are entered in this chlorine bath at a
temperature of 70° F., which is then raised to the boil. If the acid bath has
been strong, or been used at the boil, it is perhaps best to rinse the goods
before entering into the chlorine bath. The hypochlorous acid disappears so
completely from this bath that it may at once be used as the dye-bath, for
which purpose it is only necessary to lift the goods, add the required
amount of dye-stuff, re-enter the goods and work until the bath is
exhausted, which generally happens when acid dyes are used. If a separate
dye-bath be preferred, this is made and used as is ordinarily done.

To perform all the operations in one bath the acid bath is made with from 3
to 4 lb. sulphuric acid, and the wool is treated therein for thirty minutes at
170° F., until all the acid has been absorbed. Then the bath is allowed to
cool down to 70° or 80° F., the clear bleaching powder solution is added,

the goods are re-entered, and the bath is heated to the boil. When all the
chlorine has disappeared add the dye-stuff, and dye as directed above.

In printing on wool the chlorination of the wool is a most important
preliminary operation. For this purpose the cloth is passed for fifteen
minutes at 170° F. through a bath containing 3/4 oz. sulphuric acid per
gallon of water. Then it is passed through a cold bath of 3/4 oz. bleaching
powder per gallon of water, after which the cloth is rinsed and dried and is
then ready for printing.

Another method of chloring the wool is to pass the goods through a bath
made with 100 gallons of water, 2 gallons hydrochloric acid and 2 gallons
bleaching powder solution of 16° Tw. As some chlorine is given off it is
best to use this in a well-ventilated place.

CHAPTER III.

DYEING MACHINERY AND DYEING MANIPULATIONS.

Wool is dyed in a variety of forms, raw, loose wool; partly manufactured
fibre in the form of slubbing or sliver; spun fibres or yarns, in hanks or
skeins and in warps, and lastly in the form of woven pieces. These different
forms necessitate the employment of different forms of machinery and
different modes of handling, it is evident to the least unobservant that it
would be quite impossible to subject slubbing or sliver to the same
treatment as yarn or cloth, otherwise the slubbing would be destroyed and
rendered valueless.

In the early days all dyeing was done by hand in the simplest possible
contrivances, but during the last quarter of a century there has been a great
development in the quantity of dyeing that has been done, and this has
really necessitated the application of machinery, for hand work could not
possibly cope with the amount of dyeing now done. Consequently there has
been devised during the past two decades a great variety of machines for
dyeing every description of textile fabrics, some have not been found a
practical success for a variety of reasons and have gone out of use, others
have been successful and are in use in dye-works.

Hand Dyeing.--Dyeing by hand is carried on in the simplest possible
appliances, much depends upon whether the work can be done at the
ordinary temperature or at the boil. Figure 10 shows round and oval tubs
and a rectangular vat much in use in dye-houses. These are made of wood,
but copper dye-vats are also made, these may be used for all kinds of
material--loose fibre, yarns or cloth. In the case of loose fibre this is stirred
about either with poles or with rakes, care being taken to turn every part
over and over and open out the masses of fibre as much as possible in order

to avoid matting or clotting together. In the case of yarns or skeins, these
are hung on sticks resting on the edges of the tub or vat. These sticks are
best made of hickory, but ash or beech or any hard wood that can be worked
smooth and which does not swell much when treated with water may be
used. The usual method of working is to hang the skein on the stick,
spreading it out as much as possible, then immerse the yarn in the liquor,
lift it up and down two or three times to fully wet out the yarn, then turn the
yarn over on the stick and repeat the dipping processes, then allow to steep
in the dye-liquor. This is done with all the batch of yarn that is to be dyed at
a time. When all the yarn has been entered into the dye-bath, the first
stickful is lifted out, the yarn turned over and re-entered in the dye-liquor;
this operation is carried out with all the sticks of yarn until the wool has
become dyed of the required depth. In the case of long rectangular vats it is
customary for two men, one on each side of the vat, to turn the yarns, each
man taking charge of the yarn which is nearest to him.

Woven goods may be dyed in the tub or vat, the pieces being drawn in and
out by poles, but the results are not altogether satisfactory, and it is
preferable to use machines for dyeing piece goods.

Plain tubs or vats, such as those shown in figure 10, are used for dyeing and
otherwise treating goods in the cold, or at a lukewarm heat, when the supply
of hot water can be drawn from a separate boiler. When, however, it is
necessary to work at the boil, then the vat must be fitted with a steam coil.
This is best laid along the bottom in a serpentine form. Above the pipe
should be an open lattice-work bottom, which, while it permits the free
circulation of boiling water in the vat, prevents the material being dyed
from coming in contact with the steam pipe. This is important if uniform
shades are to be dyed, for any excessive heating of any portion of the bath
leads to stains being produced on the material in that part of the bath. Figure
11 shows a vat fitted with a steam pipe. That portion of the steam pipe
which passes down at the end of the vat is in a small compartment boxed
off from the main body of the vat, so that no part of the material which is
being dyed can come in contact with it. A closed steam coil will, on the
whole, give the best results, as then no weakening of the dye-liquor can take

place through dilution by the condensation of the steam. Many dye-vats are,
however, fitted with perforated, or as they are called, open steam coils, in
which case there is, perhaps, better circulation of the liquor in the dye-vat,
but as some of the steam must condense there is a little dilution of it.

Dyeing Machines.

Dye-tubs and vats, such as those described above, have been largely
superseded by machines in which the handling or working of the materials
being dyed is effected by mechanical means. There have been a large
number of dyeing machines invented, some of these have not been found to
be very practical, and so they have gone out of use. Space will not admit of
a detailed account of every kind of machine, but only of those which are in
constant use in dye-works.

Dyeing Loose or Raw Wool and Cotton.--Few machines have been
designed for this purpose, and about the only successful one is

Delahunty's Dyeing Machine.--This is illustrated in figure 12. It consists of
a drum made of lattice work which can revolve inside an outer wooden
casing. The interior of the revolving drum is fitted with hooks or fingers,
whose action is to keep the material open. One segment of the drum is made
to open so that the loose cotton or wool to be dyed can be inserted. By
suitable gearing the drum can be revolved, and the dye-liquor, which is in
the lower half of the wooden casing, penetrates through the lattice work of
the drum, and dyes the material contained in it. The construction of the
machine is well shown in the drawing, while the mode of working is
obvious from it and the description just given. The machine is very
successful, and well adapted for dyeing loose or raw wool and cotton. The
material may be scoured, bleached, dyed or otherwise treated in this
machine.

The Obermaier Machine, presently to be described, may also be used for
dyeing loose cotton or wool.

Dyeing Slubbing, Sliver or Carded Wool.--It is found in practice that the
dyeing of loose wool is not altogether satisfactory, the impurities they
naturally contain interfere with the purity of the shade they will take. Then
again the dyes and mordants used in dyeing them are found to have some
action on the wire of the carding engine through which they are passed; at
any rate, a card does not last as long when working dyed wools as when
used on undyed cotton or wool fibres. Yet for the production of certain
fancy yarns for weaving some special classes of fabrics it is desirable to dye
the wool before it is spun into thread. The best plan is undoubtedly to dye
the fibre after it has been carded and partly spun into what is known as
slubbing, or sliver. All the impurities have been removed, the wool fibres
are laid straight, and so it becomes much easier to dye. On the other hand,
as it is necessary to keep the sliver or slubbing straight and level, no
working about in the dye-liquors can be allowed to take place, and so such

must be dyed in specially constructed machines, and one of the best of these
is the

Obermaier Dyeing Machine, which is illustrated in figure 13.--In the
Obermaier apparatus dye-vat, A, is placed a cage consisting of an inner
perforated metal cylinder, C, and an outer perforated metal cylinder, D;
between these two is placed the material to be dyed. C is in contact with the
suction end of a centrifugal pump, P, the delivery end of which discharges
into the dye-vat A. The working of the machine is as follows: the slubbing
or sliver is placed in the space between C and D rather tightly, so that it will
not move about. Then the inner cage is placed in the dye-vat as shown. The
vat is filled with the dye-liquor, which can be heated up by a steam pipe.
The pump is set in motion, the dye-liquor is drawn from A to C, and in so
doing passes through the material packed in B and dyes it. The circulation
of the liquor is carried on as long as experience shows to be necessary. The
dye-liquor is run off, hot water is run in to wash the dyed material, and the
pump is kept running for some time to ensure thorough rinsing, then the
water is run off, and by keeping the pump running and air going through a
certain amount of drying can be effected. This machine works very well,
and with a little experience constant results can be obtained. The slubbing
or sliver may be scoured, bleached, rinsed, dyed, washed, soaped, or
otherwise treated without removing it from the machine, which is a most
decided advantage.

Yarn Dyeing Machines.--In figure 14 is given an illustration of a machine
for dyeing yarn in the hank form, made by Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons,
of Huddersfield. The illustration gives a very good idea of the machine. It
consists of a wooden dye-vat, which can be heated by steam pipes in the
usual way. Extending over the vat are a number of reels or bobbins, these
are best made of wood or enamelled iron. These reels are in connection with
suitable gearing, so that they can be revolved. There is also an arrangement
by means of which the reels can be lifted bodily in and out of the dye-vat
for the purpose of taking on and off the hanks of yarn. A reel will hold
about 2 lb. of yarn. The working of the machine is simple. The vat is filled
with the requisite dye-liquor. The reels which are lifted out of the vat are
then charged with the yarn, which has been previously wetted out. They are
then set in revolution and dropped into the dye-vat, and kept there until it is
seen that the yarn has acquired the desired shade. The reels are lifted out
and the hanks removed when the machine is ready for another lot of yarn.

There are several makers of hank-dyeing machines of this type, and as a
rule they work very well. The only source of trouble is a slight tendency for
the yarn on one reel if hung loosely of becoming entangled with the yarn on
other reels. This is to some extent obviated by hanging in the bottom of the
hank a roller, which acts as a weight and keeps the yarn stretched and so
prevents it flying about.

To some makes of these machines a hank wringer is attached.

Klauder-Weldon Hank-dyeing Machine.--This is illustrated in figure 15,
which shows the latest form. It consists of a half-cylindrical dye-vat built of
wood. On a central axis is built two discs or rod carriers, which can revolve
in the dye-vat, the revolution being given by suitable gearing which is
shown at the side of the machine. On the outer edge of the discs are clips
for carrying rods on which one end of the hanks of yarn is hung, while the

other end is placed on a similar rod carrier near the axle. The revolution of
the discs carries the yarn through the dye-liquor contained in the lower
semi-cylindrical part of the machine previously alluded to. At a certain
point in every revolution of the discs the rods carrying the yarns are turned
a little; this causes the yarn to move on the rods, and this motion helps to
bring about greater evenness of dyeing. The most modern form of this
machine is provided with an arrangement by means of which the whole
batch of yarn can be lifted out of the dye-liquor. Arrangements are made by
which from time to time fresh quantities of dyes can be added if required to
bring up the dyed yarn to any desired shade. This machine works well and
gives good results. Beyond the necessary labour in charging and
discharging, and a little attention from time to time as the operation
proceeds, to see if the dyeing is coming up to shade, the machine requires
little attention.

Many other forms of hank-dyeing machine have been devised. There is
Corron's, in which an ordinary rectangular dye-vat is used. Round this is a
framework which carries a lifting and falling arrangement that travels to
and fro along the vat. The hanks of yarn are hung on rods of a special
construction designed to open them out in a manner as nearly approaching
hand work as is possible. The machine works in this way. The lifting
arrangement is at one end of the vat, the hanks are hung on the rods and
placed in the vat. Then the lifter is set in motion and moves along the vat; as
it does so it lifts up each rod full of yarn, turns it over, opening out the yarn
in so doing, then it drops it again in the vat. When it has travelled to the end
of the vat it returns, packing up the rods of yarn in so doing, and this motion
is kept up until the dyeing is completed. This machine is very ingenious.

A type of machine which has been made by several makers consists of an
ordinary rectangular dye-vat surrounded with a framework carrying a
number of sets of endless chains, the links of which carry fingers. The
hanks of yarn are hung on rods at one end of which is a tooth wheel that
when in position fits into a rack on the side of the vat. The action of the
machine is this, the hanks are hung on the rods and placed at the entrance
end of the vat, by the moving of the chains it is carried along the vat and at
the same time revolves, thus turning over the yarn, which hangs in the dye-
liquor; when it reaches the opposite end of the vat, the rod full of yarn is

lifted out, carried upwards and then towards the other end of the vat when it
is again dropped into the dye-vat to go through the same cycle of
movements which is continued until the yarn is properly dyed.

Piece Dyeing Machines.--Wherever it is possible it is far more preferable
to dye textile fabrics in the form of woven pieces rather than in the yarn
from which they are woven. During the process of weaving it is quite
impossible to avoid the material getting dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
operations of scouring necessary to remove this dirt and grease has an
impairing action on the colour if dyed yarns have been used in weaving it.
This is avoided when the pieces are woven first and dyed afterwards, and
this can always be done when the cloths are dyed in one colour only. Of
course when the goods are fancy goods containing several colours they
have to be woven from dyed yarns.

The most common form of machine in which pieces are dyed is the jigger,
commonly called the jig, this is shown in figure 16. It consists of a dye-
vessel made long, sufficiently so to take the piece full width, wide at the
top, narrow at the bottom. At the top on each side is placed a large winding
roller on which the cloth is wound. At the bottom of the jig is placed a guide
roller round which passes the cloth. In some makes of jigs there are two
guide rollers at the bottom and one at the top as shown in the illustration, so
that the cloth passes several times through the dye-liquor. In working the
cloth is first wound on one of the rollers then threaded through the guide
rollers and attached to the other winding roller. When this is done dye-
liquor is run into the jig, and the gearing set in motion, and the cloth wound
from the full on to the empty roller. With the object of keeping the piece
tight a heavy press roller is arranged to bear on the cloth on the full roller.
When all the cloth has passed from one roller to the other it is said to have
been given "one end". The direction of motion is now changed and the cloth
sent in the opposite direction through the jig and the piece has now received
another "end". This alternation from one roller to the other is continued as
long as is deemed necessary, much depending on the depth of colour which
is being dyed, some pale shades may only take two or three ends, deeper
shades may take more. When dyeing wool with acid colours which are all
absorbed from the dye-liquor, or the bath is exhausted, it is a good plan to

run the pieces several ends so as to ensure thorough fixation of the dye on
the cloth.

It is not advisable in working these jigs to add the whole of the dye to the
liquor at the commencement, but only a part of it, then when one end is
given another portion of the dye may be added, such portions being always
in the form of solution. Adding dyes in powder form inevitably leads to the
production of colour specks on the finished goods. The reason for thus
adding the dye-stuff in portions is that with some dyes the affinity for the
fibre is so great that if all were added at once it would be absorbed before
the cloth had been given one end, and, further, the cloth would be very deep
at the front end while it would shade off to no colour at the other end. By
adding the dye in portions this difficulty is overcome and more level shades
are obtained, but it is met with in all cases of jigger dyeing. It is most
common in dyeing wool with basic dyes like Magenta, Auramine, Methyl
Violet or Brilliant Green, and with acid dyes like Acid Green, Formyl
Violets, Azo Scarlet or Acid Yellow.

Some attempts have been made to make jiggers automatic in their reversing
action, but they have not been successful owing to the greatly varying
conditions of length of pieces, their thickness, etc., which have to be dyed,
and it is next to impossible to make all allowances for such varying
conditions.

In figure 17 is shown the jig in section, when the working of the machine
can be more easily traced.

The Jig Wince or Wince Dye Beck.--This dyeing machine is very largely
used, particularly in the dyeing of woollen cloths. It is made by many
makers, and varies somewhat in form accordingly. Figures 18 to 21 show
three forms by different makers. In any make the jig wince or wince dye
beck consists of a large rectangular, or in some cases semi-cylindrical, dye-
vat. Probably the best shape would be to have a vat with one straight side at
the front, and one curved side at the back.

In some a small guide roller is fitted at the bottom, under which the pieces
to be dyed pass. Steam pipes are provided for heating the dye-liquors. The
beck should be fitted with a false bottom, made of wood, perforated with
holes, or of wooden lattice work, and under which the steam pipes are
placed. The object being to prevent the pieces from coming in contact with
the steam pipes, and so preventing the production of stains. Above the dye-
vat and towards the back is the wince, a revolving skeleton wheel, which
draws the pieces out of the dye-vat at the front, and delivers them into it
again at the back. The construction of this wince is well shown in the
drawings. The wince will take the pieces full breadth, but often they are
somewhat folded, and so several pieces, four, five or six, can be dealt with

at one time. In this case a guide rail is provided in the front part of the
machine. In this rail are pegs which serve to keep the pieces of cloth
separate, and so prevent entanglements. The pieces are stitched end to end
so as to form an endless band. When running through the vat they fall down
in folds at the back part of the beck, and are drawn out from the bottom and
up in the front. Each part thus remains for some time in the dye-liquor,
during which it necessarily takes up the dye.

Figures 18 and 19 show forms of these wince dyeing machines, constructed
of wood, and very largely used in the dyeing of woollen cloths. They are
serviceable forms, and give very good results, being suitable for all dyes.

Figure 20 is a form of machine better adapted than the preceding for the
dyeing of plush fabrics. In this kind of cloth it is important that the pile
should not be interfered with in any way, and experience has shown that the
winces of the form shown in figures 18 and 19 are rather apt to spoil the
pile; further, of course, plush fabrics are dyed full breadth or open. In the
wince now shown all troubles are avoided, and plush fabrics can be
satisfactorily dyed in them.

Figure 21 shows a dye-bath built of iron, cased with copper, suitable for
dyeing most colours on woollen cloths.

In the jig and wince dyeing machines the pieces necessarily are for a part of
the time, longer in the case of the jigger than in that of the wince, out of the
dye-liquor and exposed to the air. In the case of some dyes, indigo
especially, this is not desirable, and yet it is advisable to run the cloth open
for some time in the liquor so as to get thoroughly impregnated with the
dye-liquor.

The so-called hawking machine, figure 22, is an illustration of Read
Holliday's hawking machine, made by Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons, of
Huddersfield. There is the dye-vat as usual; in this is suspended the drawing
mechanism, whose construction is well shown in the drawing. This is a pair
of rollers driven by suitable gearing, between which the cloth passes, and
by which it is drawn through the machine. A small roller ensures the cloth
properly leaving the large rollers, then there is a lattice-work arrangement
over the pieces are drawn. In actual work the whole of this arrangement is
below the surface of the dye-liquor in the vat. The piece to be dyed is
threaded through the machine the ends stitched together, then the
arrangement is lowered into the dye-vat and set in motion, whereby the

cloth is drawn continuously in the open form through the dye-liquor, this
being done as long as experience shows to be necessary. This hawking
machine will be found useful in dyeing indigo on wool, in mordanting and
dyeing wool with the Alizarine series of dyes.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF WOOL DYEING.

The various methods which are used in dyeing wool have, of course,
underlying them certain principles on which they are based, and on the
observance of which much of the success of the process depends.
Sometimes these principles are overlooked by dyers, with the result that
they do not get good results from their work. It must be obvious to any
person with any technical knowledge that all processes of dyeing either
wool or silk, or cotton or any other fibre, must take into consideration the
properties of the fibre on the one hand, and that of the dye-stuff on the
other. Wool must be treated differently from cotton, a process of dyeing
which gives good results with the latter fibre would lead to nothing but
disastrous effects with wool or silk; on the other hand, processes are used in
the dyeing of wool which could not be possibly used for cotton on account
of the very different properties of the fibre.

A few words as to the properties of wool as far as they relate to the methods
of dyeing may be of use. Wool has the property of resisting the action of
acids in a great degree, so that it may be treated with even strong acids with
impunity. On the other hand, alkalies and alkaline solutions have strong
action on it; the caustic alkalies rapidly dissolve wool, and their use must be
avoided in all cases of dyeing this fibre. The carbonates of the alkalies have
not so strong an action, and therefore may be used in moderation;
nevertheless, too strong solutions of these should not be used. Soap has no
disintegrating action on wool, and soap solutions may be used whenever
necessary for cleansing or dyeing wool. Ammonia has no action on wool,
and it may be used in place of soap if desired. There is one feature of wool
that must be alluded to here, and that is its felting property. When wool is

boiled with water and is handled a good deal, the fibres clot or felt together
into a firm coherent mass. This should be avoided as much as possible, and
when wool is cleansed and dyed in the loose condition it is absolutely
necessary that every care be taken to avoid felting. This condition is much
influenced by the temperature and the condition of the bath in which the
wool is being treated, too high a temperature or too prolonged a treatment
tends to increase the felting, therefore in dyeing wool prolonged treatment
at the boil must be avoided.

Further, the condition of the bath has some influence on this point; it is
found that an alkaline bath tends to considerably increase the felting
properties of the wool, and on this account dyers invariably avoid the use of
both the caustic and carbonated alkalies. Strong soap liquors have also
some influence in the direction of increasing the felting, therefore soap
should not be used if it can possibly be done without. Ammonia has not so
strong a felting action as the other alkalies. Acids, on the other hand, exert a
retarding action on the felting of the wool, and this is a matter of some
interest and importance in the dyeing of wool, as an acid condition of the
bath is necessary for dyeing by far the great majority of colouring matters
on this fibre. Alkaline salts, such as Glauber's salt and common salt, exert
little or no influence on this felting property, and can be added to dye-baths
with impunity, and in many cases with good effect, so far as the quality of
dyeing is concerned.

So far as the properties of the wool are concerned, it is seen that an acid
condition of the dye-bath will work better than an alkaline condition, and
wherever it is possible to use acids such should be added.

What has been said in regard to wool is equally true of all fibres derived
from animals in the same way as wool is, such as horse-hair, fur of rabbits,
hares and other animals, although, of course, there are some minor
differences between different furs in their resistance to the action of acids
and alkalies.

The next feature that influences the methods of dyeing wool is the varying
properties of the dye-stuffs, or colouring matters. It is obvious that those
which, like Magenta or Saffranine, have a strong affinity for the wool fibre
must be dyed differently from those which, like Alizarine and Gambine,

have no direct affinity for the wool fibre, and, further, which require the aid
of mordants before they can be dyed, and on the character of which
mordants the colour that is fixed on the fibre depends.

The dye-stuffs, independently of the question whether they be derived from
natural sources or be of artificial origin, may be roughly divided into five
groups, some of which may also be subdivided again as will be shown later
on. These groups may be named the (1) Neutral, (2) Basic, (3) Acid, (4)
Mordant, and (5) Indigo dye-stuffs. The first two classes are practically
dyed in the same way; but as there is a great difference in the chemical
composition of the colouring matters comprised in them, it will be best to
consider them separately.

First Method.--This method is used in applying the now large and
increasing group of azo dye-stuffs, which are characterised by being able to
dye unmordanted cotton from a simple boiling bath. The dye-stuffs that are
applied by the method now to be described include such as Benzopurpurine,
Chrysamine, Chrysophenine, Titan red, Titan yellow, Benzo brown,
Diamine red, Diamine brown, Diamine blue, Congo blue, Congo red, etc.
The dyeing is done in a bath at the boil. If the bath contained only the dye-
stuffs there would be a liability for the dyeing to be uneven, to prevent
which a saline compound, such as salt, is added. Taking it all round, salt is
the best body to add as it suits all colours very well indeed. Then come
Glauber's salts; borax and phosphate of soda can also be used, but, owing to
their slight alkaline properties, they are not so good as the neutral salts, like
the two first named. When these colouring matters are dyed on cotton some
of them dye best in a bath containing potash or soda, but these bodies, for
reasons previously pointed out, are not available in wool dyeing, and should
never be used. Wool dyes best in a slightly acid bath, and this may be taken
advantage of in dyeing the yellows and blues of this group by adding a
small quantity of acetic acid. The reds, as a rule, are affected by acids, and,
therefore, it is not possible to use an acid bath with Benzopurpurine, Congo
red, with the possible exception of the Titan reds and scarlets, Diamine
scarlet, Benzo fast scarlet, Purpuramine, which are faster to acetic acid than
the other reds of this class of dye-stuffs.

Probably the best plan of dyeing these colours is to first heat the bath to
about 160° F., then enter the goods, and turn over two or three times to
ensure that they are thoroughly impregnated with dye-liquor. The bath is
now raised to the boil, and, steam being turned off, the goods are handled
without further steam until the desired shade is obtained. Another plan is to
enter the goods when the bath is at about 150° F., and, after raising to the
boil, to work for half to one hour at that heat; but the plan first described
gives rather better results, and is far preferable. The dye-baths, as a rule, are
not completely exhausted, except when very pale shades are being dyed; in
no case is it necessary to throw the dye-bath away, but simply to add the
required amount of dye-stuff for a new batch; with those colouring matters
which are not entirely exhausted from the bath a smaller amount, generally
about three-fourths only, is required to be added, with about one-third the
quantity of salt which was added to the first bath. Of course it is not
advisable to keep the same bath or liquor in work always, but after about
twenty or thirty batches of goods are dyed to throw it away and start a fresh
liquor.

As a rule it will be found that these dye-stuffs are more thoroughly taken up
from the bath than is the case in dyeing cotton; thus often with the same
amount of dye-stuff in proportion to the material used the wool will dye
rather a deeper shade than will cotton. In some cases, especially with the
blues and violets, the shade is greatly different on wool from what it is on
cotton, being generally redder and much stronger. (See the chapter on
Union Dyeing.) While the shades are somewhat faster to light on wool than
they are on cotton, they are no faster to soaping and in some cases not so
fast. What may be the function of the salt, or other such added substance, is
not very clear, probably it plays the same part as to similar bodies in dyeing
the basic dye-stuffs. The dye-stuffs which are referred to above are all
derived from coal-tar, and in the recipes which follow many examples of
their use will be found.

There are but few natural dye-stuffs that have any direct affinity for wool.
Turmeric, saffron, anotta, are about the only representatives, and these are
not of much importance in wool dyeing by themselves, although they are
sometimes used in conjunction with other natural dye-stuffs, when they are

applied by a process which is adapted more especially for the other dye-
stuff which is used.

Second Method.--The method of wool dyeing now being dealt with does not
differ essentially from that described above, but as it is applied to quite a
different class of dye-stuffs it is thought better to consider it as a second
method. The dye-stuffs made use of in this method are what are called the
basic coal-tar colours, and it may be remarked in passing that there are no
natural colouring matters having the same properties. These dye-stuffs are
derived from a number of so-called colour bases, such as Rosaniline,
Pararosaniline, Methylrosaniline, Phenyl-rosaniline, and Auramine base.
Many of these are colourless bodies containing the Amidogen group NH2,
which imparts to them basic properties enabling them to combine with
solids to form salts, and these salts have a strong colouring power. They
form the commercial dye-stuffs Magenta, Saffranine, Thioflavine T,
Auramine, Benzoflavine, Brilliant green, Methyl violet, etc., and these are
salts (usually the hydrochloride) of colour bases. All these basic dye-stuffs
have strong affinity for the wool fibre, and will immediately combine with
it, dyeing it in colours which resist washing, etc., to a considerable extent,
although there are great differences between the various members of the
group in this respect. It has been shown that what takes place in dying wool
with these colouring matters is that the colour base combines with the fibre
the acid of the dye-stuff remaining in the dye-liquor.

Although it is possible to dye wool with the basic dyes from a plain bath
containing water only, yet the results are not satisfactory, especially when
working on a large scale; and for dyeing pale shades especially, the affinity
of the dye-stuff for the fibre is so great that the first portions of the goods
which are entered into the dye-bath have a great tendency to absorb all the
dye-stuff, or the larger proportion of it, so that uneven dyeing is the result,
one end of the piece of cloth being darker than the other end. This defect is
particularly accentuated when pale tints are being dyed, the colouring
matter being completely absorbed before all the goods are entered into the
bath, but it may be remedied by adding the dye-stuff to the bath in small
quantities at intervals during the process of dyeing. The best and most
satisfactory method, however, is to add to the bath 10 per cent. of the
weight of the wool of Glauber's salt, or some other neutral alkaline salt,

which addition almost entirely prevents any defect of uneven dyeing. How
these assistant mordants act is somewhat uncertain, the explanation
generally given is that they exert a slightly solvent action on the dye-stuff,
and so prevent it from going upon the fibre too readily. This is scarcely an
adequate explanation, but in want of a better it will have to stand.

The affinity of the basic dyes for wool increases with increase of
temperature. This is a property that has an important bearing on the method
of dyeing, and to any person who pays some attention to theory in its
practical applications it indicates the most rational method of working,
which is to enter the goods into the bath cold, or, at the most, at a hand heat,
then, after working a short time to get the goods thoroughly impregnated
with the dye-stuff, to gradually raise the temperature to the boil and work
for from half an hour to an hour longer, even if before this time the dye-bath
be exhausted. The reason for giving a fair length of time in the bath is to get
the colour properly fixed on the fibre. The combination of the dye-stuff and
the fibre is a chemical one, and, as stated above, the dye-stuff has to be
decomposed so that the base may combine with the essential constituent of
the wool fibre, while it is obvious that this decomposition and then the
union of the colour base with the wool must take time, and as it is effected
more easily and completely at the boiling point, it is advisable to work the
goods in the bath so as to fully insure that they are given the necessary time
for the chemical change to take place.

The dye-bath is generally completely exhausted of colour, but if fairly clean
it need not be thrown away, but used for another batch of wool by simply
adding more Glauber's salt and dye-stuff. After a time the bath gets too dirty
to used, when it may be thrown away, and a new dye-liquor made up.

In dyeing for pale shades it is best to add the dye-stuff in small quantities at
intervals during the process of dyeing, and to run the goods quickly through
the bath, so as not to give the dye-stuff too much opportunity to become
absorbed by a portion of the goods only.

Working according to the hints given above, the dyeing of wool with the
basic coal-tar colours may be carried out in a very satisfactory manner.

Third Method.--This method consists in dyeing the wool in a bath
containing the dye-stuff, a little acid (usually sulphuric) with the addition of
Glauber's salt, or some other alkaline salt, the essential feature or principle
being that the bath is an acid one. This method is applicable to the large
group of azo dye-stuffs derived from coal tar, and also to the acid dyes
prepared from the basic coal-tar colours by the process of sulphonation.

It is also used to apply indigo carmine to wool, probably the only good
example of a natural dye-stuff applied by this process. Most of the natural
colouring matters, such as logwood and fustic, belong to another group of
dye-stuffs.

The simple azo dyes are combinations of two or more organic bases, united
together by a peculiar and characteristic group of nitrogen atoms. Such azo
colours are, however, insoluble in water, and therefore they cannot be used
in dyeing and textile colouring, although the firm of Messrs. Read Holliday
& Sons years ago patented a process whereby these insoluble azo colours
could be developed on the cotton fibre direct, and thus fabrics made from
that fibre could be dyed in fast colours. When these insoluble azo colours
are treated with sulphuric acid they are converted into sulpho acids,
undergoing what is called sulphonation, an operation of the greatest
importance and value in the preparation of dye-stuffs. The preparation of
indigo extract or indigo carmine from indigo is also a case of sulphonation.
The sulpho-acids of the azo colours, of the basic dyes, and of indigo are
usually insoluble in water, although there are great differences in their
properties in this respect. They will combine with bases such as soda,
calcium and potash to form salts which are soluble in water, and it is
usually in the form of sodium salts that these azo and acid dye-stuffs are
sold to the dyer and calico printer. It is this power of combination with
bases that makes them of value in wool dyeing. As Knecht and other
authorities have pointed out, the wool fibre contains a basic principle
capable of combining with acid bodies, and in wool dyeing with the
colouring matters under discussion, this combination occurs between the
sulpho-acid of the dye-stuff and the basic principle of the wool fibre.

This points to the fact that the dye-stuffs of this class do not combine with
the wool in the form in which they are supplied to the dyer as sodium salts,

which is shown by a property that many if not all of them possess, of not
dyeing the wool fibre in a neutral bath. If a piece of wool be immersed in a
solution of, say, a scarlet or indigo extract, which is neutral it is not dyed.
The dye-liquor may penetrate thoroughly throughout the fabric, but if the
piece of wool be lifted out, and allowed to drain, nearly all the liquor will
drain away, and leave the wool nearly if not quite white, showing that the
dye-stuff in the form in which it is sold has no affinity for the wool fibre. If
now a few drops of sulphuric acid be added to the dye-liquor the wool will
become dyed. The sulphuric acid liberates the free sulpho-acid of the dye-
stuff, and this is now in a form to combine with the wool fibre, which it
does. This is the fundamental principle underlying the acid method for
dyeing wool with the acid group of colouring matters.

The practical application of the principle laid down above is a matter of
simplicity compared with the other methods of dyeing. The composition of
the bath is given above. It is best to enter the wool at from 150° to 160° F.
and then to raise the temperature slowly to the boil. This method of
proceeding gives time for the free colour acid of the dye to be liberated
from the dye-stuff on the one hand, and for its combination with the wool
fibre on the other. In dyeing pale tints with acid dye-stuffs it is a good plan
not to add the acid until after the goods have been entered into the bath and
worked for a short time to enable them to become impregnated with the
dye-liquor; the acid may be then added, and the dyeing may be finished as
usual.

By this plan of working more even dyeings can be obtained than by simply
entering the goods direct into an acidified dye-liquor.

Any kind of acid may be employed, but generally sulphuric acid is used,
partly because it is cheap, and partly because it is the commonest acid
known. Acetic acid is also used in many cases.

Fourth Method.--We now come to the fourth method of dyeing wool.
Strictly, perhaps, it is not a single method, but a group of methods, which
are used to supply a certain class of dye-stuffs to the wool fibre; but as the
governing principle depends upon the peculiar property of the dye-stuffs
now to be noticed, which underlies all the variations of the process of
dyeing, it has been thought better to speak of the fourth method rather than

to subdivide further, in which case the fundamental principle might be lost
sight of.

The class of dye-stuffs included in the fourth group was named by Bancroft
the "adjective" group, because they require the aid of a second body, named
the mordant, to properly develop and to fix the colour of the dye-stuff on
the wool. It is sometimes known as the "mordant dye-stuff" class, and this
is perhaps its best name. This group of colouring matters comprises dye-
stuffs of both natural and artificial origin, the latter of which are getting
very numerous and valuable, and bid fair to displace the natural members of
the group. With but few exceptions the adjective dye-stuffs are not
colouring matters of themselves, i.e., they will not dye wool or other fibres
by themselves. Some are coloured bodies, such as fustic, logwood, Persian
berries, Anthracene yellow, etc., but many are not so, and some possess but
little colour, which, moreover, gives no clue to the colours that can be
developed therefrom.

All the colouring matters of this class possess either a distinctively acid
character, or belong to the class of phenols, which, while not being true
acids, still possess weak acid functions that enable them to combine with
bases like acids. These bodies have the property of combining with bases
and metallic oxides, such as soda, potash, iron, alumina, chrome, tin, nickel,
cobalt, etc., forming a series of salts. Those of soda and potash are usually
soluble in water, while those of the other metals are insoluble, and are
usually of strong colour. It is on this property of forming these insoluble
coloured bodies, colour lakes, as they are called, that the value of the
adjective dye-stuffs in dyeing depends.

The group of adjective colouring matters may be subdivided into two
divisions, not depending upon any differences in the mode of application,
but upon certain differences in the results they give. Perhaps the best
example of an adjective dye-stuff is Alizarine. This body has a faint red
colour, but of itself possesses absolutely no colouring power. When,
however, it is brought into combination with such metallic oxide as
alumina, iron and chrome, then it forms coloured bodies, the colour of
which varies with the metal with which it is in union, thus with alumina, it
is a bright red; with iron, a dark violet, almost black; with chrome, a deep

red; with tin, a scarlet; and so on. This is a representative of the true
adjective dyes, which comprise most of the so-called Alizarine dye-stuffs,
and logwood, fustic, and most of the natural dye-stuffs. Another division of
the group includes a few colouring matters of recent introduction, like Azo
green, Alizarine yellow, Galloflavine, Anthracene yellow, Flavazol, etc.,
which, while forming insoluble colour lakes with metallic oxides, do not
give different colours with different metals.

This class of dye-stuffs, owing to their forming these insoluble colours,
gives really fast colours, capable of resisting lengthened exposure to light
and air, and resisting washing, acids and alkalies. Of course there are
differences between the various members of the group in this respect, and
even the resisting power of an individual member depends a good deal on
the metal with which it is combined, and the care with which the process of
dyeing has been carried out.

In the dyeing of these adjective dye-stuffs, upon the various fibres, and on
wool in any particular, the object is to bring about in any convenient way
the formation on the fibre of the metallic combination of the colouring
principle and the mordant, and it is obvious that if a satisfactory result is to
be obtained, then this must be done in a very thorough manner. There are
three ways in which this combination of colouring principle and mordant
may be brought about in dyeing wool with these bodies, we may either
mordant the wool first, and then apply the dye-stuff, or we may impregnate
the wool with the dye-stuff first, and then fix or develop the colour
afterwards, or, lastly, we may carry on both operations in one process. Each
of these methods will now be discussed, and their relative advantages
pointed out.

The mordanting method is one of the most generally useful. It consists in
first causing a combination of the metal with the wool fibre. This is carried
out by boiling the wool in a solution of the metal, such as bichromate of
potash, chrome alum or chrome fluoride when chrome is to be used as a
mordant, with alum or sulphate of alumina when alumina is required to be
deposited on the fibre, and with copperas when iron is to be the mordant. It
is best to add a little oxalic acid, cream of tartar, or tartaric acid to the
mordanting bath, which addition helps in the decomposition of the metallic

salt by the wool fibre, and the deposition of the metallic oxide on the wool.
With bichromate of potash, sulphuric acid is often used, much depending
upon the character of the mordant required. Some dye-stuffs, such as
logwood for blacks, work best when the wool is mordanted with chromic
acid, which is effected when sulphuric acid is the assistant mordant. Other
dye-stuffs, such as fustic, Persian berries and Alizarine yellow, are best
dyed on a basic chrome mordant, which is effected when tartar or oxalic
acid is the assistant mordant used, or when some other form of chrome
compound than bichrome is employed.

The actual mordanting is done by boiling the wool in a bath of the mordant,
the quantity of which should be varied according to the particular mordant
that is being employed and to the quantity of dye-stuffs which is to be used.
It is obvious that for a fixing deep shade of, say, Alizarine on the wool, a
larger quantity of mordant will be required than to fix a pale shade;
sometimes this point is overlooked and the same amount of mordant
employed for pale or deep shades. The best plan of carrying out the
mordanting is to enter the wool in the cold bath or at a hand heat, and then
raise to the boil and continue the boiling for one hour; of course the goods
should be kept turned over during the process to facilitate the even
mordanting of the wool. A great deal of the success of dyeing with the dye-
stuffs now under consideration depends upon the efficiency with which the
mordanting has been carried out. If this is at all unevenly done then no
amount of care in the succeeding dyeing process will lead to the
development of an even dyeing. After the mordanting is finished the goods
should be rinsed with water, but it is not necessary to dry them.

The next stage in the process is the actual dyeing operations, which is done
by immersing the mordanted wool in a bath of the dye-stuff or mixture of
dye-stuffs.

The fundamental principle is to bring about the combination between the
colouring principle of the dye-stuff and the metallic oxide which has been
deposited on the wool in the previous mordanting process. As neither of
these bodies, however, is very energetic it follows that the action must be a
slow one, and, therefore, time is a highly important factor in the dyeing of
wool by the mordanting process. The combination between the dye-stuff

and the mordant is influenced also by temperature, and is most active at the
boiling point of water. It is, therefore, needful to conduct this operation at
that temperature, but it would be a wrong way to introduce the mordanted
material into a boiling bath of the dye-stuff; nothing would conduce to
uneven dyeing so much as that course. The best method of working, which,
moreover, is most particularly applicable to the series of Alizarine dye-
stuffs, is to enter the goods in a cold bath of the dye-stuff, and to work them
for a short time to get them thoroughly impregnated, a condition which is
essential if even dyeing is the goal aimed at, then to raise the temperature of
the bath gradually to the boil, the goods being in the meantime well worked.
The dyeing is continued for from one to one and a half hours at the boil.

It is important in dyeing by this process, especially when using Alizarine, to
keep the temperature of the bath as uniform as possible, and the goods well
worked. Alizarine, and some other members of this class, are rather
sensitive to heat, and if a dye-vat be hot at the bottom and cold at the top
uneven dyeing is sure to be the result; this is due to the greater affinity of
the Alizarine for the mordant at the high than at the low temperature, and
thus more is fixed on to the wool. The remedy for this is to so construct the
heating arrangements of the vat that the temperature shall be as uniform as
possible, while the goods should be kept continually turned over, and every
portion of them brought into intimate contact with the dye-liquor. The
continuance of the dyeing operations for one and a half to two hours after
the vat has reached the boil is necessary to properly develop and fix the
colour on the fibre; a short boil leaves the goods of a poor shade, without
any solidity about it, and the colour is loose, while a longer boil brings up a
solid shade and a fast colour.

Although it is not absolutely necessary to add any acid to the dye-bath
during the dyeing operations, yet as the Alizarines and most of this class of
dye-stuffs dye better in a slightly acid bath it is advisable to add a small
quantity of acetic acid, say about one pint to every 100 lb. of goods; this
serves to correct any alkalinity of the water, which may be due to its
containing any lime. Dye-stuffs of the acid class, such as indigo extract,
Cloth red, Acid magenta, etc., may be used along with the Alizarine dye-
stuffs, in which case the addition of acid to the dye-bath becomes necessary,

but too great an excess of acid should be avoided, as it interferes somewhat
with the dyeing of the mordant dyes.

This is by far the best and most generally used method of applying these
mordant dyes. It is not a costly process, being indeed economical, as it only
requires just the right amounts of drugs and dye-stuffs, and there is the
minimum loss of material in the mordanting and dye-baths. Shades can be
brought up with the greatest ease, although it is well in the dyeing to add
rather less dye-stuff than is actually required, and to add more when it is
seen how the shade is coming up. The labour is the most important item in
the mordanting and dyeing method.

The proportions of material used to the weight of the wool are: Of
bichromate of potash, 3 per cent. for full shades, and 1 per cent. for pale
shades; of fluoride of chrome, the same quantities; of acetate of chrome,
according to the strength of the solution used; of alum, 10 to 20 per cent.; of
sulphate of alumina, 5 to 10 per cent.; of copperas, 5 to 10 per cent.; of
tartar, 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 per cent.; of oxalic acid, 1 to 1-1/2 per cent.; of
sulphuric acid, 1 per cent.; of argol, 2-1/2 to 5 per cent.; of tartaric acid, 1 to
1-1/2 per cent.; but of course in an article like this it is impossible to give
definite quantities.

Second Method. Stuffing and Saddening.--This method consists in first
treating the wool with a solution of the dye-stuff, and then with a solution
of the mordant required to develop and fix the colour. This method is more
particularly applicable to such dye-stuffs as camwood, cutch, logwood,
madder, fustic, etc., the colouring principles of which have some affinity for
the wool fibre and will directly combine with it. It is not suitable for the
application of the Alizarine colours. The saddening may be and is
commonly done in the same bath, that is, after the wool has been stuffed it
is lifted, the mordant--copperas, bluestone, bichrome, or alum--is added,
and the wool is re-entered into the bath. This cannot be considered a good
method of working; the shades obtained are full and deep and fairly fast,
but there is usually a considerable loss of colouring matter, as the wool in
no case abstracts the whole of the dye-stuff from the bath; what excess is
left combines with the mordant when the latter is added, forming an
insoluble colour lake, which falls down to the bottom of the dye-vat and is

wasted, or it may go upon the wool in a loose, unfixed form, and cause it to
rub badly and come off in milling. Then it is rather difficult to dye to shade,
much of the result depending on conditions over which the dyer has little
control. Working as he does with dye-stuffs of unknown colouring power,
which may vary from time to time with every fresh batch of material, it is
evident that, although the same quantities may be used at all times, at one
time a deeper shade may be obtained than at another, and as it is impossible
to see what is going to be the result, and if by mischance the shade does not
come deep enough it cannot well be rectified by adding a quantity of dye-
wood to the bath, because the mordant in the latter will prevent the
colouring matter from being properly extracted, and only a part of that
which is extracted is fixed on the wool, the rest being thrown away in the
dye-bath, and partly on the particles of wood themselves, when logwood,
camwood, etc., are used in the form of chips or powder. Dyers being well
aware of this, are in the habit when mistakes occur of bringing up to shade
with soluble dye-stuffs--archil, indigo extract, and such like.

This method, as stated above, is very wasteful, not only of dye-stuffs, but of
mordants. In no case does the wool absorb the whole of the colouring
matter from the bath, the unabsorbed portion goes down to the bottom of
the bath when the mordant is added, so that when the dyeing is finished, the
dye-bath is charged with a large quantity of colouring matter in an unusable
form which has to be thrown away, thus at once adding to the pollution of
the river into which it is run, and to the cost of the process of dyeing. As
attention is being directed more and more to the question of the prevention
of pollution of rivers, and as the waste liquors from dye-works add to the
apparent pollution to a very considerable extent, dyers will have to develop
other modes of dyeing than that of stuffing and saddening in one bath.

The principle of dyeing by stuffing and saddening may be carried out by the
use of two separate baths; in fact, it is done in the case of dyeing a cutch
brown from cutch and bichromate of potash. The goods are first treated in a
bath of the dye-wood for a short time, then rinsed, and the colour is
developed by padding into a saddening bath of the mordant. By this method
the baths, which are never quite exhausted, can be retained for future use,
only requiring about 1/2 to 3/4 of the original quantities to be added for

each succeeding batch of the goods, in fact, in some cases, as in cutch, old
baths work better than new ones.

The advantage attached to this method of working is that arising from
economy of dye-stuff and mordant, and the reduction of the pollution of the
stream on which the works are situated. The disadvantages are that the cost
of labour is increased by there being two baths instead of one, and that the
shades obtained are not always so full as with the one-bath method. This, of
course, can be remedied by running the goods through the baths again,
which, however, adds to the cost of the process, but there is this much to be
said, the shade can be better brought up than by the one-bath process. In
some cases the methods of mordanting, dyeing and saddening are combined
together in the dyeing of wool, thus, for instance, a brown can be dyed by
first mordanting with bichrome, then dyeing with camwood and saddening
in the same bath with copperas. The shades obtained are fairly fast and will
stand milling. The disadvantages of this process are the same as those
attached to the dyeing and saddening in one bath.

Now we come to the last method of dyeing wool with mordant and colours,
that in which the operation is carried out in one bath. This can only be done
in those cases where the colour lake that is formed is somewhat soluble in
dye-liquors, which usually have slightly acid properties; or where the
affinity between the two bodies (colouring matter and mordant) is too great.
This method can be carried out in, for instance, dyeing a cochineal scarlet
with tin crystals, a yellow from fustic and alum, a black from logwood and
copperas and bluestone, a red from madder and bichrome, and the dyeing of
the Alizarine colours by the use of chrome fluoride, etc.

The shades obtained are usually not so deep as those got by the mordanting
and dyeing process, but are frequently nearly so. In some cases, as in
dyeing with fustic or logwood, it gives rather brighter colours, due to the
fact that the tanning matters present in the dye-stuffs is not fixed on the
wool, as is the case with the mordanting method, but is retained in the dye-
bath. For dyeing with logwood and copperas or bluestone the process is not
a good one, as it does not give as full shades as by the ordinary process. For
dyeing with the Alizarine colours, using chrome fluoride as the mordant, it
can be applied with fair success. There are advantages in the saving of time

and labour and in the amount of steam required, all of which are important
items in dyeing.

It is rather troublesome to match off by this process, but it can be done. For
light shades the process will be found very useful, as these cost less than by
any other process. The dye-baths may be retained for future use, although in
process of time they become too dirty for use, when they must be thrown
away.

Level Dyeing.--The first condition for successful dyeing is that the fibres to
be treated are absolutely clean. A careful washing is not enough for this
purpose. Cleanliness is undoubtedly the condition which the fibre must
possess to enable the dye to hold on and not to come off the fibre, this latter
causes a loss of dye-stuff, soils the whites, and gives rise to trouble between
the dyer and finisher; it is also the condition for making the dye go on the
wool evenly. The washing must be done at the boil, so that the fibre is well
wetted out and all the air bubbles adhering to it are driven out. But this is
not enough; it must be accompanied by a scouring operation, not only in the
case of fibres of which the dyer does not know whether they have been
scoured, but also when they have already been scoured and bleached. The
kind of scouring that the fibres receive in this case need only be of a
comparatively light character, but it must never be omitted, even for dark
shades, as the traces of grease which the fibre contains are the causes of
nearly irremediable stains in the dyeing operations. Even in dyeing black
wool it is of the greatest importance to have the fibre suitably scoured.

The fatty matters which the fibre contains may belong to the components of
the fibre itself and be natural matters, but in the case of wool yarns and
cloths they are mostly dressing oils, from which the dyer cannot be too
anxious to free the wool before dyeing. Some practical methods of
preparatory treatment of the fibres before dyeing may therefore be
described here with advantage.

Cotton is boiled off at actual boiling heat for two hours, with 8 per cent. of
its weight of carbonate of soda and a little soft soap, which treatment is
sufficient for dark colours.

For light colours it is necessary that the cotton be bleached. Wool is scoured
with soda and soap in the proportion of 10 lb. soda and 2 lb. Marseilles soap
for 100 lb. wool. Silk is scoured by boiling for one and a half hours in a
boiling bath with 30 per cent. of its weight of soap. For light colours a
second boiling should be given, with 15 per cent.

The careful cleaning of wool previous to dyeing is of exceptional
importance. Raw wool is cleaned with carbonate of soda and ammonia. For
50 lb. wool to be cleaned 6 lb. carbonate of soda and 1-1/2 lb. ammonia are
added to a bath of 150 gallons water. The wool is laid down in it for twenty
minutes at 35° C., taken up, squeezed, treated for fifteen minutes in another
bath, with 5 lb. carbonate of soda and then rinsed. The first bath must be
renewed as often as possible, because it contains all the impurities. In the
case of woollen yarn 30 lb. require two tubs of 40 gallons capacity. The first
tub is to contain 35 gallons water and 2 lb. ammonia at 10° Be. After
working the skeins for three minutes in it they are left to stand for fifteen
minutes, then wrung out, and the operation is repeated in the second tub.
Finally, the yarn is rinsed several times in soft water.

Woollen piece goods are treated in a large wooden tub at 40° C. with 4 lb.
carbonate of soda and 2 lb. carbonate of ammonia for 80 lb. material. The
pieces are moved about for twenty minutes, laid down in the bath overnight,
again turned for ten minutes and hydro-extracted. They may also be handled
for forty minutes in a bath of 2 oz. ammonia for 100 lb. wool at 60° C., and
then for twenty minutes in clear water at 60° C.

After wetting or preparatory treatment, it will be best to proceed
immediately to dyeing; if the fibres be left in a heap for too long a time,
there is danger that they may become heated, or at least that the moisture
may be irregularly distributed by the occurrence of partial drying, causing
an uneven fixation of the colour in the first stages of dyeing. The first two
conditions of successful dyeing are, therefore, a suitable wetting out and
scouring. The dyer, however, must not be less careful to see that the dye-
bath is what it ought to be.

Whenever possible the dye-stuff must be dissolved separately, or at least the
bath not entered before the dye-stuff is well dissolved. Artificial dye-stuffs
require particular attention to this point, because the presence of

undissolved particles is the cause of irregularities, such as streaks, or, at
least, specks. The solution is mostly made hot as follows: After pouring
water at 180° F. upon the dye-stuff, stir gently, strain through flannel or
through a very fine sieve, and pour more water upon the residue until
nothing more is dissolved. As is well known, the artificial dye-stuffs often
contain insoluble matter, resins, etc. It is therefore advisable to use only soft
water for this operation.

The solutions of artificial dye-stuffs are ordinarily made at the rate of 1 to
5 lb. per 10 gallons of water, 2 lb. being the proportion mostly employed.
This depends more or less on the solubility of the dye-stuff. Old solutions
sometimes contain crystals of the dye-stuff which have separated out. These
should be redissolved by heating before the solution is used. But it is best to
make only such a quantity of solution as will suffice for immediate
requirements.

With paste colours care should be taken to keep them in closed vessels in
such a manner that they will not become hard by evaporation, and they
should not be kept in any place where they are likely to freeze in winter
time. In such an event it is not an uncommon circumstance for the casks or
other vessels containing them to burst, with a consequent loss of dye-stuff.
Before any of the paste is withdrawn from the cask, it is advisable to stir
well up with a wooden stirrer.

In adding dye-stuff during the actual dyeing operation, it is advisable to add
the dye-stuff to the bath in two or three portions, always taking out the
goods before adding each lot of dye-stuff, and stirring up the contents of the
bath before re-entering the goods. Another important condition of obtaining
a level dyeing is to proceed slowly, beginning with a weak bath at a
moderate temperature, and rising gradually to a boil. If necessary to retard
the dyeing from the commencement, then an assistant mordant is added to
the dye-bath, in the shape of soda crystals or phosphate of soda for the
benzidine colours on cotton; bisulphate of soda or Glauber's salt in dyeing
with azo colours or acid colours on wool; or tartar may be used in most
cases with good effect, causing the wool to have a softer feel. Finally, the
evenness of the dyeing is much increased by the frequent turning over of

the material in the dye-bath, so managing this in the case of wool as to
avoid felting.

When dyeing with a mordant, the dyer should see that the mordanting
operation is thoroughly well done, for as much care is required for the
mordanting as for the actual dyeing; in fact, if anything, the mordanting
should be done with rather more care, as if it be at all defective no amount
of care in the following dyeing operations will ensure a level dyeing.
Chrome mordanted wool should be dyed without delay, as it is rather
sensitive to light, especially the yellow sort, which gradually changes into
the green sort of chromed wool.

One peculiarity of dyed wool is that it will continue to take up colour after
it is removed from the dye-bath, especially if it contains any of the hot dye-
liquor, therefore it is very desirable to wash the wool as soon as possible
after its removal from the dye-bath. It is best, however, not to take the wool
out of the hot bath, but to leave it in until the bath becomes cool, and then to
take it out, by this means the colour becomes deeper and more solid
looking, and is faster on the wool.

One cause of irregular dyeing may be mentioned, as it is occasionally met
with, namely, the presence of foreign fibres in the goods, cotton in wool
fabrics, and even of different varieties of the same fibre. All dyers know
that dead or immature cotton will not dye up properly, a fact or defect more
especially met with in indigo dyeing than probably in any other colour.
Then wools from different breeds of sheep vary considerably in their dyeing
power. Fine wools take up more colour than coarse, and, consequently, even
from the same bath, will come out a deeper shade; if a fabric, therefore,
contains the two kinds of cotton, or the two kinds of wool, they will not dye
up evenly.

In the preceding sections brief notes have been given about the principal
methods of dyeing wool, with some indications of the dyes which can be
used under each method. In the succeeding sections will be given a number
of recipes showing how, and with what dye-stuffs, various colours, shades
and tints can be dyed upon wool. It will be understood that these recipes are
applicable to all kinds of woollen fabrics, loose wool, slubbing, yarns in any
form, woven worsted or woollen cloths, felts of any kind, etc., all these

different forms require handling in a different way; it would not do, for
instance, to treat a quantity of slubbing in the same way as a piece of
worsted cloth, while hanks of yarn require a different mode of handling to a
quantity of hat bodies. The different kinds of woollen fabrics require to be
dealt with in different kinds of machines, and this has already been dealt
with in the chapter on Dyeing Machinery and Dyeing Manipulations.

To describe and illustrate the application of all the various woollen dye-
stuffs, whether of natural or artificial origin, and to show the great variety
of shades, etc., which can be obtained with them, either all one or in
combination, would require not one, but many volumes of the size that this
present work is intended to be. Therefore, it becomes necessary to make a
selection from the best-known and most used of the various dyes, and
illustrate their application by a number of recipes, all of which, unless
otherwise stated, are intended to be for 100 lb. weight of woollen material
of any kind. It may also be pointed out that, as a rule, the recipes may be
applied to the dyeing of fabrics made with other animal fibres than the wool
of the sheep, as, for alpaca, cashmere, camel-hair, hare or rabbit fur, etc.,
inasmuch, as, with the exception of silk, all animal fibres practically
possess the same dyeing properties.

It will be convenient to point out here that a very large proportion of the
shades dyed on wool and other fabrics are obtained, not by the use of a
single dye-stuff, although this should always be done, whenever possible,
but by the combination of two or more dye-stuffs together in various
proportions. It is truly astonishing what a great range of shades can thus be
dyed by using two or three dyes suitably mixed together, and one of the
things which go to making a successful dyer and colourist is the grasping of
this fact by careful observation, and working accordingly. Dyers will find
much assistance in acquiring a knowledge of colour and colour mixing from
the two little books on Colour, by Mr. George H. Hurst, and the Science of
Colour Mixing, by Mr. David Paterson, both issued by Messrs. Scott,
Greenwood & Co., the publishers of the present work.

Black on Wool.--Until within a comparatively recent time black was dyed
on wool solely by the use of logwood, combined with a few other natural
dye-stuffs, such as fustic, indigo, etc., but of late the researches of colour

chemists have resulted in the production of a large number of black dyes
obtained from various coal-tar products. These have come largely into use,
but still, so far they have not been able to entirely displace logwood, chiefly
on the score of greater cost, the use of the natural dye still remaining the
cheapest way of producing a black on wool; although the blacks yielded by
some of the coal-tar black dyes are superior to it in point of intensity of
colour and fastness to scouring, acids and light, as well as being easier to
dye.

Blacks may be obtained from logwood by several methods, either by
previous mordanting of the wool or by the stuffing and saddening methods,
or by the one-bath process. The following recipes will show how these
various methods are carried out in practice:--

Chrome Logwood Black.--The wool is first mordanted by boiling for one
and a half hours with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. of sulphuric acid,
working well the whole of the time. It is not advisable to exceed the
amounts of either the bichromate or the acid here given, these quantities
will result in a full bloomy black being obtained, but any excess gives rise
to greyish dull blacks, which are undesirable. After mordanting rinse well
with water, when the goods will be quite ready for the dye-bath.

The dyeing is done in a bath made from a decoction of 40 lb. of good
logwood. It is perhaps preferable to start cold or only lukewarm, raise to the
boil and work for one hour, then lift, rinse well, and pass into a boiling bath
made from 1 lb. of bichromate of potash and 1/4 lb. of sulphuric acid for
half an hour. This extra chrome bath fixes any colouring matter which may
have been absorbed by the wool but not properly fixed by the mordant
already on, it leads to fuller shades which are faster to rubbing and milling.

The mordanting bath may be kept standing and used again for fresh lots of
wool, in which case it is only necessary to add 2-1/2 lb. of bichromate of
potash and 1 lb. sulphuric acid to the bath for each additional lot of wool
that is being dealt with. Old mordant baths work rather better than new
ones, but the use cannot be prolonged indefinitely, there comes a time when
the bath gets too dirty to use and then it must be thrown away.

During the operation the bichromate of potash becomes more or less
decomposed and there is formed on the wool fibre a deposit of chromic acid
and chromic oxide, this deposit forms the mordant that in the subsequent
dye-bath combines with and fixes the colouring matter, the hæmatoxylin of
the logwood, and develops the black on the wool.

In place of sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid can be used with some
advantage as regards the proportion of bichromate decomposed, and
therefore an increase in the amount of chromium oxide deposited on the
wool.

This gives a deep blue black, somewhat wanting in bloom. The following
recipe gives a much bloomier black, but is rather more expensive to dye.

Chrome Logwood Black.--Mordant by boiling in a bath containing 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 7 lb. tartar. Dye and otherwise treat as in the last
recipe; 4 lb. of tartaric acid used in place of the tartar, gives rather brighter
and bloomier shades. The use of so-called tartar substitutes is not to be
recommended, they give no better results than does sulphuric acid and are
much dearer to use.

A somewhat greener shade of black than is yielded by either of the above
two recipes is the following:--

Chrome Logwood Black.--Mordant the wool in a bath containing 4 lb.
oxalic acid and 3 lb. bichromate of potash, afterwards dyeing as in the first
recipe.

All the above recipes give blacks of a bluish tone, which on the whole have
a good bloomy and solid appearance. Often what is called a jet black is
wanted, this can be obtained by following the recipe given below.

Chrome Logwood Jet Black.--Mordant the wool by any of the methods
given above. The dyeing is done in a bath made from 40 lb. logwood and
5 lb. fustic, working as described in the first recipe. Using these properties a
good jet black is obtained, which is quite satisfactory on the score of
solidity and fastness. It is not advisable to exceed the quantity of fustic here
given, or otherwise the black will have a tendency to assume a greenish

tone that is not at all desirable. This greening becomes more marked when
from 7-1/2 to 10 lb. of fustic is used, or if alum be added to the mordant
along with the bichromate of potash.

Chrome blacks are the best blacks which can be obtained from logwood.
They have, however, a tendency to turn green on exposure to the weather,
which tendency seems to be most prevalent in those blacks in which
sulphuric acid has been used as the acid constituent of the mordanting bath.
The greening may be reduced to a minimum by adding to the dye-bath
about 1 to 2 lb. of Alizarine. Another plan which has been followed is to
give the wool a bottom with 5 to 6 lb. of camwood or peachwood, then
mordanting and dyeing us usual.

Logwood Black on Wool.--Boil first for one hour with a decoction of 8 lb.
camwood, then lay down for fifty minutes in a boiling bath of 3 lb.
bichromate of potash, 1 lb. alum, 1 lb. tartar. It is a good plan to allow the
goods to hang overnight.

The dye-bath is prepared with 45 lb. logwood, 8 lb. fustic, 4 lb. sumac. Dye
one hour at the boil, wash and dry.

Indigo Black.--This is sometimes called woaded black, and has an excellent
reputation as a fast black. It is dyed by first giving the wool a medium blue
bottom in the indigo vat by the method of vat dyeing, which will be
described later on, and then dyeing by either the second or third recipe
given above. The use of sulphuric acid is rather to be avoided in dyeing an
indigo vat with chrome and logwood, as the chromic acid set free during the
process is likely to attack and by destroying the indigo to materially reduce
the intensity of the blue bottom. Or, after blueing in the vat, the black may
be dyed or topped on by the process with copperas, which will be described
below.

Iron Logwood Black.--Mordant the wool by boiling one and a half to two
hours in a bath made with 5 lb. copperas, 2 lb. bluestone, 2 lb. alum, and
10 lb. argol. The dyeing is done in a bath of 50 lb. logwood.

It is not advisable to use more argol than is here given, for although a little
excess will not materially affect the beauty or brilliancy of the resulting

shade, yet such excess is wasteful, and makes the dyeing cost more than it
otherwise would. On the other hand, too little will cause the shade to
become greyish in tone and wanting in solidity. The copper sulphate
(bluestone) added increases the fastness of the finished black to light, the
best proportions to add are from 2 lb. to 4 lb. for 100 lb. of wool. The shade
obtained in the above recipe is of a bluish-violet hue, if a jet black be
wanted, add 5 lb. of fustic to the dye-bath. Another and very common
method of working is the "stuffing and saddening" process, given in the
next recipe.

Iron Logwood Black.--Make a bath of 50 lb. logwood, 6 lb. fustic, and 1 lb.
sumac. Work the wool in this for one hour at the boil, lift, allow the bath to
become cool, then add 6 lb. of copperas (ferrous sulphate) and 2 lb.
bluestone; re-enter the wool, raise the temperature to the boil, and work half
an hour, then lift, wash and dry. On the whole the first method is the most
economical and yields the best blacks, fastest to rubbing.

The iron-copper-logwood blacks are not so fast to acids as the chrome-
logwood blacks, but they are rather faster to light and air, and equally so to
scouring and milling.

One-bath methods of dyeing blacks are sometimes preferred by wool dyers.
Of these the following is an example.

Logwood Black.--Make a dye-bath with 50 lb. logwood, 5 lb. fustic, 6 lb.
copperas, 2 lb. copper sulphate, and 4 lb. oxalic acid. Enter the goods and
work at the boil to shade. The oxalic acid is added for the purpose of
retaining the logwood-iron-copper black lake, which is formed on mixing
the various ingredients together in solution. On boiling the wool in the
liquor the fibre gradually extracts out the dye matter and becomes dyed.
The use of some of the so-called "direct blacks" (noir reduit, Bonsor's
black) is based on the same principle.

These dyes are mixtures of logwood, fustic or other dye-stuff with
copperas, bluestone and oxalic acid, and only require adding to water to
make the dye-bath. This method of working enables logwood to be used in
conjunction with dihydroxynaphthalene and some other coal-tar derivatives

to obtain blacks of good solidity and much faster to light, air, acids and
scouring than the ordinary logwood blacks.

Another recipe for a one-bath logwood black, using the extracts in place of
the dye-wood itself, is the following:--

Logwood Black.--Prepare a dye-bath with 12 lb. logwood extract, 2 lb.
fustic extract, 6 lb. copperas, 4 lb. bluestone, 3 lb. oxalic acid, 2 lb. tartar.
Boil the goods in this for one hour.

Some dyers use the dye-woods and prepare from them a decoction by
boiling in water; in some respects this is the most economical plan, only the
dyer has to get rid of the spent dye-wood from which the colouring matter
has been extracted, and this is not always an easy matter. Some dyeing
machines (Smithson's) have been devised which contain as one of their
features a dye-wood extractor, in which the extraction of the colouring
matter of the wood proceeds at the same time as the dyeing. Good results
are got with such machines, although they leave something to be desired.

Many dyers use the dye-wood extracts which are now made on a large
scale. These are for the dyer much more convenient to use, although
naturally rather more costly. They are approximately five times the strength
of the dye-wood, but they vary very greatly in this respect.

Logwood blacks can be readily distinguished from nearly all other blacks,
in that by treatment with moderately strong hydrochloric acid they turn a
bright red.

No other natural dye-stuff is used in the dyeing of black than these here
given.

Of late years many black dyes derived from coal tar have been placed on
the market. Among these may be enumerated the Acid Blacks of Messrs.
Bead Holliday & Sons; the Naphthol and Naphthylamine Blacks of Leopold
Cassella & Co.; the Victoria Blacks of the Farbenfabriken vorm, Fr. Bayer
& Co.; the Wool Blacks of the Actiengesellschaft für Anilin Fabrikation; the
Azo Blacks of the Farbwerke vorm, Meister, Lucius & Bruning; and one or
two other blacks. These blacks are dyed very simply, as will be seen from

the recipes given below, showing their application in the production of
blacks of a great variety of tone. None of them dye a true jet black, but
generally a bluish black or a violet black, but the tone may be readily
changed to a jet or dead black by the addition of a little orange, yellow or
green dye-stuff.

They give blacks of a very solid appearance and very bright in tone, and
have the advantage over the logwood blacks of leaving the wool more
supple and less liable to be felted. Moreover, as a rule they are faster to
acids, alkalies and milling than are the logwood blacks, and as regards
fastness to light they excel that dye-stuff. Unfortunately they are more
costly to use, which tells against their entirely displacing logwood in dyeing
blacks on wool.

Still, year by year their use is increasing, and as their price becomes less
their employment will yet further extend. They may be combined with
logwood, as they will dye with equal facility on mordanted and
unmordanted wool.

Violet Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Acid Black B, or Acid
Black B B, 3 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Work at the boil
for one hour. The B brand of these blacks gives shades slightly redder in
tone than the B B. The blacks are quite fast to light and acids, but not to
soaping.

Blue Black on Wool.--Dye as in the last recipe, but use Acid Black S. This
dye-stuff produces bluer shades of black than either B or B B, and they are
faster to soaping.

Jet Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 4-1/2 lb. Acid Black S, 1/2 lb.
Fast Yellow F Y, 3 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. This shows
how, by the addition of a little yellow dye-stuff, the blue shade may be
changed to a full jet black.

Blue Black on Wool.--The dye-bath is made with 4-1/2 lb. Naphthol
Black B (or 6 lb. Naphthol Black 3 B), 4 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb.
Glauber's salt. Work at the boil for one hour, then lift, wash and dry. The
Naphthol Blacks have long been used in wool dyeing, and give excellent

results, the 3 B brand dyeing much bluer shades than the B brand. There is
also a 4 R brand giving violet blacks. These blacks are quite fast to acids
and alkalies, are fast to light, and resist washing very well, the B brand
being the fastest. The following recipe shows how a full jet shade can be
obtained for these blacks:--

Jet Black on Wool.--Prepare the dye-bath with 4-1/2 lb, Naphthol Black B,
1 lb. Naphthol Green B, 1/4 lb. Indian Yellow, 4 lb. sulphuric acid, and
10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Blue Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 5 lb. Anthracite Black B,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb. bisulphate of soda, working at the boil for
one hour. Anthracite Black does not require a bath so acid as do some other
coal-tar blacks. The shade obtained is a full blue black, which is fast to
acids; alkalies turn it a little bluer, and soaping causes some loss of colour.

Violet Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 5 lb. Anthracite Black R,
and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. The black thus obtained is a good one, fairly
fast to acids, alkalies and soaping.

Dead Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 6 lb. Anthracite Black R,
1 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil
for one hour, then lift, add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and work again at the
boil for twenty minutes. This black is a very fine one, and is very fast.

Violet Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Naphthylamine
Black D, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb. acetic acid. This black is pretty fast
to acids, alkalies and light, but is somewhat loose to soaping, and, therefore,
cannot be used for black goods that have to be strongly milled.
Naphthylamine Black 4 B dyes somewhat bluer shades than the B brand.

Blue Black on Wool.--Prepare the dye-bath with 6 lb. Victoria Blue Black,
20 lb. Glauber's salt, and 1-1/2 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil for one
hour. A fine blue black, is obtained which is quite fast to acids, washing and
light.

Greenish Black on Wool.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. Victoria Black
Blue, 2 lb. Fast Yellow F Y, 20 lb. Glauber's, salt, and 1/1-2 lb. acetic acid.

The dyeing is done at the boil and takes about an hour. This shade has a
good full tone, and is fast.

Jet Black on Wool.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Victoria Black B, 1/2 lb.
Fast Yellow F Y, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at
the boil for one hour. A very fine shade is thus obtained, which is fast to
acids, alkalies and soaping. By omitting the Fast Yellow a blue black is
obtained, while by using Acid Green instead a greener tone is given to the
black. In place of the Victoria Black B the two other brands, 5 G, and G, of
these blacks may be used. These give equally fast blacks of a deeper and
more jet black.

Black on Wool.--Prepare a bath with 5 lb. acetic acid, 9° Tw.; enter the wool
for one hour, then lift and add 5lb. Naphthol Black 3 B, and 1/4 lb. Indian
Yellow. Re-enter the goods and boil for one hour, wash and dry.

Many of the black dyes--Naphthol Black, Naphthylamine Blacks, Naphthyl
Blue Black N, Acid Black B, etc.--are capable of slowly dyeing wool from
neutral baths, that is, containing only Glauber's salt, or rather more quickly
if a little acetic acid be present. Such dyes are very useful for dyeing
heavily milled or felted fabrics, such as hat bodies for instance, as then the
dye possesses greater penetrative properties and passes more into the
substance of the fabric, which is, therefore, better dyed through. Also they
are suitable for dyeing half-wool fabrics as will be seen on referring to the
chapter dealing with the dyeing of union or cotton-wool fabrics.

It is quite possible to dye a black on wool by using a combination of acid
and azo dye-stuffs, and below is given a recipe illustrating this method; it is
one, however, rarely adopted.

Blue-Black on Wool.--Prepare the dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb.
Patent Blue, 6 oz. Brilliant Orange, 4 oz. Amaranth, 4 oz. Acid Violet N,
4 lb. sulphuric acid. Enter the goods at about 150° F., raise to the boil and
work to shade; lift, wash and dry. It may be of interest to note that by using
a mixture of Azo Rubine and Acid green good blacks can be got.

There is a range of Acid and Azo dyes which are capable of dyeing from the
usual acid baths on to wool, and yet can be developed and fixed on the fibre

to good, full blacks. Types of such dyes are Anthracene Chrome Black F F,
Diamond Black F, Chrome Patent Black D G and D G G, Fast Chrome
Black, etc. Generally the blacks dyed on wool with these dyes are very fine,
have a full, bloomy appearance, and are very fast. They are much used in
dyeing hat bodies and fine cloths which have to be very fast to the weather.

The method of application will be gleaned from the recipes given below.

Black.--Prepare a dye-bath with 5 lb. Chromotrop S, 1/4 lb. Azo Yellow,
50 lb. Glauber's salt. Work for one and a half hours at the boil, then add
4 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil for another half hour, then lift. Add to
the same dye-bath 3 lb. bichromate of potash. Re-enter the goods and work
at the boil for half an hour, then lift, rinse and dry.

Jet Black.--Mordant the wool by boiling for one hour in a bath made from
4 lb. bichromate of potash and 3 lb. of tartar. Then rinse, and dye in a bath
containing 3-1/2 lb. Diamond Black, 1-1/4 lb. Alizarine Cyanine R R R
double, and 1 lb. Gambine Yellow, working at the boil for from one to one
and a half hours.

Diamond Black on Wool.--Mordant by boiling for one hour with 3 lb.
bichromate of potash, 1 lb. oxalic acid. Wash and dry in a bath made with
2 lb. Diamond Black, 2 lb. acetic acid. Work at 120° F. for one hour, then
heat to boil, and work until the dye is fully fixed. Lift, wash and dry.

A more common method of using the Diamond Black is given in the
following recipe.

Diamond Black.--Prepare a dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2-1/2 lb.
Diamond Black, 1/2 lb. Diamond Green. Boil for an hour, then pass through
a fresh bath of 2 lb. bichromate of potash for three-quarters of an hour at the
boil; wash and dry.

This gives a fine jet shade of black, quite fast to a strong milling, and to
light, alkalies and acids. Diamond Black by itself gives bluish shades. This
dye is much used in the hat-dyeing trade.

Violet Black.--Mordant the wool by boiling for one and a half hours in a
bath made with 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 1 lb. oxalic acid, then rinse and
dye in a bath containing 25 lb. Alizarine Cyanine Black G, 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia, and 1 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil for one and a half hours.
A fine full shade is obtained which is quite fast to acids, milling and light.

Brown Black.--Mordant the wool as in the last recipe, then dye in a new
bath 25 lb. Alizarine Cyanine Black G, 3 lb. Anthracene Brown, 5 lb.
acetate of ammonia, and 1 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil for one to one
and a half hours.

Jet Black.--Mordant as in either of the above recipes, then dye in a bath
containing 20 lb. Alizarine Black S W, and 2 lb. acetic acid. This black
possesses a great degree of resistance to acid, alkali, milling and light, and
is one of the best blacks at the disposal of the dyer.

Reddish Black on Wool.--Prepare the dye-bath containing 5 lb.
Chromotrop 2 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 4 lb. sulphuric acid, work at the
boil for one hour, then lift. Add to the same bath 3 lb. bichromate of potash
and 1 lb. sulphuric acid, and work half an hour longer.

Blue Black.--Make the dye-bath with 6 lb. Chromotrop 10 B and 4 lb.
sulphuric acid; dye, and develop the black by adding to the same bath 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric acid.

Jet Black.--Prepare the dye-bath with 5-1/2 lb. Chromotrop S, 1/4 lb.
Alizarine Yellow G G W, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 4 lb. sulphuric acid.
Slowly raise to the boil and work for one hour, then add to the same dye-
bath 3 lb. bichromate of potash, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil
for one hour.

These are but a few examples of how the Chromotrops (one of the most
interesting series of dye-stuffs at the service of the dyer) may be used to dye
blacks. They of themselves dye brilliant reds, from bright scarlet (2 R),
crimson (6 B), and purple (8 B and 10 B), to maroon and clarets (S and
S B). These being turned black on being chromed, give various shades--
blue blacks, violet blacks, and jet blacks, which have the merit of being fast
to acids, strong milling, and light in a great degree. The blue and violet

blacks may be converted to jet shades by adding to the dye-bath some
yellow dye-stuff, such as Azo Yellow, Alizarine Yellow, or Gambine Yellow,
which will resist the action of the bichrome in the developing bath.

Chromotrop blacks while so very fast have the disadvantage of being
expensive, but by combining them with logwood it is possible to obtain
blacks that have a great degree of resistance to light, acids and milling.
They are in this respect much superior to pure logwood blacks, while the
cost is not prohibitive.

The following recipe will serve as an example of how these two dye-stuffs
may be combined:--

Jet Black.--Make a bath with 2 lb. Chromotrop S, 15 lb. Glauber's salt, and
5 lb. hydrochloric acid. Work in this bath for one hour, then add 2-1/2 lb.
bichromate of potash, and work again for half an hour, at the boil. Lift, rinse
and dye in a new bath containing 25 lb. logwood, 1 lb. fustic extract and
1/4 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for an hour.

Violet Black on Wool.--Dye the wool in the Chromotrop bath, and develop
as in the last recipe. The final dye-bath is made with 6 lb. logwood, 8 oz.
Patent Blue B, and 4 lb. sulphuric acid. By using logwood alone blue blacks
can be dyed, by increasing the proportion of fustic a greener tone can be
obtained, while by the use of a larger proportion of Chromotrop a redder
tone of black is the result.

Jet Black.--Make the dye-bath with 20 lb. Glauber's salt, and 6 lb. Nyanza
Black; when obtained is a good one and of solid appearance. Alkalies turn it
red, but it is fast to dilute acid and soaping.

Black.--Prepare the dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb. oxalate of
ammonia, 5 lb. acetic acid and 6 lb. Anthracene Chrome Black F. Work at
the boil for three-quarters of an hour, or until the bath is exhausted of dye-
stuff, then add 1-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. hydrochloric acid to
the same bath and work for half an hour longer.

The Anthracene Chrome Blacks, of which there are three brands, F, 5 B and
F E, are excellent dyes, producing very fine blacks, and owing to the

slowness of dyeing and great penetrative properties are very suitable for
dyeing hat felts and other closely woven fabrics. The 5 B dyes more bluish
shades than the F, while the F E brand gives full black. By combining these
with Anthracene Yellow B N, Anthracene Acid Brown G, or other similar
dyes, jet blacks can be got as per the following recipe:--

Jet Black.--Make the dye-bath with 6 lb. Anthracene Chrome Black F E,
5 oz. Anthracene Yellow B N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb. oxalate of
ammonia and 5 lb. acetic acid, after dyeing, and the dye-bath, is exhausted
of colour, add 1-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash and 3 lb. hydrochloric acid,
and boil again for half an hour. Finish in the usual way.

One of the reasons for adding the oxalate of ammonia, is to precipitate out
any lime which may be in the water in such a form that it will not react with
the dye-stuff.

Fast Black.--Mordant the yarn with copperas (sulphate of iron). Dye in a
bath with 5 lb. Gambine Y, 2 lb. Acid Mauve, 2 lb. bisulphate of soda.
Proceed as described for full green.

Blue Black--3-1/2 lb. Naphthylamine Black S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
5 lb. acetic acid; to fully exhaust the dye-bath add 8 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Jet Black.--5 lb. Naphthylamine Black S, 1/4 lb. Fast Acid Green B N,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb. acetic acid, adding 8 lb. bisulphate of soda to
exhaust the bath.

Blue Black.--Give a deep blue bottom in the indigo vat and dye with 2 lb.
Anthracite Black B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Greys on Wool.--The dyeing of greys follows very naturally after the
dyeing of blacks, for from a broad point of view greys are simply light
blacks, and any dye-stuffs that will dye black will if used in smaller
proportions give greys. There is a great variety of tone among greys:
reddish greys, bluish greys, greenish greys, and so on. They may be dyed in
a considerable variety of ways from a large number of dye-stuffs, both
natural and artificial. Of these two classes the latter gives the best result as
far as regards brightness of tone, and as regards other properties the greys

obtained from the artificial coal-tar colours are fully equal to those from
natural dyes.

A large number of recipes are in use by dyers for the production of greys, so
many that it becomes almost an impossibility to do more than give a mere
fraction of them here. However, a number of representative recipes will be
given, covering all classes of dye-stuffs capable of being used for the
purpose, and thus forming a guide to the methods of dyeing and the
proportions of dye-stuffs to be used.

Light Grey.--Dye at the boil for three-quarters of an hour, in a bath
containing 1 lb. perchloride of tin, 3 lb. alum, 3 oz. indigo extract, and 2 oz.
cochineal.

Slate Grey.--Mordant by boiling with 4 lb. alum and 1 lb. argol, then dye
with 6 lb. logwood, 6 oz. cudbear and 3 oz. indigo extract.

Slate Grey.--Another method is to boil the wool with 10 lb. logwood, 2 lb.
Glauber's salt and 1 lb. sulphuric acid for three-quarters of an hour, then lift,
add 1 lb. copperas, and re-enter the wool, working at the boil for three-
quarters of an hour, then lift, wash and dry.

Reddish Grey.--Boil for an hour with 10 lb. fustic, 11 lb. cutch, 1/2 lb.
bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. copperas.

Pearl Grey.--Give a light blue ground in the indigo vat, then dye in a new
bath with 2 lb. muriate of tin and 3/4 lb. cochineal, working at the boil to
shade.

Silver Grey.--Prepare a bath with 3/4 lb. tannic acid; work for an hour in a
warm bath, then sadden with 3 lb. nitrate of iron to shade, then lift, wash
and dry.

Pearl Grey.--Prepare a bath with 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 4 lb. Alizarine
Bordeaux B. Enter into the bath when cold, then heat to the boil and work
for one and a half hours, then lift, wash and dry.

Silver Grey.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 6-
1/2 oz. Alizarine Cyanine G G, the dyeing being done as in the last recipe.

Greenish Grey.--A good shade is dyed with 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, 4 oz.
Alizarine Bordeaux B, and 4 oz. Diamond Flavine G, working as given in
the above recipe.

Grey.--Give a pale blue bottom with an indigo vat, then dye in a bath
containing 1 lb. fluoride of chrome, 1/2 oz. Diamine Fast Red F, and 3/4 oz.
Anthracene Yellow C; work at the boil for one hour, lift, wash, and dry.

Dark Grey.--A very fine dark grey, almost approaching a black is obtained
by the following plan: bottom the wool with a medium blue by means of the
indigo vat, dye in a bath containing 1 lb. fluoride of chrome, 3 oz. Diamine
Fast Red F, and 3 oz. Anthracene Yellow C.

Slate Grey.--A good slate grey of a slightly greenish tone can be dyed in a
bath of 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, 3/4 lb. Acid Blue 4 S, and 1/4 lb. Titan
Brown R, working at the boil to shade.

Pale Slate Grey.--The dyeing is done in a bath made with 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia, 5 oz. Acid Blue 4 S, and 1-1/2 oz. Titan Brown R, working at the
boil for one hour.

Silver Grey.--A very nice shade is dyed with 3 oz. Acid Blue 4 S, 1/4 oz.
Titan Red, and 5 oz. acetate of ammonia.

Silver Grey.--A shade similar to the last is dyed in a bath containing 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, 5 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 3/4 oz. Anthracite Black R. By
adding a little Thiocarmine R the shade can be turned bluer in tone, while
the addition of a little Milling Yellow O, or Titan Yellow, turns it to the
green side.

Pearl Grey.--Make the dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb. acetic acid,
and 3/4 lb. Naphthylamine Black D. This gives fine shades of pearl grey.

Bluish Grey.--Mordant the wool by boiling in a bath made with 2 lb.
bichromate of potash, 1 lb. tartar, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid. Dye in a bath

containing 2 oz. Diamine Black (or 3/4 oz. Diamond Black and 1-1/2 oz.
Alizarine Cyanine R), working at the boil for an hour and a half.

Grey.--This can be dyed with 3 oz. Nyanza Black B, and 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, working at the boil.

Reddish Grey.--A good full shade is dyed with 1-1/2 oz. Cyanole extra,
1/4 oz. Orange extra, 3/4 oz. Archil Substitute N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and
3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Slate Grey.--The dye-bath is made with 3 oz. Cyanole extra, 1/2 oz. Archil
Substitute N, 3/4 oz. Orange extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Bright Pearl Grey.--Prepare a dye-bath with 3/4 oz. Patent Blue, 1/2 oz.
Acid Violet N, 3/4 oz. Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Stone Grey on Wool.--The dye-bath is made with 1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R,
3/4 oz. Cyanole extra, 1-1/2 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 3/4 oz. Acid Yellow,
20 lb. Glauber's salt, 3 lb. acetic acid. Enter at 80° F., then warm slowly and
work to shade, lift, wash and dry.

These recipes will probably be sufficient to show the lines on which greys
may be obtained in wool dyeing. It may be added that from the Acid
Blacks B, B B, and S, good greys of a violet tone may be obtained, using
from 1/2 to 3/4 oz. dye-stuff. The Naphthol Blacks will also be found useful
in the same way, while the greys from Anthracene Chrome Blacks and the
Alizarine blacks are very good and fast.

Red Shades on Wool.--The number of red shades that may be dyed on
wool is infinite. They range over every variety of tint of red, from the palest
blush-rose to the deepest crimson, and from the most brilliant pink to the
dullest grenat shade.

It is quite impossible here to describe the dyeing of every imaginable shade
of red, while the great variety of red dye-stuffs, both natural and artificial,

adds to the difficulty of dealing in the space at command with all the
various methods and dyes that may be used in the dyeing of reds on wool.

The methods that may be adopted for dyeing red shades on wool are many
and various, depending not only on the particular dye-stuff used, but often
on the particular shade that is being dyed. One method, which will yield a
pale and useful tint with a particular dye-stuff, would fail if a full shade
were necessary.

The greater number of red shades are now dyed by means of the artificial
dye-stuffs, as these are much easier to dye than are the natural dyes, and
they give, on the whole, more even and brilliant shades, while as regards
fastness to milling, acids, and light they are fully equal, and in most cases
superior, to the natural dyes.

The Direct Red Dyes.--Of this group of red dye-stuffs, Benzopurpurine,
Titan Scarlet, Diamine Fast Red F, and Benzo Fast Red are types; many of
them have been found to be very serviceable in wool dyeing. They may be
dyed either from plain baths containing common salt or Glauber's salt, or
from baths containing common salt or Glauber's salt and a little acetic acid.

Alkaline or soap baths do not work well as a rule, and must be avoided in
wool dyeing. Generally the dye-bath is exhausted of colour, and full shades
are easily obtained, while these reds are in general remarkable for the
evenness and uniformity of tint which can be produced. The reds so dyed
are, on the whole, fairly fast to soaping, and can be used for dyeing goods
that have to be milled, while their resistance to light and air is fairly good.
Benzopurpurine and Diamine Red are more or less affected by acids, but
the Titan Red and some of the more modern reds, Diamine Brilliant Scarlet,
Benzo Fast Scarlets, are all fast to acids. The fastness to washing and light
of some of them, Benzo Fast Red, Diamine Fast Red F, Titan Red, is much
increased by adding, after the wool has been dyed, 3 per cent. of fluoride of
chromium to the dye-bath, and working a little longer.

The dyeing with these colours is done at the boil, and the goods may be
entered direct into the boiling bath without fear of uneven shades being
produced. This bath may be kept as a standing one, simply adding as each
lot is dyed the necessary quantity of dye-stuff, a little fresh water to bring

the bath up to its original volume, and a corresponding quantity of the salt
originally added. The wool can then be entered and dyed.

In place of using salt or Glauber's salt, acetate of ammonia is an excellent
assistant for this class of dyes.

The following are some recipes for dyeing various shades of red on wool
with this class of dyes.

Scarlet.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. Titan Scarlet C B, and 10 lb.
acetate of ammonia. This gives a good bright shade of scarlet, which is fast
to acids and soaping, although not fast to light.

Scarlet.--Dye in a bath made with 3 lb. Diamine Scarlet B and 10 lb.
Glauber's salt. This yields a light shade, not so fast to acids as the last, but
equally fast to soaping and light.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Benzopurpurine 4 B, and 10 lb.
Glauber's salt. This also gives a good shade of Scarlet fast to soaping. It is
turned dark blue by acids, and is not fast to light. It is very largely used on
underwear goods, but is not so satisfactory for this as the Titan Scarlet C B,
or Benzo Fast Scarlet B S.

Scarlet.--The dye-bath may be made with 3 lb. Brilliant Congo G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 2 lb. acetate of ammonia. This gives a satisfactory shade
of scarlet.

Bright Scarlet.--The dye-bath prepared with 2 lb. Geranine G, 5 lb. sulphate
of soda, 5 lb. acetate of ammonia. Work at the boil for one hour, then wash
and dry.

Dark Crimson.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Chrysophenine, 1-1/2 lb.
Hessian Violet, 25 lb. salt. Heat to 150° F., enter the goods, heat to boil and
dye boiling for one hour, take out, rinse and wash.

Scarlet.--A brilliant shade of scarlet can be dyed in a bath of 3 lb. Benzo
Fast Red, 1 lb. Chrysophenine, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Fast Red.--Dye the wool in a bath boiling, containing 1 lb. Diamine Fast
Red F, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. acetic acid, until the bath is exhausted,
then add 3 lb. fluoride of Chrome and work half an hour longer at the boil.

Bordeaux.--Dye with 3 lb. Diamine Bordeaux, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Pink.--Dye with 2 lb. Diamine Rose B D, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 1 lb.
acetic acid.

The basic red dyes are not very numerous, and comprise Magenta,
Saffranine, Acridine Reds, Acridine Scarlets, Rhoduline Reds, Rhodamine
and Neutral Beds. For successful dyeing they require a perfectly neutral
bath. This bath should contain 10 per cent. of Glauber's salt, and is started
cold and not too strong; when all the material has been entered the steam
may be turned on and the temperature slowly raised, the material being
turned over and over. The operation is continued only until the bath has
been exhausted of colour, when it is stopped, and the wool taken out, and
washed and dried. The liquor in the dye-baths may be allowed to cool
down, and then it may be used for making the dye-bath for a second lot of
goods, or it may be run away. It is best not to add the dye to the bath all at
once, but in several portions as the work proceeds. The affinity of the wool
for the basic dyes is usually so strong that if all were added to the dye-bath
at the start, then the first portion of the goods entered might take up all, or
nearly all, the colour, leaving but little for the last portion; the consequence
being that the goods are dyed of an uneven colour, deeper in some parts
than others. This defect is remedied by adding the dye in portions, entering
the goods rather quickly, working cold, or by adding a little acetic acid and
plenty of Glauber's salt. Notwithstanding all these precautions it is quite
possible for the shades to come up somewhat uneven. These remarks are
applicable not only to the basic reds but to the whole range of basic dyes,
hence this class of dye-stuffs is but little used in the dyeing of wool.

Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Magenta, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt,
working as described above. This gives a fine crimson shade which,
however, is not fast to soaping or to light. The quantity of dye-stuff given
above should not be exceeded or the shades may come up bronzy, this may
be avoided if a trace of acetic acid is added to the dye-bath.

Crimson.--Dye with 2-1/2 lb. of Saffranine and 15 lb. Glauber's salt. This
dyes a fine Crimson shade.

Deep Red.--Use 3 lb. Rhoduline Red and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Scarlet.--The dye-bath is made with 1 lb. Saffranine Prima, 1 lb. Auramine,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. The goods are entered into the dye-bath at about
120° F., and well worked about, then the temperature is raised slowly. When
the dye-bath is exhausted the goods are lifted, washed and dried. There are
no pure basic scarlets, and the above and similar combinations of a basic
red and a basic yellow are the only ways in which a scarlet can be dyed on
wool with basic coal-tar colours.

The basic colours are, in general, the hydrochlorides of some colour base,
and in the process of dyeing the acid constituent of the wool fibre unites
with the colour base, while the hydrochloric acid which is liberated passes
into the dye-bath.

The acid reds are a very large group of red dyes, of somewhat varied
chemical composition, which all have the property of dyeing from baths
containing Glauber's salt and sulphuric acid or acetic acid, the usual
proportions being 10 per cent. of the former, and 2 to 5 per cent. of the acid.
Some are best dyed from a bath containing bisulphate of soda. The dyeing
should be started cold, or at a lukewarm heat, then steam should be turned
on and the temperature raised to the boil, at which it is maintained for an
hour; this boiling serving to more intimately fix the dye-stuff on the
woollen fibre.

The Eosine reds, of which Eosine in its various brands, Rose Bengale,
Phloxine, Saffrosine and Erythrosine, are examples, are best dyed upon
wool from a bath containing Glauber's salt and a little acetic acid. They do
not require a very acid bath, hence the reason of using acetic acid. The
method of dyeing is that given above as for basic reds, namely, enter into
cold, or at most lukewarm bath, and raise the heat slowly, continuing the
work until the shade required has been obtained. It is a good plan to start
work in a neutral bath, and then when the material has become thoroughly
impregnated with the dye-liquor to add the acetic acid. The shades obtained
from these Eosine reds are remarkable for their brilliance, but unfortunately

their fastness to light, washing, etc., is but slight, although it may be
increased by treating the dyed wool in a bath of alum or acetate of lead.

Some of the acid reds, e.g., Acid Magenta, Acid Violet, belong to the group
of sulphonated basic dyes. The vast majority belong to the group of azo
dyes, which can be employed to dye from palest pinks to the deepest
crimson reds. Some dye very brilliant shades, others only yield dull reds.
Some dye shades remarkable for their fastness to all agencies, soap, acids,
alkalies, light and air; others dye shades which may be fast to soap, but
loose to acids and light. Generally even shades are readily obtained on any
kind of woollen fabric. It is practically impossible to name all the acid reds
that are known and that may be used, but a fairly representative series of
recipes will be given.

Ponceau.--Wet out, then prepare a bath with 2 lb. Ponceau R, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Enter the wool in the cold, bring to a
boil and work to shade, wash and dry.

Crushed Strawberry.--Prepare a bath containing 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 4 oz.
Scarlet R S, 9 oz. Indigo extract, 2 oz. Orange Y, 4 oz. sulphuric acid. Enter
wool at 160° F., give four turns, raise temperature slowly to a boil, and turn
to shade, lift and wash.

Scarlet.--Prepare a dye-bath with 2 lb. Azo cochineal, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
4 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil until the full shade is obtained, then
lift, wash and dry.

Terra Cotta Red.--The dye-bath is made from 2-1/2 lb. Fast Acid
Magenta B, 2-1/2 lb. Fast Yellow F Y, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb. sulphuric
acid. Work at the boil to shade.

Fast Scarlet.--Prepare a dye-bath with 3 lb. Glauber's salt, 1-1/4 lb.
sulphuric acid, 2-1/2 lb. Brilliant Scarlet 4 R. Work at the boil for one and a
half hours.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Scarlet 2 R J, 10 lb. Glauber's salt
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. The goods may be entered at about 150° F., and the

temperature raised at the boil and maintained at that heat for one hour, then
the goods are lifted, rinsed and dried.

The method given in the above recipes is that usually followed with the acid
colours. When closely woven or thick goods are being dyed, where it is
desired that the colour should penetrate well into the substance of the
goods, the following modification of working may be adopted:--

The dye-bath is made up with the dye-stuff and Glauber's salt only, and the
goods are worked in this at the boil until they are thoroughly impregnated
with the dye-stuff liquor, then the acid is added in small quantities at a time,
and the dyeing is continued for one hour to fix the colouring matter on the
wool fibre. The goods may then be lifted out, washed and dried.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Scarlet F R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and
2 lb. sulphuric acid. In place of scarlet F R, the F 2 R or F 3 R brands may
be used, the latter giving the reddest shades.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Scarlet O O, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and
2 lb. sulphuric acid. Scarlet O dyes a yellower shade of scarlet, while
scarlets O O and O O O dye slightly redder shades.

Scarlet.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. Brilliant Ponceau 2 R, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. This gives a brilliant shade of
scarlet. Brilliant Ponceau G, used in the same way, gives a much yellower
tone of scarlet, the R gives a slightly yellower tone, while the 3 and 4 R
brands dye redder shades.

Bluish Red.--The dye-bath is made with 2 lb. Brilliant Croceine B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Brilliant croceine B B and the
brand M dye redder shades of scarlet.

Red.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Milling Red R, 20 lb. Glauber's salt, and
5 lb. acetic acid. This is a good bright shade, and is quite fast to soaping and
milling.

Deep Scarlet.--Dye with 3 lb. Chromotrop R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid. This scarlet is very fast to milling, acid and light.

Red.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Victoria Scarlet R, 1 lb. Victoria
Rubine O, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 4 lb. sulphuric acid. A fine deep scarlet
red is obtained.

Scarlet.--Dye with 2 lb. Brilliant Orseille C, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb.
sulphuric acid. This gives a bright bluish shade of scarlet.

Red.--Dye with 1 lb. Emin Red and 5 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Croceine Scarlet 3 R, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Fawn Red.--Make the dye-bath with 1-1/2 oz. Cyanole, 1-1/2 oz. Orange
extra, 2-1/2 oz. Archil Substitute N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid. This gives a nice light tint of fawn red, of a somewhat bluish tone.

Deep Fawn Red.--A very deep shade of fawn red is dyed with 4-1/2 oz.
Cyanole, 2-1/4 lb. Orange extra, 1-1/4 lb. Archil Substitute N, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. The same dye-stuffs are used as in
the last, but the result is a deeper shade, of a yellow tone.

Crushed Strawberry Red.--Use 4 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 2 oz. Cyanine B,
1 oz. Azo yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pale Lilac Rose.--Dye with 1 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 1/2 oz. Cyanine B,
1/2 oz. Azo yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Fawn.--Dye with 3-1/4 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 1-1/2 oz. Orange G, 2 oz.
Cyanine B, 4 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 10 lb. acetic acid, and 20 lb. Glauber's
salt.

Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Titan Red 6 B, 20 lb. salt, with a
little acetic acid, and work at the boil. This gives a fine shade of crimson,
fast to acids and capable of standing milling very well.

Deep Crimson.--A bright and deep crimson is dyed with 4 lb. Fast Acid
Magenta B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the
boil.

Pale Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Fast Acid Magenta B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil. Level shades are
readily obtained, and the dye is fast to washing.

Deep Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a very deep shade of
crimson, of a bluish tone.

Bluish Crimson.--Use in the dye-bath 2 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pale Bluish Crimson.--Use in the dye-bath 1 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a very bright shade of
pale crimson. The B brand of the Azo Fuchsines gives slightly bluer shades
than the above.

Deep Crimson.--A very solid crimson is dyed in a bath containing 3 lb. Azo
Red A, 2 oz. Orange extra, 2 oz. Cyanole extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil.

Bright Crimson.--A fine bluish crimson can be dyed on wool with 4 lb. Azo
Red A, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil.

Deep Crimson.--A good shade can be dyed with 6 lb. Amaranth, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, working at the boil.

Brilliant Pale Bluish Crimson.--A really brilliant shade, bordering on a
violet red, is dyed in a bath containing 1-1/2 lb. Fast Acid Violet R, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bluish Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Croceine Scarlet, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a good full shade of a
bluish tone and very bright.

Bluish Crimson.--Dye with 3 lb. Chromotrop 6 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
3 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a fine tint, very fast to acids, milling and
light.

Purple.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Chromotrop 10 B, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

The Chromotrops are remarkable for the fulness of the shades they dye, the
brightness of their tint, and their fastness to acids, washing and light.

Purple.--Use 4 lb. Azo Fuchsine B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Bluish Purple.--A very dark shade of purple is dyed with 4 lb. Azo Acid
Violet 4 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bordeaux Reds.--These are shades that lie intermediately between the
scarlets and the crimsons. They are in general duller than the scarlets, and
have a more solid and fuller look; while they are less blue in tone than the
crimson. They can be obtained from a large variety of dye-stuffs, and the
recipes given below may be regarded as typical examples.

Bright Bordeaux Red.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo Bordeaux, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil to shade. This is
a very bright shade, of a somewhat bluish tone.

Cherry Red.--Make the dye-bath with 2-1/2 lb. Fast Acid Magenta B, 2-
1/2 lb. Fast Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives
a fine deep shade.

Bright Cherry Red.--A very yellow shade of red, fast to milling, is dyed by
making a dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, 3 lb. Diamine Fast
Red F, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb. acetate of soda, and 2 lb. bisulphate of
soda. Work at the boil for one hour, then lift, add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome,
re-enter the wool and work half an hour longer; wash and dry.

Deep Bordeaux Red.--The dye-bath is made with 4 lb. Diamine Fast Red F,
5 lb. acetate of soda, and 3 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil for one
hour, then lift, add to the bath 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the goods
and work again for half an hour; lift, wash and dry.

Bright Cherry Red.--Make a dye-bath with 4 lb. Benzo Fast Red, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. acetic acid. Work at the boil for one hour, then lift,
add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the goods and work for half an hour
longer; wash and dry.

Cherry Red.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 1-1/2 lb. Fast
Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil for
one hour.

Bluish Bordeaux Red.--For a very fast shade use 8 oz. Fast Acid Violet R,
8 oz. Orange G, 3/4 oz. Patent Blue B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid. Work at the boil for one hour.

Bright Bordeaux Red.--A good bright and fast shade of red is dyed with 3-
1/2 lb. Emin Red and 7 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil for one hour,
then lift, add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, work for three-quarters of an hour,
then lift, wash and dry.

Bordeaux Red.--Use 3 lb. Titan Scarlet D, 1/4 lb. Titan Brown O, and 20 lb.
salt. Work at the boil for one hour, then lift, wash and dry.

Claret Reds.--Claret reds are very useful shades and are great favourites of
the dress-loving public. They are dark reds of a yellow tone, and can be
dyed upon wool in a variety of ways, of which the following recipes just
indicate a few.

Claret.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Milling red R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 4 lb. sulphuric acid.

Claret.--Use 4 lb. Archil Substitute N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Claret.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Bordeaux B L, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Claret.--A deep shade is dyed with 2-1/2 lb. Victoria Scarlet R, 2 lb.
Victoria Rubine O, 1 oz. Cyanine Scarlet R, 2 lb. Victoria Rubine O, 1 oz.
Cyanine B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Claret.--A fine deep shade is dyed with 2 lb. Azo Red A, 1/4 lb. Orange
extra, 1/4 lb. Cyanole, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Maroon Reds.--From clarets to maroons is not a wide interval, they are
both dark shade reds, the former tending to a yellow tone, the latter to a
more bluish shade of red. A few recipes will be given to show some of the
best methods of dyeing maroons.

Maroon.--Use 6 lb. Amaranth B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid. This gives a fine bright shade.

Deep Maroon.--Make the dye-bath with 4-1/2 lb. Fast Acid Violet 10 B,
80 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a fine blue shade of
maroon of great depth.

Maroon.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. Azo acid violet 4 R, 1 lb. Fast
Yellow S, 1-1/2 oz. Fast Green Bluish, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Deep Maroon.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Acid Magenta, 1/2 lb.
Orange O, 1/2 lb. Patent Blue V, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Deep Maroon.--Make a dye-bath with 3 lb. Azo Acid Rubine, 1-1/2 oz.
Acid Black B B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Maroon.--The dye-bath is made with 3 lb. Milling Red B, 1-1/2 oz.
Naphthol Black 4 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Maroon.--Make the dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Victoria Scarlet R, 13 oz.
Victoria Rubine O, 1/2 lb. Victoria Yellow, 2 lb. Keton Blue G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bright Red.--A good shade is dyed with 4 lb. Lanafuchsine S G, and 10 lb.
bisulphate of soda. Lanafuchsine S B dyes somewhat bluer shades.

Fast Red.--Dye with 4 lb. Milling Red B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Bright Scarlet.--Dye with 3 lb. Brilliant Cochineal 2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Scarlet.--Dye with 3 lb. Brilliant Ponceau 4 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pinks.--Pink.--Use 1-1/2 oz. Erythesine D, and 5 lb. acetic acid. These two
pinks are very much alike and are very bright.

Bluish Pink.--Use 1-1/2 oz. Rose Bengale and 5 lb. acetic acid.

Pink.--Make the dye-bath with 3 oz. Azo Cochineal, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bluish Pink.--Make the dye-bath with 3/4 to 1 oz. Fast Acid Violet R and a
little Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pink.--By using 1-1/2 oz. Fast Acid Violet R, 3/4 oz. Orange G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, a good full pink is obtained.

Bluish Pink.--Use 2 oz. Fast Acid Violet R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Many of the other acid reds may be used for dyeing pinks if from 2 to 4 oz.
of dye-stuff be used.

Pink.--Use in the dye-bath 1-1/2 oz. Diamine Fast Red F, 5 lb. acetate of
soda, and 3 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Coral Red.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 lb. Diamine Scarlet B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 1 lb. acetic acid.

Dark Cherry Red.--The dye-bath is made with 2-1/2 lb. Orange G G, 1 lb.
Brilliant Orseille C, 3/4 oz. Cyanole extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Deep Crimson.--Use in the dye-bath 4 lb. Brilliant Orseille C, 1-1/2 oz.
Cyanole extra, 3 oz. Orange G G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Lanafuchsine S G, and 10 lb.
bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil to shade.

Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 4 lb. Lanafuchsine S B, and 10 lb.
bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil to shade.

The Lanafuchsines, of which there are three brands, S G, S B, and 6 B, dye
very good level shades of red from scarlet to crimson, which are of good
fastness to milling, acids and light.

Salmon.--Use 1/2 lb. Rhodamine B, 1/4 oz. Naphthol Yellow S, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Rose Red.--Use 1/4 lb. Lanafuchsine S B, 3 oz. Lanafuchsine S G, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid.

Salmon Red.--Use 1-1/2 oz. Lanafuchsine S G, 1/4 oz. Fast Yellow S, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 1/2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Crimson.--The dye-bath is made with 2 lb. Naphthol Red C, 9 oz.
Acid Magenta, 3/4 oz. Cyanole extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Purple Red.--Dye with 2-1/2 lb. Naphthol Red C, 3/4 lb. Acid Magenta,
1 oz. Cyanole extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bordeaux Red.--Dye with 4 lb. Lanafuchsine S B, 1 oz. Orange extra, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Fawn Red.--Dye with 1/4 lb. Orange G G, 3 oz. Lanafuchsine S B, 1/2 oz.
Cyanole extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Salmon.--Prepare the dye-bath with 1/4 oz. Fast Acid Violet R, 1/2 oz.
Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 1 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil to
shade.

The mordant reds are fairly numerous, and include both natural and
artificial red dye-stuffs. The principle or property on which the application
of this group of dye-stuffs to the dyeing of textile fabrics depends is that

they are of an acid character and combine with metallic oxides, like those of
iron, aluminium, or chromium to form insoluble coloured bodies, or "colour
lakes" as they are called. The shade or tint of these colour lakes depends,
firstly, upon the dye-stuff, and, secondly, upon the metallic oxide. Thus
Alizarine with alumina gives a scarlet, with chrome a dark red, and with
iron a dull violet. Alumina and chrome are the metallic mordants most
commonly used in the dyeing of reds; sometimes tin is used, but never iron.

The coal-tar colour makers have placed at the service of dyers a great
variety of mordant dyes, which may be classified somewhat roughly into
groups, according to their chemical composition. The first group is called
phenolic colours. These contain the group, or radical OH, hydroxyl, once or
oftener. It is to the presence of this group that they owe their acid character
and the property of combination with metallic oxides. To this group of dye-
stuffs belong such dyes as Alizarine, Alizarine Cyanine, Anthragallol,
Gambine, Coerulein, and some others. The natural red dye-stuffs,
Cochineal, Brazil-wood, madder, etc., probably belong to this class.

None of these are essentially dyes of themselves, and used alone will not
dye any fibre, it is only when they are brought into combination with the
mordant that they will dye the wool fibre.

The next group may be called hydroxy-azo dyes, and are quite of modern
introduction. They are azo dyes, one of whose constituents is a body like
salicylic acid, amido-benzoic acid, dihydroxy-naphthalene-sulpho acid,
which contain the group OH, hydroxyl with carboxyl COOH. The first
group imparts phenolic characters, while the second gives true acid
properties, and both of these acting together cause the dyes to be able to
form colour lakes with metallic oxides. There is one point of difference
between the two groups of dyes, the phenolic dyes are as a rule not dyes of
themselves, some of them are practically free from colour, and it is only
when brought into combination with the metallic oxide or mordant that they
form a colour and dye a fibre. On the other hand the azo mordants are in
general colouring matters, and can be used to dye wool without the aid of a
mordant, the latter only serving to make the colour faster to light, acids,
milling, etc., and it often has no material effect on the shade or tone of
colour being dyed. Alizarine Yellow G G, Gambine Yellow, Anthracene
Yellow, Chrome Violet, are examples of such dyes.

There are, however, some dyes (such as the Chromotrops, Azofuchsine,
Anthracene Acid Browns, etc.) on which the mordant has a marked effect.

The methods adopted in practice for the application of this class of dyes are
many and varied. The mordants used are alum, alumina sulphate, acetate of
chrome, chrome alum, fluoride of chrome, ferrous sulphate and tin chloride,

while, in addition, along with these true mordanting materials, assistant
mordants are used, such as argol, tartar, tartaric acid, lactic acid,
lignorosine, oxalic acid and sulphuric acid.

The mordanting may be done either before or after the dyeing, the first plan
being that commonly adopted with the phenolic colours, while the second
method may be used and is the best to use with azo-mordant dyes.
Sometimes the mordanting and dyeing may be done in one bath, but this
method is one which leads to a loss of colouring matter and often to the
production of colours which are loose to rubbing, and cannot, therefore, be
recommended.

Mordanting.--This operation is carried out in the same way in all cases.
The goods are entered into the bath at a temperature of about 150° F. The
heat is raised to the boil, and is then maintained for one and a half hours,
after which the mordanted wool is lifted and well rinsed, when it is ready
for the dye-bath. As mordanting materials bichromate of potash and fluoride
of chrome are chiefly used when chrome mordants are required, sometimes
chrome alum. With these are used sulphuric acid, oxalic acid, cream of
tartar or argol, lactic acid, etc.

Which of these are used depends entirely on the results which are to be got
and the dye-stuff to be used, more particularly is this the case when
bichromate of potash is the mordanting material. When sulphuric acid is
used as the assistant along with the bichrome, then there is formed on the
wool fibre a deposit of chromic acid and chromium oxide, and this exerts an
oxidising effect on the colouring matter or dye-stuff, which in some cases,
as the Alizarine Blue, Alizarine Yellow, etc., leads to a destructive effect,
and, therefore, the production of weak shades, so that it is not possible
always to use an oxidising mordant. When tartar, argol, oxalic acid, lactic
acids and other assistants of an organic nature are used, then a different
effect is obtained, the bichromate is completely decomposed, and a deposit
of chromium oxide formed on the wool. This does not exert any action on
the colouring matter, and hence this mordant is known as the non-oxidising
mordant. It may be pointed out that when wool is mordanted with
potassium or sodium bichromate and sulphuric acid (oxidising mordant) it
has a deep yellow colour, while when mordanted with bichromate or other

chrome salt, and the organic assistants enumerated above (non-oxidising
mordant), it has a green colour, and one sign of a well-mordanted wool is
when it has a good bright tone free from yellowness.

Of the organic assistants tartar is undoubtedly the best in general use, and,
although slow in its action, leaves a good deposit of oxide of chrome on the
wool in a suitable condition to develop the best results on dyeing. Argols
are only an impure tartar. They can only be used when dark shades are to be
dyed. Oxalic acid does not work as well as tartar, and there is not so much
chrome oxide deposited on the wool, while there is a slight tendency for a
small proportion of this to be in the form of chromic acid. Of late years
lactic acid and lignorosine have been added to the list of assistant mordants;
both these give excellent results, they lead to a more complete and more
uniform decomposition of the bichromate, and therefore the mordanting
baths are more completely exhausted, so that rather less bichromate is
required; the shades which are obtained are in general fuller and brighter.
Examples of the use of these assistants will be found among the recipes
given below.

With fluoride of chrome either oxalic acid or tartar is used, and a deposit of
chromium oxide is formed on the wool, the general effect being the same as
when bichromate of potash is used with oxalic acid or tartar.

Alumina is applied either in the form of alum or of sulphate of alumina,
argol or tartar being used as the assistant, oxide of alumina being deposited
on the fibre.

When ferrous sulphate (copperas) is used then tartar is almost invariably
used as the assistant mordant, oxalic acid only rarely.

The dyeing with mordant dyes must be done in a special way and with great
care, if uniform, level shades and fast colours are to be obtained.

The dye-bath must be started cold, and the wool be entered and worked for
twenty to thirty minutes, the object being to cause the dye-stuffs to
penetrate well into the substance of the fibre, then the temperature is slowly
raised to the boil, not less than three-quarters of an hour being taken in
doing so; the temperature is maintained at the boil for fully one and a half

hours longer. During the boiling operation the mordant and dye-stuff
combine together, and form the characteristic colour lake, and the boiling
fixes this firmly on to the wool.

The water used plays a very important part. If too hard in character, the lime
it contains shows a tendency to combine with the dye-stuff and form a
colour lake, which is deposited in a loose form on the wool or in the bath,
tending to make the shades dull and loose to rubbing. This defect can be
remedied by adding a little acetic acid to the dye-bath, say about 3 lb. to
100 gallons of the water. It combines with and neutralises the influence of
the lime, in so far as the formation of a loose colour lake is concerned; still
the lime does unite with the dye-stuff, but the combination is formed more
slowly, and in or on the wool fibre so that it is fast.

By working in the manner laid down above very fast shades can be dyed on
wool with mordant dyes, and the following recipes will give the other
details as to tints, shades, quantities, etc., not noted above.

Claret.--Mordant, 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar; dye, 8 lb.
Alizarine Claret R.

Fawn.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar; dye, 3 lb.
Alizarine Orange N.

Maroon.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar; dye,
15 lb. Alizarine Orange N.

Deep Crimson.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar;
dye, 8 lb. Alizarine Red 1 W S.

Lilac Rose.--Mordant, 1-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar;
dye, 1 lb. Alizarine Red 1 W S.

Crushed Strawberry Tint.--Mordant, 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-
1/2 lb. tartar; dye, 3 lb. Alizarine Red 2 W S.

Deep Claret.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar; dye,
5 lb. Alizarine Red 1 W S.

Bright Fawn Red.--Mordant, 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar;
dye, 1 lb. Alizarine Red 5 W S.

Scarlet.--Mordant, 10 lb. alum and 6 lb. tartar; dye, 4 lb. Alizarine
Red 5 W S.

Rose.--Mordant, 6 lb. alum and 4 lb. tartar; dye, 1 lb. Alizarine Red 1 W S.

Deep Scarlet.--Mordant, 10 lb. alum and 6 lb. tartar; dye, 4 lb. Alizarine
Red 1 W S.

Deep Maroon.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric
acid; dye, 5 lb. Alizarine Red 3 W S.

Bright Maroon.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar; dye,
5 lb. Alizarine Red S W, 10 lb. Mordant Yellow.

Deep Fawn Red.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar;
dye, 10 lb. Alizarine Orange W and 1 lb. Mordant Yellow.

These typical recipes are here given to show what tints may be obtained
from the alizarine and the quantity of dye-stuffs required. By using other
proportions of dye-stuffs than those given a variety of other tints may be
dyed.

The method of working described above is applicable to other mordant
dyeing colours besides the alizarine reds, such as Alizarine Orange,
Alizarine Blue, Anthracene Brown, Alizarine Cyanine, Galloflavine,
Gambine, Chrome Violet, etc. It will therefore not be required to repeat this
description of the process when the use of mordant colours for producing
other colours, such as blues, navies, drabs, browns, etc., is dealt with.

Although the shades dyed with the alizarines and allied colouring matters
are lacking in the brilliance characteristic of the azo scarlets, yet they have
the very great advantage of being quite fast to washing, acids and light.

There is another method of using those alizarine reds that are sold in the
form of powder, and which are distinguished by the letter S. They are of

some value in dyeing heavy woollen cloths, and the method is indicated in
the two recipes which follow:--

Brilliant Scarlet.--Prepare a dye-bath with 20 lb. Glauber's salt and 4 lb.
Alizarine Red 1 W S, boil the wool in this for three-quarters of an hour;
then lift, add to the same bath 4 lb. sulphuric acid, again work at the boil for
three-quarters of an hour; then lift, add 10 lb. alum, re-enter the goods, and
work three-quarters of an hour longer; then lift, wash and dry.

Claret.--Prepare a bath with 20 lb. Glauber's salt and 4 lb. Alizarine
Red 1 W S, boil for three-quarters of an hour; then lift, add 4 lb. sulphuric
acid, re-enter the wool, boil for three-quarters of an hour; then lift, add 3 lb.
bichromate of potash, re-enter the wool, and boil for three-quarters of an
hour longer; then lift, wash and dry.

Bluish Red.--Mordant, 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. lactic acid; dye,
2 lb. Alizarine Red S. In this recipe there is used lactic acid as the assistant,
and a very fine shade results.

Red.--Mordant, 3 lb. lignorosine, 2 lb. bichromate of soda and 1 lb.
sulphuric acid; dye with 12 lb. Alizarine Orange 2 G.

Dark Bordeaux Red.--Mordant, 3 lb. lignorosine, 3 lb. bichromate of soda
and 1-1/2 lb. sulphuric acid; dye, 12 lb. Alizarine S X.

Dark Red.--Mordant, 3 lb. lignorosine, 2-1/2 lb. bichromate of soda and 1-
1/4 lb. sulphuric acid; dye, 6 lb. Alizarine Orange 2 G and 4 lb.
Alizarine S X.

Lignorosine used as the assistant mordant in the above recipes works very
well, and gives bright shades.

Fast Bordeaux.--Prepare a bath with 4 lb. Chromogene I, 1-1/2 lb. Alizarine
Red 1 W S, 1 lb. Alizarine Red 5 W S, 1/2 lb. Fast Acid Violet R, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 3 lb. sulphuric acid. Work at the boil for one hour, then
lift; add to the same bath 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. sulphuric
acid. Re-enter the goods and work to shade, then lift, wash and dry.

Terra Cotta.--Make a dye-bath of 30 lb. Fustic, 8 lb. Turmeric, 30 lb.
Sanders and 10 lb. Sumac. Boil the goods in this for one hour, then add 3 lb.
sulphate of copper, previously dissolved in water, boil for one hour; cool,
sadden with Copperas, using about 3-1/2 lb. or less if required; then rinse
and dry.

Another method is to mordant the goods at a boil for one and a half hours in
2 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar. Drain and wash. Dye in a fresh
bath with 8 lb. sanders and 10 lb. fustic; afterwards sadden with 1/4 lb.
copperas; allow to stand one hour; wash and dry.

Orange Shades on Wool.

With Direct Dyes. Make a dye-bath with 2 lb. Titan Orange, 20 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 1/2 lb. acetic acid. Work at the boil for one and a half
hours, then lift, wash and dry.

Bright Orange.--Dye with 1-1/2 lb. Benzo Orange R, 10 lb. salt, and 1 lb.
acetic acid, working at the boil for one hour.

Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Chloramine Orange, 20 lb. salt, and a little acetic
acid, working at the boil for one hour.

Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Diamine Orange G C, and 20 lb. Glauber's salt.

Pale Orange.--Dye with 3 lb. Diamine Gold, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb.
ammonium acetate.

Reddish Orange.--Dye with 3 lb. Diamine Orange D C and 20 lb. Glauber's
salt.

Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Diamine Scarlet B, 1 lb. Thioflavine S, and 20 lb.
Glauber's salt.

Dark Orange.--Dye with 1 lb. Diamine Red 5 B, 1 lb. Thioflavine S, and
20 lb. Glauber's salt.

With Acid Colours. Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Ponceau 3 G, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bright Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Mandarine G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Orange.--Dye with 2 lb. Croceine Orange, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Bright Orange.--Use 3 lb. Orange G G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid, boiling for one hour.

Orange.--Use 3 lb. Orange R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.
Work at the boil. Orange Extra will give a slightly less red tone of orange,
Croceine orange gives a good bright shade of a yellowish tone.

There are several brands of Orange dyes which can be used; they differ but
little in shade from one another. In general they give fast colours. The
Tropæolines also dye orange shades, but they are not so fast as the other
dyes which have been named.

Gold Orange.--Make a dye-bath with 1/2 lb. Diamine scarlet B, 2 lb.
Anthracene Yellow C, 50 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb. acetate of ammonia. Enter
the wool, work for half an hour, then add 3 lb. bisulphate of soda. Boil
again for half an hour, then lift. Add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the
wool, boil again for half an hour, then lift, wash and dry. This gives a very
fast orange.

With Mordant Dyes. Old Gold.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash
and 1 lb. sulphuric acid; dye with 6 lb. Alizarine Yellow R W.

Pale Orange.--Mordant with 6 lb. alum and 4 lb. tartar; dye with 1 lb.
Alizarine Orange G G.

Deep Orange.--Mordant with 10 lb. alum and 6 lb. tartar; dye with 10 lb.
Alizarine Orange N. This last dye-stuff gives a slightly redder shade of
Orange than does the Alizarine Orange G.

Deep Orange.--Dye in a bath with 1-3/4 lb. Azo Alizarine Orange R R,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, and fix in the same bath with
1 lb. bichromate of potash.

Orange.--Dye in a bath with 1 lb. Alizarine Red 1 W S, 2 lb. Mordant
Yellow O, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, then fix with 1-
1/2 lb. bichromate of potash.

Orange.--Dye in a bath with 1 lb. Anthracene Red, 2 lb. Alizarine Yellow,
10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. After dyeing fix with 2 lb.
fluoride of chrome.

Gold Orange. Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash, and 2 lb. tartar, for
one and a half hours at the boil; rinse. Then dye in a new bath with 1 lb.
Alizarine Orange, 17 lb. Fustic extract. Work at 100° F. for half an hour,
then heat gradually to the boil and dye for one and a half hours at that
temperature; lift, rinse and wash.

Olive Yellow on Worsted Yarn.--Mordant the yarn by boiling for one hour
or one and a half hours in a bath of 3 lb. bichromate of potash; then dye in a
bath of 1-1/2 lb. Gambine Yellow and 10 lb. of fustic chips.

Red and orange form a kind of group of colours which shade off one into
the other almost imperceptibly by using a range of dyes such as
Croceine A Z, Brilliant Croceine 9 B, Brilliant Croceine 7 B, Brilliant
Croceine 5 B, Brilliant Croceine 3 B, Brilliant Croceine M O O, Crystal
Scarlet 6 R, Brilliant Cochineal 4 R, Brilliant Croceine B, Brilliant
Cochineal 2 R, Orange E N Z, and Croceine Orange E N. It is possible to
dye shades from a scarlet crimson to a bright orange.

Yellow Shades on Wool.

The number of yellow dye-stuffs is very great, and the variety of tints
infinite. Yellow may be dyed with both natural and artificial dye-stuffs, and
the recipes given will include examples showing the use of both kinds.
Speaking generally, yellow dye-stuffs include amongst them some of the

fastest colours known, and there is a larger proportion of fast yellow
colouring matters than of any other class of dye-stuffs.

With Acid Yellows. Bright Yellow.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Fast
Yellow F Y, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the
boil to shade.

Olive Yellow.--Prepare the dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo Carmine, 1-1/2 oz.
indigo carmine, 1/2 lb. Fast Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid, working at the boil to shade.

Maize Yellow.--Prepare a dye-bath with 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, 3 oz.
Anthracene Yellow C, 1/4 oz. Diamine Fast Red F. Work for twenty minutes
at the boil, then add 3 lb. bisulphate of soda; work half an hour longer, and
then wash and dry.

Bright Canary.--Prepare a dye-bath with 4 lb. bisulphate of soda, 1/2 lb.
Nitrazine Yellow. Heat the bath to about 120° F., enter the goods and heat
up to the boil, and work till the bath is exhausted, then lift; add to the dye-
bath 3 lb. alum, 3 lb. tin spirits; re-enter the goods, and boil for twenty
minutes longer; lift, wash and dry.

Bright Straw.--Dye with 3 oz. Phenoflavine and 20 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Straw.--Make the dye-bath with 1-1/4 oz. Azo Yellow, 1 dr. Cyanine B, 1 dr.
Chromotrop 2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid.

Greenish Straw.--Dye with 1/4 oz. Cyanine B, 1 oz. Victoria Yellow, 1/4 oz.
Chromotrop 2 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid.

Olive Yellow.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric
acid; dye with 3 lb. Milling yellow O and 1 lb. acetic acid.

Bright Yellow.--A good shade is dyed in a bath of 2 lb. Milling yellow O,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil.

Olive Yellow.--Dye with 1-1/2 lb. Titan Yellow R, 10 lb. common salt, and
1 lb. acetic acid; after the colour has fully gone on to the wool, add to the

bath 1-1/2 lb. fluoride of chrome and maintain at the boil for half an hour;
then lift, wash and dry.

Deep Yellow.--The dye-bath is made with 1-1/2 lb. Titan Yellow R, 10 lb.
common salt, and 1 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil to shade.

Yellow.--A good shade is dyed with 1-1/2 lb. Titan Yellow Y, 10 lb. common
salt, and 1/2 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil to shade.

Golden Yellow.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar;
dye with 1 lb. Anthracene Yellow C.

Deep Golden Yellow.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Anthracene Yellow C,
and 3 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work at the boil for half an hour, then lift; add
3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the wool and work at the boil for another
half-hour, then wash and dry.

Deep Olive Yellow.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb.
tartar; dye with 20 lb. fustic extract. This gives a very deep shade of olive
Yellow.

Bright Lemon Yellow.--Make the dye-bath with 10 lb. Gambine Yellow, 7 lb.
alum, and 2 lb. oxalic acid. Enter cold, then slowly heat to the boil and
work to shade; then lift, wash and dry.

Leaf Yellow.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1/2 lb. sulphuric
acid; then dye with 2 lb. Gambine Y and 1 lb. Yellow N.

Deep Leaf Yellow.--A somewhat deeper shade than the last is dyed by first
mordanting with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1/2 lb. sulphuric acid, then
dyeing with 2 lb. Gambine R and 1 lb. Yellow N.

Lemon Yellow.--Prepare a bath with 40 lb. fustic, 6 lb. alum, 6 lb. tartar, and
3/4 lb. tin crystals; enter the wool and work at the boil for one and a half
hours, then lift, wash and dry.

Olive Yellow.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar; dye,
3 lb. extract of fustic.

Deep Lemon.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar; dye,
1 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W.

Golden Yellow.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric
acid; dye, 10 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W.

Light Straw.--Make the dye-bath with 3 oz. Anthracene Yellow B N, 5 lb.
acetate of ammonia, and 3 lb. bisulphate of soda; work at the boil to shade,
then lift, wash and dry.

Old Gold.--A very fine shade of old gold is obtained by dyeing in a bath of
3 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, and 3 lb. bisulphate of
soda. Work at the boil for three-quarters of an hour, then lift; add to the dye-
bath 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the wool, and work for one and a half
hours longer at the boil; lift, wash and dry.

Deep Yellow.--Mordant, 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar; dye,
2 lb. Mordant Yellow D.

Pale Olive Yellow.--Dye with 3 lb. Anthracene Yellow G G, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 2 lb. acetic acid; after the dye-bath is exhausted of colour add 3 lb.
fluoride of chrome, and work at the boil half an hour longer.

Gold Yellow.--Dye with 3 lb. Anthracene Yellow B N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 3 lb. acetic acid; after half an hour's boil, add 1-1/2 lb. bichromate of
potash, work for half an hour longer.

Gold Yellow.--Dye with 2 lb. Indian Yellow R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Green Shades on Wool.

Of green shades there is an infinite variety, and these can be dyed in several
ways. Either a simple green dye-stuff may be used or mixtures of blue and
yellow dye-stuffs may be employed, this latter method being extremely
common. It is somewhat interesting to notice that, notwithstanding the great
prevalence of green in Nature, the dyer has at his command no natural

green dye-stuff, but must, if he prefers to adopt natural dye-stuffs, use a
mixture of blue and yellow dye-stuffs to produce green shades. There are
but few green colouring matters derived from coal tar: Gambine, Dinitroso-
resorcine, Alizarine Green, Brilliant Green, Malachite Green, Azo Green,
Fast Green, Naphthol Green, Acid Green, Diamine Green, Benzo Green
almost exhaust the list. Compared with the numerous red and blue dyes
which are obtained from coal-tar products, green dyes are conspicuous by
their fewness. On the other hand, the dyer has in the blue and yellow dyes
from coal tar a means of producing any tint or shade of green he may
require.

Members of all the classes of basic, direct, acid, azo and mordant dyes, can
be found among the dye-stuffs which can be used in dyeing green, and the
methods and principles of their application have been fully described in
previous pages. The following recipes contain all the practical information
that is needed:--

With Direct Dyes. Dark Green.--The dye-bath is made with 1 lb. Titan
Blue 3 B, 1 lb. Titan Yellow Y, 2 lb. salt, and 1/2 lb. acetic acid.

Bright Green.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1 lb. Titan Yellow G, 1 lb. Titan
Blue 3 B, 20 lb. salt, and 1/2 lb. acetic acid, working at the boil for one
hour.

Dark Green.--Make a dye-bath with 4 lb. Acid Blue 4 S, 2 lb. Titan
Yellow Y, and 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, working at the boil to shade.

Blue Green.--Make the dye-bath with 6 lb. Acid Blue 4 S, 2-1/2 lb. Titan
Yellow Y, and 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, working at the boil to shade.

Bottle Green.--The dye-bath is made with 5 lb. Acid Blue 4 S, 2-1/2 lb.
Titan Yellow Y, and 5 lb. acetate of ammonia, working at the boil to shade.
The greens shown in the last three recipes are of a very satisfactory
character, and show how, by the use of acetate of ammonia in the dye-bath,
the direct dyeing Titan colours can be combined with acid colours.

Green.--Make the dye-bath with 5 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia, 2 lb. Sulphon Cyanine, and 1-1/2 lb. Chrysophenine.<7p>

Dark Green.--The dye-bath is made with 2 lb. Sulphon Cyanine, 3/4 lb.
Chrysophenine, 5 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb. acetate of ammonia.

Pale Russian Green.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 lb. Sulphon Cyanine, 2-
1/2 oz. Chrysophenine, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

The last three shades have the merit of being fast to milling, and fairly so to
light.

Olive.--Make a dye-bath with 1 lb. Nyanza Black B, 1 lb. Chrysamine, and
20 lb. Glauber's salt. Work at the boil to shade, lift, wash and dry.

With Acid Dyes. Blue Green.--Make a dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
2 lb. sulphuric acid, 2 lb. Patent Blue N, and 1 lb. Azo Yellow, working at
the boil.

Sage Green.--The dye-bath is made with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb.
sulphuric acid, 2 lb. Azo Yellow, and 1 lb. Patent Blue N, working at the
boil.

Olive Green.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Naphthol Green B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, 15 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 1 lb. copperas, working at the
boil to shade.

Bright Green.--Make the dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 5 lb.
bisulphate of soda, and 1-1/2 lb. Acid Green B, working at the boil to shade.

Emerald Green.--The dye-bath is made with 1/2 lb. Acid Green B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. The wool might also be previously
mordanted with 15 lb. hyposulphite of soda, and 5 lb. sulphuric acid at the
boil for one and a half hours, when it will give a bright shade of emerald
green.

Grass Green.--Dye a medium indigo bottom on the wool from the vat, then
dye in a bath with 1 lb. Milling Yellow O, 5 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb.
bisulphate of soda; lift, wash and dry.

The last recipe shows the use of the indigo vat in giving the blue constituent
in dyeing greens and other compound colours on wool. This, while being a
very effective method of dyeing, yet necessitates two operations which add
very materially to the cost of dyeing such shades, hence it is not used for
dyeing low class woollen fabrics, but for better class goods it is frequently
adopted, fast colours being thus obtained.

In thus using the indigo vat as a bottom dye regard to the properties of
indigo must be paid in carrying out any subsequent dyeing operation, so
that the indigo on the fibre be not destroyed. As a rule, the indigo will resist
any ordinary baths made with Glauber's salt, acetate of ammonia, sulphuric
or acetic acids, but it will not resist mordanting operations with bichromate
of potash, for the latter salt destroys the indigo. Fluoride of chrome, chrome
acetate, or alum, may be used as mordants if necessary.

Pale Sea Green.--The dye-bath contains 1 oz. Cyanine B, 1 oz. Azo Yellow,
5 lb. Glauber's salt, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid.

Moss Green.--The dye-bath is made with 1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 2 oz.
Cyanine B, 4 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 3-1/4 oz. Azo Yellow, 5 lb. acetic acid,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Deep Moss Green.--Prepare the dye-bath with 4-1/2 oz. Cyanine B, 9 oz.
Fast Acid Blue R, 4-1/2 oz. Azo yellow, 1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 5 lb.
acetic acid, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Blue Green.--A very fine shade of blue green is dyed with 9-1/2 oz.
Cyanine B, 1-1/4 lb. Fast Acid Blue R, 4 oz. Azo Yellow, 5 lb. acetic acid,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Emerald Green.--A pale, but brilliant shade of green is dyed with 1-1/4 oz.
Patent Blue V, 4-1/4 oz. Azo Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Bright Leaf Green.--Dye in a bath with 13 oz. Victoria Yellow, 1/2 lb.
Patent Blue V, 1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Deep Leaf Green.--The dye-bath is made with 22 oz. Cyanine B, 1 lb. Azo
Yellow, 2-1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Bright Peacock Green.--The dye-bath is made with 5 oz. Chromotrop 6 B,
4 oz. Patent Blue V, 7 oz. Azo Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Dark Beige Green.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 lb. Fast Green Bluish, 6 oz.
Fast Yellow F Y, 4-1/2 oz. Azo Fuchsine G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Invisible Green.--Make the dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Fast Green Bluish, 1-
1/4 lb. Fast Yellow F Y, 1 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Pale Sage Green.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo Acid Brown, 1/2 lb.
Fast Acid Violet 10 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bright Grass Green.--Make a dye-bath with 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb.
sulphuric acid, 3/4 lb. Phenoflavine, 3/4 lb. Azo Carmine B, and 5-3/4 lb.
extract of indigo.

Moss Green.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo Acid Brown, 1/4 lb. Fast
Acid Violet 10 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Dark Sage Green.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Azo Acid Brown, 1/2 lb.
Fast Acid Violet 10 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Emerald Green.--A fine shade of emerald green can be dyed in a bath which
is made from 1/2 lb. Fast Green Bluish, 1 lb. Fast Yellow F Y, 1 lb. Acid
Violet 6 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bottle Green.--Make a dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Victoria Violet 8 B S, 3/4 lb.
Victoria Yellow, 2 oz. Naphthol Yellow S, 1 oz. Fast Acid Violet R, 1/2 oz.
Cyanine B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Work for one hour
at the boil, then lift; add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter the wool, and
work for half an hour at the boil.

Pale Pea Green.--A fine bright shade is dyed in a bath containing 1-1/2 oz.
Cyanole, 3/4 oz. Naphthol Yellow and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. By
increasing the quantity of dye-stuff in proportion to the material, fine deep
shades of green can be dyed.

Deep Electric Green.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Cyanole, 1 lb. Indian
Yellow G and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, working at the boil for one hour;
then lift, wash and dry.

With Mordant Dyes. Green.--Mordant with 10 lb. alum, 1 lb. bichromate
of potash and 16 lb. tartar. Dye with 10 lb. indigo extract, 2 lb. fustic extract
and 3 lb. alum, working at the boil; lift, wash and dry.

Dark Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash, 8 lb. alum and 3 lb.
tartar. Dye with 10 lb. extract of indigo, 2 lb. extract of fustic and 3 lb.
alum, working at the boil.

Sea Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar at
the boil for one and a half hours. Dye with 1-1/4 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W,
3-3/4 lb. Alizarine Yellow and 5 oz. Alizarine Brown, at the boil for two
hours.

Bronze Green.--Make a dye-bath with 2 lb. Cyanole extra, 2 lb.
Tropeoline O, 1 lb. Archil Substitute N and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda,
working at the boil to shade.

Green.--A very fine shade of green is dyed as follows: Mordant with 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar. Dye with 4 lb. Alizarine Blue
D N W, 1-1/2 lb. Patent Blue A and 2-3/4 lb. Alizarine Yellow.

Blue Green.--Mordant as in the last recipe. Dye with 6 lb. Alizarine Blue
D N W, 1-1/2 lb. Patent Blue A, and 1-1/4 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W.

Bright Pale Sage Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid. Dye with 5 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W, 3/4 lb. Alizarine
Brown and 1-1/4 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W.

Deep Sage Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 4 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W, 3-1/4 lb. Anthracene Brown
and 2-1/4 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W.

Pale Sea Green.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 1 lb. Coeruleine B.

Bottle Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 20 lb. Coeruleine S W.

Slate Green.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 3 lb. Alizarine Green S.

Invisible Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 17-1/2 lb. Alizarine Green S.

Peacock Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 8 lb. Alizarine Green S.

Dark Bottle Green.--Mordant with 4 lb. bichromate of potash and 3 lb.
tartar. Dye with 15 lb. Anthracene Blue W G, and 1-1/2 lb. Mordant Yellow.

Invisible Green.--Mordant with 3-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar, working at the boil for one and a half hours. Dye with 20 lb.
Alizarine Green S W, and 1 lb. acetic acid.

Sage Green.--Give a medium indigo ground to the wool in a vat, then dye
for one hour at the boil in a vat containing 1/2 lb. Anthracite Black B, 2 lb.
Anthracene Yellow C, 2 oz. Diamine Fast Red F, and 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia; then lift, add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, re-enter into the dye-bath
and work half an hour longer at the boil; lift, wash and dry.

Peacock Green.--Give a medium indigo bottom on the vat, then dye for one
hour at the boil in a dye-bath made with 1/2 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, 2 oz.
Diamine Fast Red F, and 5 lb. acetic acid; then lift, add 3 lb. fluoride of
chrome, work for half an hour longer at the boil, then lift, wash and dry.

Bottle Green.--Mordant by boiling in a bath of 3 lb. copperas and 1 lb.
oxalic acid. Dye in a bath with 15 lb. Gambine R.

Light Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. copperas and 1 lb. oxalic acid. Dye with
2-1/2 lb. Gambine Y.

Medium Green.--Mordant as in the last dye with 10 lb. Gambine Y.

Deep Grass Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 9 lb. Coerulein and 1-3/4 lb. Galloflavine.

Bright Grass Green.--Mordant with 4 lb. copperas and 1 lb. oxalic acid.
Dye with 5 lb. Gambine Y, 1/2 lb. Yellow N, and 2 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Shades dyed with Gambine are very fast to milling and light.

Pale Sage Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. tartar.
Dye with 1/2 lb. Milling Yellow O, 2 lb. Alizarine Black S W, and 2 lb.
acetic acid.

Medium Green.--Mordant with 2-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb.
oxalic acid. Dye with 1-1/2 lb. Diamond Yellow B, 3-1/2 lb. Brilliant
Alizarine Blue G, and 1 lb. acetic acid.

Invisible Bronze Green.--Give a medium bottom on the indigo vat and then
mordant with 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. tartar. Finally dye with 3 lb.
Alizarine Bordeaux S, and 4 lb. Diamond Flavine, working at the boil for
two hours.

Pale Slate Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar, and then dye with 1 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W, Alizarine Yellow and
5 oz. Alizarine Brown.

Light Green.--Mordant in the usual way with 2-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash
and 2 lb. tartar. Dye with 1 lb. Methylene Blue and 1 lb. fustic extract,
working at the boil.

Fast Green.--Mordant with 8 lb. alum, 2 lb. bichromate of potash, 2 lb.
sulphuric acid and 3/4 lb. tin salt. Dye with 20 lb. indigo extract and 10 oz.

fustic extract, working at the boil for one and a half hours.

Bottle Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 4 lb. extract of fustic, 1 lb. extract of logwood, and 2 oz.
Anthracene Red. Work for one and a half hours, then add 3/4 lb. copperas,
and work for half an hour longer.

Dark Green.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 1-1/2 lb. Methylene Blue, 1-1/2 lb. extract of logwood, and 4 lb.
extract of fustic, working at the boil for two hours.

Olive.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1-1/2 lb. Yellow N, 1/4 lb. Archil
Substitute, 4 lb. extract of indigo, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb. sulphuric acid,
and 2 lb. alum, working at the boil to shade.

Bright Green.--Prepare a dye-bath containing 8 oz. Acid Green Extra and
10 per cent. bisulphate of soda. Enter at 130° F., raise to the boil, boil for
three-quarters of an hour, and rinse.

Bluish Green.--Prepare a dye-bath containing 8 oz. Fast Acid Green B N
and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Enter at 130° F., raise to the boil, boil for
three-quarters of an hour, and rinse.

Bluish Green.--Prepare a dye-bath containing 8 oz. Cyanole Green 6 G and
10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Enter at 130° F., raise to the boil, boil for three-
quarters of an hour, and rinse.

Turquoise Green.--Prepare a dye-bath containing 8 oz. Cyanole Green B
and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Enter at 130° F., raise to the boil, boil for
three-quarters of an hour, and rinse.

Slate Green.--Mordant the wool by boiling for one and a half hours in a
bath containing 3 lb. bichromate of potash, 1-1/4 lb. Copper sulphate and 2-
1/4 lb. tartar; then rinse well, and dye in a bath containing 2-1/2 lb.
Logwood Extract (dry), 1-1/4 lb. Fustic Extract (dry), and 3 lb. Sumac.
Enter the goods in a warm bath, work for half an hour, then raise to the boil
and work for three-quarters of an hour; lift, and sadden by adding 6 oz.
Copperas. After re-entering the goods, work to shade.

Olive.--Boil two hours in a bath consisting of 1-1/2 lb. tin salt, 2-1/2 lb.
bichromate of potash, 10 lb. alum and 2-1/2 lb. sulphuric acid. Then enter in
a boiling dye-bath containing 1-1/2 lb. alum, 4 lb. fustic extract and 3-
1/2 lb. indigo extract.

Fulling Fast Olive.--For one hour upon a bath containing 50 lb. Fustic, 5 lb.
Bluestone, 2 lb. Tartar, 4 lb. Sumac, 1 lb. Copperas; lift and wash.

Fast Bright Olive.--Boil for one hour upon a bath of 50 lb. Fustic, 3 lb.
Bluestone, 2 lb. tartar, 1 lb. copperas, 2 oz. indigo extract.

Yellow Olive.--Prepare a bath containing 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 1-1/2 lb.
Anthracene Yellow B N, 2 lb. extract of indigo, 3 oz. Orange E N Z, 4 lb.
sulphuric acid. Enter yarn at 160° F., give three turns, raise the temperature
slowly to the boil, turn to shade; lift, and wash.

Olive Green.--Mordant with 2 lb. potash bichromate, 1-1/2 lb. sulphate of
copper, 1/2 lb. sulphuric acid. Boil for an hour and a half. Dye in a bath
with 8 lb. Fustic extract, 5 lb. Sumac, 5 lb. Logwood, at the boil for an hour
and a half.

Olive Bronze.--Make the dye-bath with 10 oz. Fast Yellow S, 5 lb. Indigo
extract, 5 oz. Orange E N Z, 4 lb. sulphuric acid, 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Enter
yarn at 140° F., work for a few minutes, then bring slowly to the boil and
work to shade.

Emerald Green.--Prepare the dye-bath with 1 lb. Acid Green B N, 2 oz.
Naphthol Yellow S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Enter cold,
then raise to the boil and work for a quarter of an hour; wash and dry.

Invisible Green.--First mordant the wool in a bath containing 3 lb.
bichromate of potash, 1-1/2 lb. copper sulphate, 1 lb. sulphuric acid. Work
at the boil for one and a half hours, then dye in a fresh bath containing 2 lb.
Milling Yellow O, 2 lb. Logwood extract, 20 lb. Glauber's salt. Work at the
boil for one and a half hours, then lift, wash and dry.

Sea Green.--Prepare a dye-bath with 5 lb. Glauber's salt, 2 lb. sulphuric
acid, 2 lb. indigo extract, 1/2 per cent. Acid Green blue shade. Dye as usual.

Cyprus Green B, and Cyprus Blue B, belong to a new group of dyes that
owe their value in wool dyeing to the fact that the dyeings after being
treated with copper sulphate become very fast to light and washing. Three
per cent. of each gives very full shades of bluish green or dark blue. The
dyeing is done with Glauber's salt and acetic acid when reddish shades are
got; these in a bath of copper sulphate turn green or blue.

Blue Shades on Wool.

There are a very large number of blue artificial dyes of every class, but only
a few natural ones, indigo and logwood, and with these every imaginable
tint and shade of blue from the palest sky tints to the darkest navy blue or
blue black can be produced.

While some of the blue colouring matters possess no great powers of
resistance to light, air, washing, etc., the great majority are remarkable for
their fastness to those destructive agencies.

There are but two natural dye-stuffs, indigo and logwood, from which blue
tints can be dyed. With the former, a great variety of shades can be dyed of
a satisfactory character as regards fastness; with the latter, only dark blues
can be dyed, these are fairly fast to milling, but only moderately so to light.

The artificial blues derived from coal tar are very numerous, and
representatives of all classes, direct, basic, acid and mordant of dye-stuffs
may be found among them. The direct blue dyes do not work very well on
wool. They are apt to dye very red, and somewhat dull shades, which are,
however, fairly fast to washing and light. The basic blue dyes are fairly
numerous, and may be used to dye from pale sky to deep navy tints. They
are apt to work somewhat unevenly on to wool, owing to their great affinity
for the fibre. They give shades possessing some degree of resistance to
light, but which are not very fast to washing and milling, although, in this
respect, there are very great differences among them. The acid dyeing blues
are fairly numerous, but they dye a great variety of tints, usually fairly fast
to washing, milling and light. The mordant blues are pretty numerous and of
great value for dyeing wool, as they give shades which are remarkable for

their fastness to light, acids and milling, hence they are most extensively
used, especially for dyeing fabrics that are subject to very hard wear.

Indigo Dyeing.--It will be most convenient to begin the description of the
methods of dyeing blues by showing how, and in what manner, indigo is
applied in wool dyeing.

The dyeing of indigo on wool is effected in two ways, either in the usual
way with acid baths, as with acid scarlets, when the so-called indigo extract
is used, or in vats, when indigo itself forms the dye-stuff.

Indigo is, as all dyers know, or should know, a natural dye-stuff, prepared
from the leaves and twigs of the indigo plant by a species of fermentation
which produces the indigo in a soluble form from the indigo substance in
the plant, followed by oxidation which results in the separation of the
indigo from this solution.

It comes into this country in the form of lumps, which have a dark blue to
bronze blue colour. The dye-stuff is insoluble in water, cold alcohol,
alkalies or weak acids. When heated with strong and fuming sulphuric acid
it dissolves, forming a blue liquor from which the colouring matter may be
obtained on addition of soda in the form of a paste, which is used in wool
and silk dyeing under the name of indigo extract. But dissolving in
sulphuric acid materially affects the properties of indigo as a dye-stuff, as
will be seen later on.

By the action of reducing agents the insoluble blue indigo is converted into
a soluble white indigo. This body is rather unstable, and on exposure to the
air it rapidly becomes oxidised and converted back again into the blue
indigo. Upon this principle is based the application of indigo in dyeing by
means of the vat.

Various methods may be adopted to cause the indigo to become dissolved.
These may be divided into two groups: (1) Fermentation vats, in which the
action of reducing agents is brought about through the influences of the
fermentation of organic bodies, such as woad, bran, treacle, etc; (2)
Chemical vats in which the reducing effect is brought about by the reaction
of various agents on one another.

Of such vats the copperas and lime and the hydrosulphite vats are examples.
The fermentation vats, when in good order, work well and give good
results, but they are most difficult to prepare or set. The chemical vats are
the easiest to work, and (especially the hydrosulphite vats) are coming to
the fore, and are gradually driving out the fermentation vats.

The actual method of dyeing with the indigo vat is the same with all
methods of preparation. The material to be dyed is well wetted or wrung out
in water. It is then dipped into the vat, handled a few minutes to ensure its
thorough impregnation, then lifted out, the surplus liquor wrung out, and
the material exposed to the air, when the indigo white on it soon absorbs
oxygen and turns into blue indigo.

With these few preliminary remarks the methods of setting the various
indigo vats will now be described in detail.

Woad Indigo Vats.--This is one of the most difficult of the various methods
of setting vats. There are so many opportunities for it to go wrong, and to be
able to set a woad vat successfully will go far to make a man a successful
indigo dyer. No two woad vat dyers use exactly the same recipe in setting a
woad vat, and each considers he has a secret art by means of which he
ensures the successful working of this vat, and this he jealously guards. All
these differences in the manner of setting the vat are brought about not by
any radical differences in the materials used, but by some unnoticed
differences in other surroundings; differences in the mean temperature of
the water used, in the general conditions of the atmosphere of the indigo
shed and in other similar circumstances, all of which have a material
influence on the development of the vat, but which are, in the majority of
cases, overlooked by the indigo dyer, the result being that a method of
working which is successful in one place would not be so in another. The
fermentation processes depend upon the reducing action brought about by
certain organisms of the nature of the yeast plant which grow and develop
in such vats.

To ensure the proper growth and development of these organisms every
condition must be perfect, correct temperature, proper proportions of food
for them to live on, and a certain degree of alkalinity or acidity of the vat,

and these points are most difficult to regulate as they will vary very much
from time to time.

A successful vat maker is one who closely observes his vats, and the way in
which they are working, and who, as the result of such observations, is able
to tell in what way his vats are deficient, so that he may know how to
supply that deficiency.

The following method of setting a woad vat may be adopted. It is calculated
for 100 gallons of liquor. The vat is filled with hot water, and 80 lb. of woad
are allowed to steep overnight in it, having first been well stirred into the
water, so as to ensure that every part is wetted out. The next morning there
is added 8 lb. madder, 12 lb. bran, 5 lb. quick-lime (previously slaked with
water), and 2-1/2 lb. soda. These are thoroughly stirred together, then from
5 to 7-1/2 lb. indigo is stirred in. The indigo should have been previously
ground into a fine paste with water. The temperature of the vat should now
be maintained at from 115° to 125° F. for two to three days, at the end of
which time it ought to be in a state of quiet working. Should it be found that
the fermentation is going on too rapidly, a little lime may be thrown in,
which will retard it. On the other hand, if it should not be going on with
sufficient energy, this may be remedied by adding a little bran, or better, a
little treacle.

When in perfect condition the vat should have a slight smell of ammonia. If
this is not noticed it indicates that the vat is deficient in alkalinity, and a
little more lime should be added. Soda may be used in the place of lime, but
it is so much more energetic in character that any additions of it have to be
made with great care, or the vat will become too alkaline in character, and
the fermentation will go on too rapidly, the ammoniacal odour is lost, and a
peculiar putrid smell takes its place. As soon as this is noticed, lime ought
to be added to retard the fermentation and to develop the ammoniacal smell.
The colour of a good well-set vat is olive brown.

When all the indigo is dissolved and the colour of the vat is a clear olive
yellow to brown the vat is then ready for dyeing, and may be used for a
long time, until, in fact, the deposit gets too large and the wool becomes
dirtied. But it must not be continually worked, or it will give bad shades and
loose colours. When in a bad condition it will usually turn of a dark brown

colour, and give dull greenish shades. To remedy this there should be added
some bran, treacle, and a little madder, as well as indigo, and the vat should
be left for a day, at a temperature of 130° F., to get up to full strength again.
Every night when in work indigo ought to be added to the vat in proportion
to that consumed during the day, with bran and lime, the latter in not too
great amount, just sufficient to keep it of the necessary alkalinity.

Hydrosulphite Vat.--This is one of the best vats to use in dyeing with
indigo on wool, or, indeed, on any textile fabric. It is easy to prepare and
cleanly to work. While depending solely on chemical action for its
preparation and use, it is freer from those peculiar defects to which organic
vats, like the woad vats, are liable.

There is a further advantage about this vat, it is not necessary to prepare
each individual vat separately, but a strong mother liquor or concentrated
indigo solution may be prepared, and this only requires letting down with
water to produce a vat of any required strength.

In the preparation of this vat, which was devised by Schutzenberger and
Lalande, bisulphite of soda and zinc dust are used with either quick-lime or
caustic soda. The bisulphite of soda is allowed to act on the zinc as will be
detailed when an acid solution of sodium hydrosulphite NaHSO2, more
strictly hydrogen sodium hydrosulphite, is obtained. The acid solution of
hydrosulphite has the property of rapidly reducing and dissolving indigo,
and this solution may be used in dyeing. To prepare the hydrosulphite a
vessel which is fitted with an agitator and can be closed is filled with zinc,
either in the form of dust, foils, or granules. Then bisulphite of soda of 50°
to 60° Tw. strength is poured over the zinc in sufficient quantity to cover it.
All access of air should be avoided as much as possible, as it leads to
oxidation. In the case of using zinc powder the action is often so rapid as to
lead to heating, which also should be avoided. The operation takes from an
hour to two hours, when the liquor may be drawn off. It must be used
immediately to dissolve the indigo; or otherwise, as it is a very unstable
body, it is liable to decompose and become oxidised, when it loses its
solvent properties. If more hydrosulphite is required, fresh bisulphite may
be poured over the zinc which is left unused in the vessel; if no more is
wanted the zinc which is left should be well rinsed in water and the vessel

filled with water, so as to prevent any oxidation of the zinc, and so keep it
ready for use when required. The liquor thus made will usually have a
specific gravity of 62° Tw. The zinc which is used up in the preparation of
the liquor is replaced by fresh zinc from time to time.

The liquor so obtained is, as stated above, rather unstable, and contains acid
sodium hydrosulphite. By mixing with milk of lime, the acidity is
neutralised, zinc oxide and calcium sulphite are thrown down, and a
solution of neutral sodium hydrosulphite is obtained which is more stable
and can be kept longer without decomposition. To prepare this, take 10
gallons of the acid liquor, as prepared in the manner described above, and
mix it with 48 lb. of milk of lime, which is made from 2 lb. good quick-
lime. Stir well together, allow all sediment to settle, or better, filter-press the
mass. A liquor of 36° Tw. strength will usually be obtained. Do not let it
stand too long before use, make it alkaline by adding a little lime.

To make the mother or stock indigo, the following method of procedure
may be adopted. Indigo, say 10 lb., is ground into as fine a paste as possible
with 13 lb. milk of lime, of such a strength that 1 gallon shall contain 30 oz.
quick-lime. To this is then added so much of either the acid or the neutral
sodium hydrosulphite as can be made from 90 lb. of bisulphite of soda, the
mixture being kept at 150° F., until a comparatively clear, greenish yellow
solution is obtained, this will contain about 1 lb. of indigo per gallon.

This mother liquor may be used in setting the vat as follows. The vat is
filled with water which is heated to 120° F., about 200 gallons being used.
To this is then added 1 gallon of either hydrosulphite or bisulphite of soda
to destroy the free oxygen it contains, and prevent it from oxidising the
indigo solution, which is next added. The quantity of the latter is solely
regulated by the depth of shade it is desired to dye, and as soon as the
requisite quantity has been added the dyeing may be proceeded with at
once, and the first portion of goods put through will soon show the dyer
whether too much or too little of the mother indigo has been added.

Continued use and the consequent agitation of the vat thereby generated
causes it to become oxidised, and the vat acquires a greenish colour, and
does not give fast colours. When this is noticed the use of the vat is stopped;
it is heated to about 160° F., and a little lime and hydrosulphite added, when

all the oxidised indigo in the vat will speedily be reduced, and the vat put
into a workable condition again. By use this vat tends to become alkaline,
and consequently will spoil the wool, making it harsh and brittle. This is
remedied by adding a little hydrochloric acid.

Holliday's Patent Indigo Vat.--Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons have
patented an improved method of making an indigo solution and the method
of using it. They supply the indigo in the form of solution in two strengths,
ordinary and concentrated. Both are used in the same way, only of the latter
less, about one-fourth to one-third, is required than of the former. For those
who would wish to buy their indigo ready prepared for use these are very
convenient forms.

The best way of working the vat for wool is the following: 40 gallons of
water heated to about 50° C., add 1/4 lb. of a mixture of 1-1/4 gallons
bisulphite of soda, 52° Tw., and 1 lb. zinc dust, and, say, 1/2 gallon to 2
gallons, of the patent indigo solution, according to the depth of shade
required. The boiled out wool is worked below the surface of the liquor for
about three minutes, then taken out, and the excess of liquor squeezed back
into the vat, the whole operation is repeated until the shade is arrived at.
After dyeing, rinse in an acid bath of 1° to 2° Tw.

The advantages of this new vat are that brighter shades are obtained and the
darker shades with fewer dips, while the goods are dyed cleaner and the
shades are more quickly obtained, and, we think, somewhat faster than by
the other process.

There is also the advantage that no lime or other alkali is used with this new
indigo vat. The wool should be boiled out before dipping, if the best results
and even shades are desired.

Potash-Indigo Vat.--This is also a fermentation vat, and is set in the
following manner: 5 lb. of madder and 4 lb. of bran are mixed with 50
gallons of water and heated for from three to four hours, until a temperature
of from 180° to 212° F. is attained. Then 15 lb. of carbonate of potash are
added and the liquor is allowed to cool down to about 120° F. Next 10 lb.,
more or less according to shade required, of finely ground indigo is added,
and the whole is left for from forty-eight to sixty hours to ferment, being

stirred up at intervals of twelve hours. This vat ferments in much the same
way as the woad vat, and presents the same general appearances. It is not so
liable to get out of order as the woad vat, and in consequence is much more
easily managed. It does not, however, give such bright shades as either of
the vats previously described, but it dyes a little quicker, and deeper shades
can be produced. It is the best vat to use where indigo dyeing is carried on
at irregular intervals, also for dyeing dark shades of navy blue and for
giving an indigo bottom for dark blues, browns and greens. Such shades
stand milling and alkalies very well.

Soda-Indigo Vat.--The soda-indigo vat is set in the following manner:
100 lb. bran is boiled with 200 gallons of water for three hours, then the
liquor is allowed to cool from 100° to 120° F. Then 20 lb. of soda crystals,
5 lb. slaked lime, and 10 to 15 lb. ground indigo are added, the mixture
being left for two or three days to ferment, and stirred up at intervals.

Sometimes a little more soda or a little lime is added, as may be judged
from the appearance of the vat, these appearances being practically the
same as those met with in the woad vat, which have already been described
in detail.

The soda vat closely resembles the potash vat, but is cheaper to produce. It
keeps its dyeing power longer, but is somewhat more liable to get out of
order. It is like the potash vat, easier to manage than the woad vat, as with
all the woad vats it is necessary after working them for a day to replenish
them with a little indigo, soda, or potash, as the case may be, and a little
bran.

Cleaner vats are obtained if treacle be substituted for the bran, but the latter
ferments better, and gives better results in working.

Urine-Indigo Vat.--This vat has almost, if not quite, gone out of use, being
a rather unpleasant vat to work with, with few advantages over other vats.
One advantage it possesses over the woad and potash vats is that it is the
best for working on a small scale, but the modern zinc reduction vats run it
very close in this respect. The vat is made as follows: To 50 gallons of stale
urine 4 lb. of common salt are added, and the mixture heated to from
120° F. to 140° F. Then 1 lb. madder and 1 lb. ground indigo are added, and

the mass is well stirred. Then the mixture is allowed to stand until the
indigo is completely reduced, when the vat is ready for dyeing.

Indigo-Indophenol Vat.--Messrs. Durand, Huguenin & Co. have
introduced the use of Indophenol along with indigo in wool dyeing.
Indophenol can be reduced in the same way as indigo, and fibres dipped in
this reduced product on exposure to air turn blue in the same way as if
dipped in an indigo vat.

By itself indophenol has not met with much favour from dyers for a variety
of reasons, but it has been found that, mixed with indigo, it can be used in
dyeing with some advantage on the score of cheapness. The newly mixed
vat is made in the following manner:--

In a convenient vessel 26 gallons of water, 15 lb. zinc dust, ground into a
paste with 6 gallons of water, and 7 gallons bisulphite of soda of 55° Tw.
strong are mixed. Then 8 pints caustic soda lye of 72° Tw., and 16 pints
liquor ammonia are added, and the whole mass is well stirred up; 22 lb.
good indigo of about 70 per cent. indigotine and 7-1/4 lb. Indophenol are
thoroughly ground into a paste with 7 gallons of water and 2 pints caustic
soda lye of 72° Tw. The paste is added to the previous mixture, and, after
being well stirred in, sufficient water is added to make the total volume of
liquor up to 100 gallons. The mass is stirred up from time to time during a
period of from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, by which time, as a rule, the
indigo and Indophenol will have been completely reduced, and the vat have
acquired a canary-yellow colour; if it has not, add a little more zinc dust and
bisulphite of soda. It is ready for use when it has a good yellow colour.

This forms what may be called a "mother," or stock vat, from which the
dyeing vat is made in the following manner: Take a sufficient quantity of
water to make the dyeing vat, add some hydrosulphite of soda (see below)
to destroy any oxidising action the vat liquor may have, then add sufficient
of the stock vat to give the required shade, this point is one which must be
determined by experience. The vat is now quite ready for use, and the wool
is entered and treated in the usual manner.

After dyeing each lot of wool it is advisable to add some of the stock vat to
replace the indigo abstracted by the goods. When a number of dyeings have

been done, it is possible that the vat may become charged with oxidised
indigo and lose its clean, yellow colour. It may be restored to its former
conditions by adding some hydrosulphite of soda. Of course, after
considerable use this, like all other indigo vats, becomes too highly charged
with sediment, etc., to give excellent results, in which case the only thing
that can be done is to throw the old vat away and start a new one.

The hydrosulphite of soda referred to above is made in the following way:
4-1/2 lb. zinc dust are ground into a paste with 5-1/2 gallons of water and
then mixed with 4 gallons bisulphite of soda at 55° Tw., stirring well so as
to keep the temperature down. Then add 3 pints caustic soda lye of 72° Tw.,
and 3-1/2 pints liquor ammonia. Finally, add sufficient water to make 13
gallons. After standing for two or three days the preparation is ready for
use. It should be alkaline in property; if not, add a little ammonia to make it
so. This vat gives very good bright shades, from sky blue to dark navy,
which are equally as fast as pure indigo shades.

Sometimes woollen goods dyed with indigo rub badly. The causes of this
defect vary from time to time, and in many instances are often obscure in
their origin. All goods intended for indigo dyeing, and more especially
when shades fast to rubbing are desired, should be thoroughly cleansed, and
before passing into the indigo vat should be thoroughly freed from any soap
which may have been used in the boiling out. Then, after dyeing, they ought
to be well rinsed in water and passed through a sour made with sulphuric
acid (2 lb. in 10 gallons), and then washed again. Vats highly charged with
sedimentary matter, or with zinc or lime, are often the cause of loose
shades. The remedy is obvious, viz., the discarding of such vats and the
preparation of new ones, in fact old vats are perhaps more fruitful sources
of loose shades than any other cause. Soft water suits indigo dyeing better
than hard water, and is to be preferred.

It is not advisable to attempt to get full or deep shades of indigo at one dip,
for such would necessitate the use of strong baths. Dyeings produced in this
way are liable to rub badly, because the indigo lies mostly on the surface, to
which it is more or less mechanically attached. Light shades of indigo are
fast to rubbing, and by repeated dippings in a light vat or a medium shade
vat deep shades of fair fastness to rubbing can be got.

As repeatedly stated, no indigo vat can be worked continuously with good
results; the continual agitation induced by the passage of the yarns or cloths
into the liquor brings the liquor into contact with the air, and oxidation sets
in, resulting in the indigo being thrown out of the liquor in its original form.
When this happens the vat loses its original clear yellow or yellowish-
brown colour and becomes greenish, a sure sign that the vat is getting out of
condition to give good results. The remedy has been pointed out in dealing
with each kind of vat, and consists essentially in adding to the vat more of
the active reducing agent and allowing the vat to rest a while.

The dye-vats may be either round tubs or square wooden tanks; for yarn in
hanks, when cloths or warps are being dyed, these may be fitted with
winces and guide rollers so as to draw materials through the liquor.

The hawking machine shown in figure 22 is also very good for indigo cloth
dyeing, and is largely used for this purpose.

Figure 23 also shows an excellent machine for indigo dyeing on cloth. In
this the vat has a frame carrying guide rollers, round which the cloth passes,
so that it travels several times through the vat liquor in its passage from one
end of the vat to the other, the amount of liquor in the vat being so arranged
that the cloth is entirely immersed the whole time. After going through the
liquor the cloth passes between a pair of squeezing rollers, in order to have
any surplus liquor taken out, then it traverses the space between sets of
guide rollers arranged over the vat, during which time the indigo becomes
oxidised and the blue develops, while finally it is plaited down on a table.
The illustration clearly shows the working of the machine.

Dyeing Wool with Indigo Extract.--Sulphonated indigo, prepared by
dissolving indigo in sulphuric acid, is sold under the name of "indigo
extract," or "indigo carmine," in two forms--paste (containing, perhaps, 25
to 30 per cent. actual colour) and powder. Both forms are freely soluble in
water, although some makes are more so than others. This quality of
solubility is dependent upon the proportion of sulphuric acid which may
have been used in the preparation of the extract. When this is small, what is
termed indigo monosulphonic acid only is formed, which is but slightly
soluble in water, and gives red shades. If a larger proportion of acid be used,
then the indigo disulphonic acid is formed, which is fairly easily soluble in
water, and gives bluer shades than the former.

As all forms of indigo extract are regular articles of commerce, details for
their preparation will not be given here. It will suffice to say that indigo is
heated with strong sulphuric acid until test samples show that the indigo has
been completely dissolved, and it is then diluted with water and filtered.
Sometimes it is sold in this condition under the term "chemic," but if this be
used in dyeing wool it gives rather unsatisfactory results. When "sour
extract" is required, the liquor filtered out is next treated with salt until all
the colour has been precipitated out, when it is filtered off, drained, pressed
and sold. Should "neutral" or "sweet" extract be required, then the acid
liquor is neutralised with soda, and the product is salted out as before,
drained and pressed to a suitable consistence. It is then sold as "indigo
extract," or dried, at 150° F., to a powder, which is known as "indigo
carmine".

All forms of indigo extract are dyed on wool from baths of Glauber's salt
and sulphuric acid, and therefore they can be classed with the acid-dyeing
coal-tar colours. Indigo extract is notable for its level dyeing and
penetrative properties, but it is not fast to light or milling.

Messrs. Read Holliday & Sons have a powder form of indigo extract which
will be found very useful and to give better shades than the usual run of
paste extract, while it only takes about one-fifth the quantity to give a
similar shade. Working at the boil should be avoided with indigo extract, as
tending to make the shades greenish in tone; from 170° to 180° F. will
usually be found hot enough to dye good shades.

Indigo extract is not much used by itself in dyeing blues on wool, but it is
extensively employed along with other dye-stuffs to produce an immense
variety of shades--drabs, greens, fawns, greys, lilacs, etc., of which some
examples will be given later on.

Indigo Blue.--Prepare a bath with 10 lb. indigo extract, 5 lb. sulphuric acid,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Work just under the boil to shade.

Sky Blue.--The dye-bath contains 1 lb. indigo extract, 2 lb. sulphuric acid,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Work at about 160° F. to shade.

Dyeing Wool Blue with Logwood.--This method of dyeing blue on wool
has lost much of its importance since the introduction of the artificial dyes,
but it is still employed when a blue fast to milling is wanted. Logwood
gives dark navy blue shades. The process is as follows: The wool is first
mordanted by boiling for one and a half hours in a bath of 3 lb. bichromate
of potash and 2-1/2 lb. of tartar. The operation must be so carried out that
the non-oxidising green chrome mordant is developed on the fibre, and
therefore the boiling must be thorough. In place of tartar, argols and oxalic
acid are frequently used, while lactic acid or lignorosine might be
employed. The dyeing is done in a bath of 20 to 25 lb. logwood, or 5 to 8 lb.
logwood extract; the bath is started cold, heated slowly to the boil, and kept
at that heat for one to one and a half hours. Between the mordanting and
dyeing the wool should be well rinsed.

Dyeing Blue with Coal-tar Dyes.

The blue dyes derived from coal tar are very numerous, direct, basic, acid
and mordant blues being known. The direct and basic dyes are very little
used, but the acid and mordant dyes are extensively employed, as is
indicated in the following recipes.

Dyeing with Direct Dyes. Pale Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1/2 lb.
Sulphon Cyanine and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Enter the goods, and work at the
boil for one hour, then lift, wash and dry.

Black Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 3 lb. Sulphon Cyanine, 5 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 5 lb. acetate of ammonia; work at the boil for one hour. Sulphon
cyanine works well with other dye-stuffs, and gives shades which are fast to
milling.

Dyeing with Acid Dyes. Bright Blue.--Prepare a bath with 2 lb. borax and
1 lb. Alkali Blue B. Enter the wool at about 170° F., then heat to the boil,
and work for half an hour; then lift, rinse lightly, and pass into a weak sour
bath, with sulphuric acid to raise to the colour.

Soda may be used in place of borax, but the latter salt maintains the softness
of the wool fibre better.

By using various brands of Alkali Blue (3 R to 7 B), various shades of blue
from a reddish with the 3 R to a pure blue with the 6 B and 7 B brands may
be dyed. The Alkali Blues are fairly fast to light.

Dark Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 2 lb. Serge Blue, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour. This is a very
common way of dyeing blues on serges, cashmeres and worsted goods. In
place of serge blue, what are known as Blackley blues, or Dewsbury blues,
may be employed. These have a similar composition, but vary a little in the
tint of blue they give.

Navy Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 2 lb. Induline A, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour.

The Indulines are very useful colouring matters for dyeing navy or dark
blues on wool. They have the defect of being liable to give uneven shades.
This may be remedied by omitting the acid when first making up the bath,
entering the wool, working for half an hour to thoroughly impregnate the
material with the dye-liquor, then adding the acid, and continuing the
working for another half-hour. Or the wool may be treated to a weak
chlorine bath before it is dyed, by first passing it through a weak
hydrochloric acid bath and then through a bath of bleaching powder. By
using acetic acid in place of sulphuric acid more even shades are obtained.

Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1 lb. Acid Blue 1 V, 9 oz. Acid Violet 1 V,
10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one
hour.

Blue Black.--For this the dye-bath is made with 8 lb. Acid Blue 1 V, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour.

Deep Navy Blue.--A very good shade is dyed with 5 lb. Acid Blue 1 V, 3 lb.
Acid violet 1 V, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at
the boil for one hour.

Deep Navy.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1 lb. Fast acid Magenta B, 3 lb. Wool
Blue B X, 4-3/4 oz. Orange I I, 5 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, working at the boil for one hour.

The Patent Blues work exceedingly well on wool, giving good bright
shades of a fair degree of fastness. The following recipes will give some
idea of the nature of the shades which may be obtained from them, while
later on their use in combination with other dyes for the production of
compound shades will be shown.

Bright Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 2 lb. Patent Blue N, or Patent Blue
superior, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil
for one hour.

Bright Greenish Blue.--Use 2 lb. Patent Blue V, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Royal Blue.--Use 2 lb. Patent Blue B, or 2 lb. Patent Blue J (No. 3), 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Patent Blue J (No. 3) gives slightly
more violet shades than Patent Blue N, but there is not much difference
between them.

Saxony Blue.--Use 2 lb. Patent Blue J (No. 00), 2 lb. sulphuric acid, and
10 lb. Glauber's salt. Patent Blue J (No. 00) dyes shades very closely
resembling those dyed with indigo extract, and where the latter is used in
the dyeing of compound shades the former might be substituted.

Brilliant Royal Blue.--Prepare a bath with 1-1/2 lb. New Victoria Blue B,
and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Enter at about 100° F., then raise to the boil and
work for one hour. This gives a very brilliant shade of blue of a violet tone.

Sky Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1-1/2 oz. New Victoria Blue B and 2 lb.
Glauber's salt, working in the manner described in the last recipe.

Dark Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 1-1/2 oz. Acid Violet 5 B, and 1-1/2 lb.
Fast Green Bluish, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at
the boil to shade; then lift, wash and dry.

Deep Blue.--Make a dye-bath with 4 lb. Chromotrop 6 B, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 4 lb. acetic acid. Work for one hour at the boil; then lift, add 2 lb.
bichromate of potash and 3 lb. acetic acid, re-enter the goods and work for
one hour longer; lift, wash and dry.

The blues produced from the Chromotrops according to the last recipe are
full, solid-looking shades, and have a great degree of fastness to milling and
light. Some other examples showing the production of blue shades from the
Chromotrops will be given later on.

Violet Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 2 lb. Victoria Violet 8 B S, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil to shade; then
lift, wash and dry.

Deep Blue.--A fine deep blue is dyed on wool from a bath containing 6 lb.
Victoria Violet 8 B S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working
at the boil to shade.

Deep Sky Blue.--A fine shade is dyed in a bath containing 4 oz. Cyanole
extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Electric Blue.--Make the dye-bath with 4 oz. Cyanole extra, 1 oz. Acid
Green extra, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Bright Blue.--A very fine shade of blue can be dyed in a bath containing
3 lb. Cyanole extra and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Dark Navy Blue.--Prepare the dye-bath with 4 lb. Cyanole extra, 9 oz.
Archil Substitute N, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Dark Navy.--Prepare the dye-bath with 5 lb. Black Blue O, 1-3/4 oz. Formyl
Violet S 4 B, 4 oz. Patent Blue V, 25 lb. Glauber's salt, and 4 lb. bisulphate
of soda, adding 1 lb. sulphuric acid when the dyeing is about half done.

The navy blues given in the last few recipes possess the merit of
considerable resistance to light, air and milling.

Pale Blue.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 4 oz.
Cyanine B, 7-1/2 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 1/2 oz. Azo Yellow, 10 lb. acetic
acid, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Peacock Blue.--A fine shade is dyed with 14 oz. Cyanine B, 1-1/2 lb. Fast
Acid Blue R, 2 oz. Azo Yellow, 10 lb. acetic acid, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Dark Invisible Blue.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Victoria Black Blue,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bright Blue.--A very fine shade of blue, not, however, fast to light, is dyed
from a bath containing 1/2 lb. Victoria Blue B, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Bright Electric Blue.--Prepare a dye-bath with 3/4 lb. Glacier Blue, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 3 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil. This gives a very
bright green shade of blue.

Dark Peacock Blue.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Naphthol Blue Black,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Peri Wool Blues B & G dye wool in very fast dark blue shades from baths
of Glauber's salt and acetic acid. They are dye-stuffs which form with
copper blue colour lakes of some fastness. The copper is amalgamated with
the dye-stuffs as put on the market.

Pale Navy Blue.--Mordant, 4 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. oxalic
acid. Dye, 2-1/2 lb. Alizarine Bordeaux B.

Navy Blue.--Mordant, 4 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. oxalic acid. Dye,
7 lb. Alizarine Bordeaux G.

Bright Violet Blue.--Mordant, 3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid.
Dye, 3/4 lb. Celestine Blue B.

Navy Blue.--A reddish shade of navy blue is dyed by mordanting with 3 lb.
fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid, and dyeing with 3 lb. Celestine
Blue B and 3/4 lb. Diamond Black.

The Alizarine Cyanines are excellent dye-stuffs for giving dark blue and
navy blue shades on wool. They dye fairly easily, and uniform shades are
readily obtained, while they possess some considerable penetrative power,
so that they are well adapted for dyeing heavy piece goods. The following
recipes show their use and indicate the character of the shades the various
brands yield. It may be added that the shades are fast to light and milling.

Red Navy Blue.--Mordant, 4 lb. bichromate of potash, 2 lb. tartar, and 1-
1/2 oz. sulphuric acid. Dye, 6 lb. Alizarine Cyanine R R R double. By using
a mordant of 4 lb. fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid the shade is
made brighter and not so red in tone.

Dark Blue.--A red shade of blue almost approaching a navy is obtained by
mordanting with bichromate of potash, as in the last recipe, and dyeing with
12 lb. Alizarine Cyanine R R, or with 13 lb. Alizarine Cyanine R. The shade
with the latter dye-stuff is scarcely so red as with the former.

Dark Blue.--Mordant with 4 lb. fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid and
dye with 13 lb. Alizarine Cyanine R.

Dark Blue.--A somewhat brighter and less red shade than is obtained by
working as in the last recipe is given by mordanting with 3 lb. bichromate
of potash, 2 lb. tartar, and 2-1/2 oz. sulphuric acid, and then dyeing with
17 lb. Alizarine Cyanine G extra.

Dark Blue.--Mordant with 3-1/2 lb. bichromate of potash, 2 lb. tartar, and
3 oz. sulphuric acid. Dye with 18 lb. Alizarine Cyanine G G.

Peacock Blue.--Mordant with 4 lb. fluoride of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid.
Dye with 18 lb. Alizarine Cyanine G G.

The addition of from 2 lb. to 5 lb. acetate of ammonia in working with the
Alizarine Cyanines is a considerable advantage, by causing the dye-stuff to
penetrate the fibre better and to give more uniform shades.

Medium Blue.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. oxalic
acid. Dye with 5 lb. Brilliant Alizarine Blue G, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Black Blue.--Mordant as in the last. Dye with 20 lb. Brilliant Alizarine
Blue G and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Dark Navy.--Mordant as in the last recipe and dye with 5 lb. Alizarine
Cyanine 3 R double, 5 lb. Alizarine Blue G W, 2 lb. Brilliant Alizarine
Blue G, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Medium Blue.--Mordant as in the last. Dye with 5 lb. Alizarine Blue G W,
2-1/2 lb. Brilliant Alizarine Blue G, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Lavender Blue.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/4 lb.
tartar. Dye with 2 lb. Alizarine Blue A.

Navy.--Mordant as in the last recipe, and dye with 20 lb. Alizarine Blue A.

Deep Sky Blue.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. oxalic
acid, then dye with 2-1/2 lb. Chrome Blue.

Bright Blue.--A very fine bright shade is obtained by mordanting as in the
last, and then dyeing with 10 lb. Chrome Blue.

Lilac Blue.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 4 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W. Alizarine Blue R gives somewhat
bluer shades than the D N W brand.

Slate Blue.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 2-1/2 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W, 4 oz. Alizarine Brown, and 1-
2/3 oz. Alizarine Yellow.

Peacock Blue.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 6 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W, 3 lb. Alizarine Yellow, and 1-1/2 lb.
Patent Blue A, adding a little acetic acid to the dye-bath.

Paris Blue.--Mordant as in the last recipe. Dye with 3 lb. Galleine, 1 lb.
Alizarine Blue D N W, and 1 lb. Patent Blue A, adding a little acetic acid.

Grey Blue.--Mordant as above and dye with 4-1/2 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W,
and 1 lb. Alizarine Brown.

Blue.--Mordant with 10 lb. alum, 3 lb. tartar, and 2 lb. oxalic acid. Dye with
15 lb. Anthracene Blue W G, 3 lb. acetate of lime, and 1 lb. tannic acid.

Red Navy.--Mordant as in the last recipe and dye with 15 lb. Anthracene
Blue B W, 3 lb. acetate of lime, and 3/4 lb. tannic acid.

Dark Blue.--Mordant with 1 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar. Then
dye with 20 lb. Anthracene Blue W B. Anthracene Blue W G gives slightly
greener shades than the W B brand, while the W R blue gives redder
shades.

Grounding wool with various tints of indigo is a favourite method of
producing many useful shades on wool. In general it is a good plan, as the
bottom so given is a fast and permanent one, and is not in any way affected
(so far as the stability of the colour is concerned) by the subsequent dyeing
operations, care of course being taken that these are the usual acid or
mordanting baths. The only drawback against bottoming with indigo is the
increased cost of dyeing necessitated by the extra labour, and materials
required to dye the bottom. As to the methods and materials required, they
are just those usually employed in indigo dyeing, and these have been

described. The hydrosulphite vat, or Messrs. Holliday's patent indigo, is,
perhaps, the most convenient method to adopt.

Dark Slate.--Give a medium indigo bottom, then mordant with 3 lb.
fluoride of chrome and 1 lb. oxalic acid, and dye with 1-1/2 lb. Anthracene
Brown W, 1/2 lb. Alizarine Bordeaux G, and 1 oz. Diamond Flavine.

Dark Navy.--Give a medium indigo bottom in the vat, then mordant with
3 lb. fluoride of chrome and 1-1/2 lb. tartar, finally dyeing with 6-1/2 lb.
Alizarine Cyanine G, and 1-1/2 lb. Alizarine Bordeaux G.

Dark Blue.--Give a medium indigo bottom, then mordant with 6 lb. fluoride
of chrome and 2 lb. oxalic acid, finally dyeing with 14 lb. Alizarine
Cyanine Black.

Blue Black.--Give a deep indigo bottom in the vat, then mordant with 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar, finally dyeing with 6 lb. Alizarine
Cyanine Black and 1-1/2 lb. Alizarine Cyanine 3 R double.

Violet Shades on Wool.

Violet shades can only be obtained from the coal-tar colours, and of these
there are not many. The recipes which are given below will serve to show
what dye-stuffs are available, and will give some idea of the tints they dye.

With Direct Dyes. Pale Violet.--Prepare the dye-bath with 1/2 lb. Sulphon
Cyanine, 1/4 lb. Geranine B, 5 lb. Glauber's salt, and 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia, working at the boil for one hour.

With Basic Dyes. Violet.--The dye-bath is made with 1 lb. Methyl Violet
3 B, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. A fine pure shade of violet is obtained.
Methyl Violet is made in many brands, distinguished as B, B B, 2 B, 4 B,
etc. By using either one or the other of these, a variety of tints of violet,
from a red shade with Methyl Violet R through violet (B) to a violet blue
with Methyl Violet 7 B, can be dyed.

Puce.--A very bright shade of puce is dyed by using Methyl Violet R, and
10 lb. Glauber's salt.

With Acid Dyes. Violet.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Acid Violet 4 B S,
10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. This gives a pure violet shade.
If Acid Violet 6 B S be used a bluer shade is obtained.

Reddish Puce.--A very bright red tint of puce is obtained by using 2 lb. Acid
Violet 4 R S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Bluish Violet.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Acid Violet 5 B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour.

Lavender.--Use 4 oz. Acid Violet 5 B, 1 oz. Azo Fuchsine G, 1/16 oz. Fast
Green bluish, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Violet.--A fine deep shade is obtained by using 2-3/4 lb. Chromotrop
6 R, 2-1/2 lb. Cyanine B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid,
working at the boil for one hour.

Mauve.--Use 2 lb. Acid Mauve B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Bright Violet.--Use 2 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Bright Violet.--Use 2 lb. Acid Violet 6 B N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Violet.--Use 2 lb. Acid Violet N, 2 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb. Glauber's
salt.

With Mordant Dyes. Violet.--Mordant the wool with 3 lb. bichromate of
potash and 2 lb. tartar, and dye with 10 lb. Chrome Violet.

Dark Violet.--Mordant as in the last recipe. Then dye with 3 lb. Chrome
Bordeaux 6 B double and 2 lb. Brilliant Alizarine blue G.

Brown Shades on Wool.

Brown is a very important colour, of which there is an infinite variety of
shades and it can be dyed in a great variety of ways and from a variety of
dye-stuffs, as will be seen on looking through the recipes which follow,
although these do not by any means exhaust the methods by which browns
may be dyed on woollen goods, but they may be taken as representative and
will serve to show by what combinations of dyes various tints of browns
may be obtained.

With Direct Dyes. Brown.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Nyanza Black B,
2 lb. Congo Brown R, and 20 lb. Glauber's salt, working at the boil for one
hour; then lift, wash and dry.

With Acid Dyes. Yellow Brown.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo
Carmine, 1 lb. Fast Yellow, 1 lb. Indigo Carmine D, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. A good shade is thus obtained.

Olive Brown.--Use 3/4 lb. Azo Acid Violet 4 R, 2 lb. Fast Yellow, 3 oz. Fast
Green bluish, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the
boil for one hour; then lift, wash and dry.

Dark Chestnut.--Dye in a bath containing 6-1/2 oz. Patent Blue V, 3-1/4 oz.
Acid Violet V, 1 lb. Azo Yellow, 2 lb. Orange No. 2, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour; then lift, wash
and dry.

Mouse.--Make the dye-bath with 4 oz. Patent Blue V, 1-2/3 oz. Acid
Violet N, 13 oz. Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Seal.--Dye in a bath containing 1 lb. Orange G G, 1/2 lb. Patent Blue
J 3, 1/2 lb. Azo Yellow, 3-1/4 oz. Acid Violet N, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Brown.--Make the dye-bath with 1-3/4 lb. Chromotrop 2 R, 1-1/4 lb.
Victoria Yellow, 4 lb. Keton Blue G, 2-1/2 oz. Acid Violet 5 B E, 25 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 4 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one hour.

Walnut.--A fine shade can be dyed with 1-3/4 lb. Azo Acid Magenta G, 14-
1/2 oz. Patent Blue V, 3/4 lb. Victoria Yellow, 15 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Olive Brown.--Make a dye-bath with 2 lb. sulphuric acid, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, 1 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 1/2 lb. Fast Yellow, and 1/2 lb. Fast Green extra
bluish.

Dark Olive Brown.--A very fine shade can be dyed with 1 lb. Fast Acid
Violet 10 B, 1-1/2 lb. Orange 11, 1/2 lb. Fast Green bluish, 7 oz. Fast
Yellow, 20 lb. Glauber's salt, and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Walnut.--Use 1 lb. Cyanole, 1 lb. Orange extra, 1/2 lb. Archil Substitute N,
10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for one
hour.

Dark Seal.--Use 1 lb. Cyanole, 1 lb. Orange extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and
2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Golden Brown.--A fine shade is dyed with 1-1/4 lb. Victoria Yellow, 9-
1/2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 3-1/2 oz. Patent Blue V, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and
2 lb. sulphuric acid.

With Mordant Dyes. Golden Brown.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb.
Diamine Fast Red F, 1-1/2 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, and 5 lb. acetate of
ammonia. Work for half an hour; then add 5 lb. bisulphate of soda and work
for half an hour longer, then add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, and work for half
an hour at the boil.

Bright Golden Brown.--Use 3/4 lb. Diamine Fast Red F, 1-1/2 lb.
Anthracene Yellow C, 5 lb. bisulphate of soda, as indicated in the last
recipe. The shades so obtained are very fine, and have the merit of being
fast to washing and light.

Chestnut.--Give a medium indigo bottom in the vat, then dye in a bath
containing 1-3/4 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, 1 lb. Diamine Fast Red F, and
5 lb. bisulphate of soda. Work again for half an hour, then add 3 lb. fluoride
of chrome, and work again for another half hour; lift, wash and dry.

Dark Brown.--Use a dye-bath containing 1-1/4 lb. Diamine Fast Red F,
3/4 lb. Anthracene Yellow C, 1-1/2 lb. Anthracite Black B, and 5 lb. acetate
of ammonia. After half an hour's boiling, add 5 lb. bisulphate of soda, work
half an hour longer, add 3 lb. fluoride of chrome, and work together another
half hour; then lift, wash and dry.

Brown.--A very fine shade can be dyed in the following way: First give a
medium indigo bottom in the vat, then mordant in a bath containing 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar, and finally dye in a bath made
from 1-1/2 lb. Alizarine Orange R, 4 lb. Diamond Flavine, and 2 lb. acetic
acid.

Dark Seal.--Give a medium indigo bottom in the vat, and Mordant with
3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar, and finally dye in a bath
containing 3-1/2 lb. Alizarine Orange R, 1 lb. Anthracene Brown R, 2 lb.
Diamond Flavine, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Brown.--A full shade is dyed by first mordanting with 3 lb. bichromate of
potash and 2 lb. tartar, and then dyeing with 10 lb. Anthracene Brown W,
and 1 lb. Mordant Yellow.

Buff.--Mordant as in the last, and dye with 5 lb. Anthracene Brown W, and
1/4 lb. Mordant Yellow O.

Nut.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. oxalic acid, and dye
with 20 lb. Diamond Brown.

Pale Old Gold Brown.--Mordant as in the last, and dye with 5 lb. Diamond
Brown.

Dark Violet Brown.--Mordant as in the last recipes, and dye with 30 lb.
Chrome Brown R.

Bright Chestnut.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb.
sulphuric acid, and dye with 30 lb. Gambine R.

Pale Chestnut.--Mordant as in the last recipes, and dye with 20 lb.
Gambine Y.

Olive Brown.--Mordant as in the last recipes, and dye with 10 lb.
Gambine B. The browns dyed with Gambine have the merit of being fast to
milling and light.

Dark Brown.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar;
then dye with 15 lb. Alizarine Brown.

Bright Buff.--Mordant as in the last recipe; then dye with 4-3/4 lb. Alizarine
Brown, 4 lb. Alizarine Yellow, 1-3/4 oz. Alizarine Blue D N W, and 2 lb.
acetic acid.

Dark Violet Brown.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb.
tartar. Then dye with 18 lb. Alizarine Brown, 6 lb. Alizarine Orange H, and
2 lb. acetic acid.

Dark Walnut.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric
acid; then dye with 8 lb. Alizarine Brown, 2 lb. Alizarine Red 3 W S, and
2 lb. Alizarine Yellow G G W.

Mode Colours on Wool.

Under the general designation of "mode colours" are included a great
variety of tints or shades unusually described more specifically as drabs,
buffs, greys, fawns, slates, etc. It is impossible here to do more than give a
few recipes for their production.

With Direct Dyes. Drab.--Make a dye-bath with 3 oz. Nyanza Black B, 1-
1/2 oz. Chrysamine G, 2 oz. Congo orange R, and 20 lb. Glauber's salt,
working at the boil for one hour; then lift, wash and dry.

With Acid Dyes. Bright Buff.--Dye in a bath containing 3/4 oz. each
Cyanole, Orange extra, and Indian Yellow R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid.

Slate.--Use a dye-bath containing 3 oz. Cyanole, 1/4 oz. Archil
Substitute N, 1/2 oz. Orange extra, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Silver Grey.--Use 1-1/4 oz. Orange extra, 3/4 oz. Archil Substitute N, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pale Drab.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 oz. Cyanine B, 3/4 oz. Azo Yellow,
1/4 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Grey.--Make the dye-bath with 1 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 1-1/4 oz. Cyanine B,
2-1/2 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 2 oz. Azo Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 5 lb.
acetic acid.

Bright Fawn.--The dye-bath is made with 2 oz. Chromotrop 2 R, 8 oz.
Orange G, 2-1/4 oz. Fast Acid Blue R, 1-1/4 oz. Cyanine B, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt and 5 lb. acetic acid.

Dark Buff.--Use 2 oz. Cyanine B, 5 oz. Azo Yellow, 2-1/2 oz. Chromotrop
2 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Lilac Grey.--Use 3 oz. each Fast Acid Violet 10 B, Fast Green bluish, and
Fast Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pale Fawn Drab.--Use 1 oz. Patent Blue V, 1 oz. Rhodamine, 1-3/4 oz.
Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Dark Grey.--Use 1 lb. Wool Grey R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid.

Stone.--Use 1 oz. Patent Blue J B, 1-3/4 oz. Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Pale Fawn Brown.--Use 4 oz. Fast Acid Violet R, 2 oz. Patent Blue J O O,
3 oz. Orange G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 3 lb. sulphuric acid.

Drab.--Use 3 oz. Azo Carmine, 1-1/2 oz. Fast Yellow, 1-1/4 oz. Indigo
Carmine D, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Lilac.--Use 1/2 lb. Azo carmine, 1/2 lb. Indigo Carmine D, 1-1/2 oz. Fast
Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

With Mordant Dyes. Pale Drab.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash
and 1-1/2 lb. tartar. Dye with 1 lb. Alizarine Brown paste.

Violet Grey.--Mordant as in the last recipe, and dye with 1 lb. Alizarine
Grey B.

Pale Fawn.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2-1/2 lb. tartar,
and dye with 4-1/2 lb. Alizarine Yellow, 13 oz. Alizarine Brown, 11-1/2 oz.
Alizarine Orange N, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Pale Stone.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb. tartar.
Dye with 13 oz. Alizarine Yellow and 1-1/4 lb. Alizarine Brown.

Dark Slate.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 lb. tartar. Dye
with 2-1/2 lb. Alizarine Blue D N W, and 10 oz. Alizarine Yellow.

Lavender Grey.--Mordant with 2 lb. bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 lb.
tartar. Dye with 13 oz. Alizarine Blue D N W, and 2 oz. Galleine.

Drab.--Mordant as in the last recipe; then dye with 4 oz. Alizarine Blue, 1-
1/2 lb. Alizarine Yellow and 14 oz. Alizarine Brown.

Drab.--Mordant with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 1 lb. sulphuric acid,
and dye with 1 lb. Gambine R.

Dark Grey.--Give a light indigo bottom in the vat, and then dye in a bath
containing 3/4 oz. Diamine Fast Red F, 3/4 oz. Anthracene Yellow C, and
5 lb. acetate of ammonia. Work at the boil for half an hour, then add 5 lb.
bisulphate of soda, work half an hour longer, then add 1 lb. fluoride of
chrome, and work for another half hour at the boil; then lift, wash and dry.

CHAPTER V.

DYEING UNION (MIXED COTTON AND WOOL) FABRICS.

There is now produced a great variety of textile fabrics of every
conceivable texture by combining the two fibres, cotton and wool, in a
number of ways. The variety of these fabrics has of late years considerably
increased, which increase may be largely ascribed to the introduction of the
direct dyeing colouring matters--the Diamine dyes, the Benzo dyes, the
Congo and the Zambesi dyes; for in the dyeing of wool-cotton fabrics they
have made a revolution. The dyer of union fabrics, that is fabrics composed
of wool and cotton, was formerly put to great straits to obtain uniform
shades on the fabrics supplied to him owing to the difference in the affinity
of the fibres for the dye-stuffs then known. Now the direct dyes afford him
a means of easily dyeing a piece of cotton-wool cloth in any colour of a
uniform shade, while the production of two-coloured effects is much more
under his control, and has led to the increased production of figured dress
fabrics with the ground in one fibre (wool) and colour, and the design in
another fibre (cotton) and colour. The number of direct dyes issued by the
various colour manufacturers is so great that it would take a fairly
considerable space to discuss them all.

To obtain good results it is needful that the dyer of union fabrics should be a
man of keen observation and have a thorough knowledge of the dyes he is
using, for each dye makes a rule to itself as regards its power of dyeing
wool and cotton; some go better on to the cotton than on to the wool, and
vice versa. Some dye wool best at the boil, others equally well below that
heat; some go on the cotton at a moderate temperature, others require the
dye-bath to be boiling; some will go to the cotton only and appear to ignore
the wool.

The presence or absence in the dye-bath of such bodies as carbonate of
soda, Glauber's salt, etc., has a material influence on the degree of the
affinity of the dye-stuff for the two fibres, as will perhaps be noted
hereafter. Again, while some of the dyes produce equal colours on both
fibres, there are others where the tone is different. With all these
peculiarities of the Diamine and other direct dyes the union dyer must make
himself familiar. These dyes are used in neutral baths, that is, along with the
dye-stuff. It is often convenient to use along with the direct dyes some azo
or acid dyes which have the property of dyeing the wool from neutral baths;
many examples of such will be found in the practical recipes given below.
The dyes now under consideration may be conveniently classed into five
groups.

(1) Those dyes which dye the cotton and wool from the same bath to the
same shade, or nearly so.--Among such are Thioflavine S, Diamine Fast
Yellow B, Diamine Orange B, Diamine Rose B D, Diamine Reds 4 B, 5 B,
6 B and 10 B, Diamine Fast Red F, Diamine Bordeaux B, Diamine
Brown N, Diamine Brown 3 G, B and G W, Diamine Blue R W, B X,
Diamine Blue G, Diamine Greens G and B, Diamine Black H W, Diamine
Dark Blue B, Union Black B and S, Oxydiamine Blacks B, M, D and A,
Diamine Catechine G, Union Blue B B, Oxyphenine, Chloramine Yellow,
Thioflavine S, Alkali Yellow R, Chromine G, Titan Scarlet S, Mimosa,
Primuline, Auroline, Congo Corinth B, Thiazol Yellow, Columbia Yellow,
Oxydiamine Yellow G G, Oxydiamine Oranges G and R, Diamine
Orange O, Oxydiamine Red S.

(2) Dyes which dye the cotton a deeper shade than the wool.--The following
belong to this group. Diamine Fast Yellow A, Diamine Orange G and D,
Diamine Catechine G, Diamine Catechine B, Diamine sky Blue, Diamine
Blues 2 B, Diamine Blue 3 B, Diamine Blue B G, Diamine Brilliant
Blue G, Diamine New Blue R, Diamine Steel Blue L, Diamine Black R O,
Diamine Black B O, Diamine Black B H, and Oxydiamine Black S O O O,
Diamine Nitrazol Brown G, Diamine Catechine B, Diamine Sky Blue F F,
Diamine Dark Blue B, Diamine Bordeaux B, Diamine Violet N,
Oxydiamine Violet B, Columbia Black B and F B, Zambesi Black B, Congo
Brown G, Direct Yellow G, Direct Orange R, Clayton Yellow, Cotton

Yellow, Orange T A, Benzopurpurine B, Brilliant Congo R, Chicago
Blues B, 4 B and 6 B.

(3) Dyes which dye wool a deeper shade than the cotton.--The dyes in this
group are not numerous. They are Diamine Gold, Diamine Scarlet B,
Diamine Scarlet 3 B, Diamine Bordeaux S, Diamine Blue R W, and
Diamine Green G, Diamine Red N O and B, Chicago Blue G and R R W,
Brilliant Purpurine R, Diamine Scarlet B, Deltapurpurine 5 B, Chrysamine,
Titan Blue, Titan Pink, Congo Oranges G and R, Erie Blue 2 G, Congo R,
Brilliant Congo R, Erika B N, Benzopurpurine 4 B and 10 B,
Chrysophenine, Titan Yellow, Titan Brown Y, R and O, Congo Brown G,
Sulphon Azurine B, Zambesi Black D.

(4) Dyes which produce different shades on the two fibres.--Diamine
Brown G and Diamine Blue 3 R, Diamine Brown V, Diamine Brown S,
Diamine Nitrazol Brown B, Diamine Blue B X and 3 R, Diamine Blue
Black E, Benzo Blue Black G, Benzopurpurine 10 B, Benzo Azurine R G
and 3 G, Columbia Red S B, Brilliant Azurine 5 G, Titan Marine Blue,
Congo Corinths G and B, Azo Blue, Hessian Violet, Titan Blue, Azo
Mauve, Congo Brown, Diamine Bronze G, Zambesi Browns G and 2 G,
Zambesi Black F.

(5) Azo acid dyes which dye wool from neutral baths, and are therefore
suitable for shading up the wool to the cotton in union fabric dyeing.--
Among the dyes thus available may be enumerated Naphthol Blue G and E,
Naphthol Blue Black, Formyl Violet 10 B, Lanacyl Blue B B, Lanacyl
Blue R, Alkaline Blue, Formyl Violet S 4 B and 6 B, Rocceleine, Azo
Red A, Croceine A Z, Brilliant Scarlet, Orange extra, Orange E N Z, Indian
Yellow G, Indian Yellow R, Tropæoline O O, Naphthylamine Black 4 B,
and Naphthol Blue Black, Brilliant Scarlet G, Lanacyl Violet B, Brilliant
Milling Green B, Thiocarmine R, Formyl Blue B, Naphthylamine Blacks D,
4 B and 6 B, Azo Acid Yellow, Curcumine Extra, Mandarine G, Ponceau
3 R B, Acid Violet 6 B, Guinea Violet 4 B, Guinea Green B, Wool Black
6 B.

Regarding the best methods of dyeing, that in neutral baths yields the most
satisfactory results in practical working. It is done in a boiling hot or in a
slightly boiling bath with the addition of 6-1/4 oz. crystallised Glauber's salt

per gallon water for the first bath, and when the baths are kept standing 20
per cent. crystallised Glauber's salt reckoned upon the weight of the goods
for each succeeding lot.

In dyeing unions, the dye-baths must be as concentrated as possible and
must not contain more than from 25 to 30 as much water as the goods
weigh. In this respect it serve as a guide that concentrated baths are best
used dyeing dark shades while light shades can be dyed in more dilute
baths. The most important factor for producing uniform dyeings is the
appropriate regulation of the temperature of the dye-bath. Concerning this
the dyer must bear in mind that the direct colours possess a greater affinity
for cotton if dyed below the boiling-point, and only go on the wool when
the bath is boiling, especially so the longer and more intensely the goods
are boiled.

The following method of dyeing is perhaps the best one. Charge the dye-
bath with the requisite dye-stuff and Glauber's salt, boil up, shut off the
steam, enter the goods and let run for half an hour, without steam, then
sample. If the shade of both cotton and wool is too light, add some more of
the dye-stuffs used for both fibres, boil up once more, and boil for a quarter
to half an hour. If the wool only is too light, or its shade different from that
of the cotton, add some more of the dye-stuff used for shading the wool and
bring them again to the boil. If, however, the cotton turns out too light or
does not correspond in shade to the wool, add some more of the dye-stuffs
used for dyeing the cotton, without, however, raising the temperature.
Prolonged boiling is necessary only very rarely, and generally only if the
goods to be dyed are difficult to penetrate or contain qualities of wool
which only with difficulty take up the dye-stuff. In such cases, in making up
the bath, dye-stuffs are to be selected some of which go only on the wool
and others which go only on the cotton (those belonging to the second
group).

The goods can then be boiled for some time, and perfect penetration and
level shades will result. If the wool takes up the dye-stuff easily (as is
frequently the case with goods manufactured from shoddy) and are
therefore dyed too dark a shade, then dye-stuffs have to be used which
principally dye the cotton, and a too high temperature is to be avoided. In

such cases it is advisable to diminish the affinity of the wool by the addition
of one-fifth of the original quantity of Glauber's salt (about 3/8 oz. per
gallon of water), and from three-quarters to four-fifths of the dye-stuff used
for the first lot. Care has to be taken that not much of the dye-liquor is lost
when taking out the dyed goods, otherwise the quantities of Glauber's salt
and dye-stuff will have to be increased proportionately. Wooden vats such
as are generally used for piece dyeing have proved the most suitable, they
are heated with direct or still better with indirect steam. The method which
has proved most advantageous is to let the steam run into a space separated
from the vat by a perforated wall into which space the required dye-stuffs
and salt are placed.

The mode of working is influenced by the character of the goods, and the
following notes will be found useful by the union dyer.

Very little difficulty will be met with in dyeing such light fabrics as Italians,
cashmeres, serges and similar thin textiles lightly woven from cotton warp
and woollen weft. When deep shades (blacks, dark blues, browns and
greens) are being dyed it is not advisable to make up the dye-bath with the
whole of the dyes at once. It is much better to add these in quantities of
about one-fourth at a time at intervals during the dyeing of the piece. It is
found that the affinity of the wool for the dyes at the boil is so much greater
than is that of the cotton that it would, if the whole of the dye were used,
take up too much of the colour and then would come up too deep in shade.
Never give a strong boil with such fabrics, but keep the bath just under the
boil which results in the wool dyeing much more nearly like to cotton.

On Union Flannels.--In this class of goods it is important that the soft open
feel of the goods be retained as much as possible, and for this purpose no
class of dyes offers so many advantages as the direct colours. Only one bath
being required, there is not the same amount of manipulation needed in the
dyeing operation, hence there is less risk that the soft feel and woolly
structure will be affected. As no mordants are needed there is nothing to
impart a harsh feel to the fabrics.

On Dress Goods, Suitings and Coatings.--A large quantity of fabrics for
gentlemen's suits, coats and cloths in general are now made from wool and
cotton. Formerly the dyeing of these offered many difficulties before the

application of the direct dyes was properly understood. Now, however the
ease with which such dyes may be applied has given considerable impetus
to this class of goods, and the trade has grown by leaps and bounds during
recent years, and has been one cause of the great cheapening of clothes
which has occurred in the same period. The dyeing of the goods with the
direct colours offers very little difficulty, and only requires that a little
attention be paid, particularly to goods in which the cotton either appears on
the surface forming a design, or is spun or twisted together with the wool.

A good deal of shoddy is used in making the cheaper class of these goods,
and it is quite natural that such "artificial wool" behaves differently from
pure wool, not only with regard to its shade resulting from mixing and
working together differently dyed waste wools, but also on account of its
possessing a greater affinity for all kinds of dye-stuff than raw wool; this in
consequence of the carbonisation and washing processes it has undergone,
and also of the mordants which the material may retain from previous
processes. Therefore (and especially in dyeing light shades on goods
manufactured of shoddy) only a small quantity of soda or borax is to be
added to the dye-bath and severe boiling is to be avoided. Wherever it is
possible goods which are to be dyed in light shades should be made from
the palest materials, and the dark qualities only used for goods which are to
be dyed in dark shades.

This rule can, of course, not always be adhered to. Quite often a light and
bright shade is to be dyed on comparatively dark material. This cannot be
achieved by simply dyeing it, the goods must be stripped or bleached before
dyeing. For this purpose either energetically reacting, oxidising reducing
agents are applied. Of the former, bichromate of potassium is principally
used. Boil the goods for half to three-quarters of an hour with 3 to 5 per
cent. bichromate of potassium, 2 to 4 per cent. oxalic acid, and 3 to 5 per
cent. sulphuric acid, wash in a fresh warm bath charged with soda in order
to entirely neutralise the acid which has remained in the goods, or else the
wool would be dyed too deep a shade. In some cases hydrosulphite has
proved a useful reducing agent; it can be easily prepared from ordinary
bisulphite of soda in the following manner. Add 10 oz. ammonia (0·9
specific gravity) to a gallon of bisulphite of soda, 32° Tw.; then add slowly
under a brisk stirring 10 oz. zinc-dust, and let the entire mixture settle well,

using only the clear solution. Treat the goods from fifteen to twenty minutes
in a bath of 140° F., to which first add at the boil 3/4 oz. acetic acid,
10° Tw., per gallon water, and then 4 to 6 gallons clear hydrosulphite
solution per 100 gallons liquor. Then rinse very well and dye in the usual
manner; avoiding, however, too high a temperature. As on this class of
goods dark shades are mostly dyed, the goods need only very rarely be
stripped.

Bright Yellow.--Use 2 lb. Thioflavine S in a bath which contains 4 lb.
Glauber's salt per 10 gallons of dye-liquor.

Good Yellow.--A very fine deep shade is dyed with 2-1/2 lb. Diamine Gold,
and 24 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow A in the same way as the last. Here
advantage is taken of the fact that while the Diamine Gold dyes the wool
better than the cotton the Diamine Yellow dyes the cotton the deepest shade,
and between the two a uniform shade of yellow is got.

Pale Gold Yellow.--Use a dye-liquor containing 4 lb. Glauber's salt in every
10 gallons, 2-1/2 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow A, 2 oz. Indian Yellow G, and 3-
1/2 oz. Indian Yellow R. In this recipe we use in the two last dyes purely
wool yellows, which dye the wool the same tint as the Fast Yellow A dyes
the cotton.

Bright Yellow.--Use in the same way as the last 2-1/2 lb Diamine Fast
Yellow B and 3 oz. Indian Yellow G.

Gold Orange.--Use as above 2 lb. Diamine orange G, 3-1/2 oz. Indian
Yellow R, and 1-1/2 oz. Orange E N Z.

Deep Orange.--Use 2-1/2 lb. Diamine Orange D C, 6-1/2 oz. Orange E N Z,
and 3-1/4 oz. Indian Yellow R.

Black.--Use 4-1/2 lb. Union Black S, 2 oz. Diamine Fast Yellow A, 5 oz.
Naphthol Blue Black, 3-1/4 oz. Formyl Violet S 4 B, and 4 lb. Glauber's salt
in 10 gallons dye-liquor.

The goods are treated at the boil in this bath for one hour, Italian cloths
have frequently if not always to pass through a finishing process to give

them lustre. This treatment, especially with blues and blacks, has a tendency
to affect the shades, reddening them. With some dye the colour comes back
on the goods becoming cold again, but with others this is not the case. If
desired the goods may be subjected after dyeing to a treatment with alum
or, better, bichromate of potash. The goods after being dyed are rinsed and
then passed into a bath at a temperature of 140° F., containing 3 lb.
bichromate of potash and 1-1/2 to 2 oz. sulphuric acid. After being chromed
in this for about half an hour they are well washed. This chroming
thoroughly fixes the colour on the cotton and it will not change while being
finished, either by crabbing, steaming or hot pressing.

Gold Brown.--Use 1-1/2 lb. Diamine Cutch, 6-1/2 oz. Diamine Fast
Yellow B, 1 oz. each Union Black, Naphthol Blue Black and Azo Red A.

Walnut Brown.--A fine shade is got with 1-1/4 lb. Union Black S, 1-1/4 lb.
Diamine Brown M, 3-1/4 oz. Diamine Fast Yellow B, 13 oz. Indian
Yellow G, and 1 oz. Naphthol Blue Black. After dyeing the goods should be
chromed with 3 lb. bichromate of potash and 2 oz. sulphuric acid.

Dark Blue.--A good full shade is got with 2-1/4 lb. Union Black S, 9-1/2 oz.
Diamine Brilliant Blue G, 6-1/2 oz. Alkaline Violet C A, and 1/4 lb.
Alkaline Blue F. Treatment in a bath of 1/2 lb. alum and 1/2 oz. soda at
130° F. will fix the colour against finishing.

Silver Grey.--A fine grey can be got from 1-3/4 oz. Diamine Black B H,
1/2 oz. Diamine Orange B, 1/2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and 1/2 oz.
Formyl Violet.

Navy Blue.--Use 1-1/4 lb. Union Black S, 3 lb. Diamine Black B H, 1/2 oz.
Naphthol Blue Black, 1/2 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, and 2-1/2 oz. Alkaline
Blue B.

Red Plum.--Use a dye-bath containing 2-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Violet B and 3-
1/4 oz. Formyl Violet S 4 B.

Dark Green.--A fine shade can be dyed in a bath containing 3 lb. Diamine
Green B and 1-1/2 lb. Diamine Black H W.

Dark Slate.--Use 4 lb. Diamine Black H W, 2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and
3 oz. Azo Red A.

Sage.--Use a dye-bath containing 4 lb. Diamine Bronze G and 1-1/4 oz.
Naphthol Blue Black.

Dark Brown.--A fine dark shade is got from 2-1/2 lb. Diamine Brown V,
and 2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Peacock Green.--Use 3-3/4 lb. Diamine Steel Blue L, 13 oz. Diamine Fast
Yellow B, 14-1/2 oz. Thiocarmine R, and 2-1/4 oz. Indian Yellow G in a
bath of 4 lb. Glauber's salt per gallon of dye-liquor.

Dark Sea Green.--Use 9 oz. Diamine Steel Blue L, 3-3/4 oz. Diamine Fast
Yellow B, 1/2 oz. Diamine Orange G, 1-1/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and
3/4 oz. Indian Yellow G.

Dark Brown.--Use 1 lb. Diamine Orange B, 1 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow B,
13-3/4 oz. Union Black S, 1 lb. Diamine Brown M, and 1/2 lb. Indian
Yellow G. Fix in an alum bath after dyeing.

Dark Stone.--Use 1/2 lb. Diamine Orange B, 3-3/4 oz. Union Black, 1/4 oz.
Diamine Bordeaux B, 1-1/2 oz. Azo Red A, and 3/4 oz. Naphthol Blue
Black.

Black.--A very fine black can be got from 3-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Black R M,
2 lb. Union Black S, 9-1/2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black and 4 oz. Formyl Violet
S 4 B, chroming after dyeing as described above.

Dark Grey.--A fine bluish, shade of grey is got from 7 oz. Diamine Black
B H, 2-1/4 oz. Diamine Orange G, 2-1/2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and 1 oz.
Orange E N Z.

Dark Blue.--A fine shade is got by using 2 lb. Diamine Black B H, 1/2 lb.
Diamine Black H W and 3-1/2 oz. Alkaline Blue 6 B.

Drab.--Use 3-1/2 oz. Diamine Orange B, 3/4 oz. Union Black, 1/8 oz.
Diamine Bordeaux B, 3/4 oz. Azo Red A, and 1/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Plum.--Use 2-1/2 lb. Diamine Violet N, 9-1/2 oz. Union Black, and 1 lb.
Formyl Violet S 4 B.

Bright Yellow.--Use a dye-bath containing 4 lb. Thioflavine S, 2 lb.
Naphthol Yellow S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb, acetic acid.

Pink.--Use 1/6 oz. Diamine Rose B D, 1/4 oz. Diamine Scarlet B, 1/2 oz.
Rhodamine B and 20 lb. Glauber's salt.

Scarlet.--A fine shade is got from 1-1/2 lb. Diamine Scarlet B, 1/2 oz.
Diamine Red 5 B and 20 lb. Glauber's salt.

Orange.--Use a dye-bath containing 3-1/2 lb. Diamine Orange G, 14-1/2 oz.
Tropæoline O O, and 2-3/4 oz. Orange extra.

Sky Blue.--Use 1-1/2 oz. Diamine Sky Blue and 1-1/4 oz. Alkaline Blue B.

Bright Blue.--A fine shade similar to that formerly known as Royal Blue is
got by using 1-1/2 lb. Diamine Brilliant Blue G, and 9-1/4 oz. Alkaline Blue
6 B.

Maroon.--Use 3 lb. Diamine Bordeaux B, 2 lb. Diamine Violet N, and 3-
1/4 oz. Formyl Violet S 4 B.

Green.--A fine green similar in shade to that used for billiard-table cloth is
got from 2 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow B, 2 lb. Diamine Steel Blue L, 14-
1/2 oz. Thiocarmine R and 7-1/4 oz. Indian Yellow G.

Gold Brown.--A fine brown is got from 3 lb. Diamine Orange B, 1/2 lb.
Union Black, 2-1/2 oz. Diamine Brown, 3/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and
1/2 lb. Indian Yellow G.

Navy Blue.--Use 3-1/4 lb. Diamine Black B H, 1-1/2 lb. Diamine Brilliant
Blue G, and 1/2 lb. Alkaline Blue.

Fawn Drab.--A fine shade is got by dyeing in a bath containing 6-3/4 oz.
Diamine Orange B, 1-3/4 lb. Union Black, 1/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black,
1/4 oz. Diamine Bordeaux B, and 1 oz. Azo Red A.

In all these colours the dye-baths contain Glauber's salt at the rate of 4 lb.
per 10 gallons.

Dark Brown.--2-1/2 lb. Diamine Orange B, 13 oz. Diamine Bordeaux B, 1-
1/2 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow B, 1-3/4 lb. Union Black, and 3-1/2 oz.
Naphthol Black.

Drab.--1-3/4 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow R, 3-1/4 oz. Diamine Bordeaux B, 2-
1/2 oz. Union Black, 1/2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and 1-1/4 oz. Indian
Yellow G.

Dark Blue.--Use in the dye-bath 4-1/4 lb. Diamine Dark Blue B, 1-1/2 lb.
Diamine Brilliant Blue G, 3/4 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, and 5 oz. Naphthol
Blue Black.

Blue Black.--Use 3-1/4 lb. Union Black S, 1-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Black
B M, 6-1/2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black, and 1/4 lb. Formyl violet S 4 B.

Dark Walnut.--2-3/4 lb. Diamine Brown M, 1-1/2 lb. Union Black S, and
11-1/4 oz. Indian Yellow G.

Peacock Green.--Use in the dye-bath 3-1/2 lb. Diamine Black H W, 5-
1/6 oz. Diamine Fast Yellow B, 1-1/2 lb. Thiocarmine R, and 1-1/6 oz.
Indian Yellow G.

Slate Blue.--Use in the dye-bath 6-1/2 oz. Diamine Catechine B, 4-3/4 oz.
Diamine Orange B, 2-1/2 oz. Union Black, 2-3/4 oz. Orange E N Z, and 1-
3/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Dark Sage.--A good shade is dyed with 1 lb. Diamine Orange B, 6-1/2 oz.
Union Black, 1-3/4 oz. Diamine Brown M, 3-1/4 oz. Azo Red A, and 2-
1/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Navy Blue.--Use 2 lb. Diamine Dark Blue B, 1-1/4 lb. Lanacyl Violet B, and
7 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Bronze Green.--A good shade is dyed with 2 lb. Diamine Orange B, 5 oz.
Diamine Brown N, 3/4 lb. Union Black S, 1 lb. Indian Yellow G, and 2 oz.

Naphthol Blue Black.

Black.--Use 2-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Black B M and 1-1/2 lb. Naphthylamine
Black 6 B. Another recipe, 2-1/4 lb. Oxydiamine Black B M, 1 lb. Diamine
Brown M, 1 lb. Orange E N Z, and 2 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Dark Brown.--Use 1-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Black B M, 15-1/2 oz. Diamine
Brown M, 1-3/4 lb. Indian Yellow G, and 2-3/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.
Another combination, 1-1/2 lb. Oxydiamine Black B M, 1-1/2 lb. Orange
E N Z, 1 lb. Indian Yellow G, and 5 oz. Naphthol Blue Black.

Scarlet.--3 lb. Benzopurpurine 4 B, 3/4 oz. Ponceau 3 R B, and 1/2 lb.
Curcumine S.

Crimson.--1/2 lb. Congo Corinth G, 2 lb. Benzopurpurine 10 B, and 1/2 lb.
Curcumine S.

Bright Blue.--2 lb. Chicago Blue 6 B, 3 oz. Alkali Blue 6 B, 1-1/2 oz.
Zambesi Blue R X. After dyeing, rinse and develop in a bath of 8 oz.
sulphuric acid in 10 gallons water, then rinse well.

Dark Blue.--2-1/2 lb. Columbia Fast Blue 2 G, 3 oz. Sulphon Azurine D,
3 oz. Alkali Blue 6 B. After dyeing, rinse and develop in a bath of 8 oz.
sulphuric acid in 20 gallons of water.

Orange.--9 oz. Congo Brown G, 1-1/2 lb. Mikado Orange 4 R O, and 1-
1/2 oz. Mandarine G.

Dark Green.--2 lb. Columbia Green, 1/2 lb. Sulphon Azurine D, 1/2 lb.
Zambesi Blue B X, 1-1/2 oz. Curcumine S.

Black.--4 lb. Columbia Black F B, and 2 lb. Wool Black 6 B.

Pale Sage Green.--5 oz. Zambesi Black D, 3/4 lb. Chrysophenine G, and 1-
1/2 lb. Curcumine S.

Slate.--1/2 lb. Zambesi Black D, 3/4 oz. Zambesi Blue R X, 1/2 oz. Mikado
Orange 4 R O, and 1-1/2 oz. Acid Violet 6 B.

Dark Grey.--1 lb. Columbia Black F B, 3 oz. Zambesi Black B, and 3/4 oz.
Sulphon Azurine D.

Drab.--1-1/2 oz. Zambesi Black D, 3/4 oz. Mandarine G extra, 1/4 oz.
Curcumine extra, and 3 oz. Mikado Orange 4 R O.

Brown.--5 oz. Zambesi Black D, 3/4 oz. Mandarine G extra, 1-1/2 oz.
Orange T A, and 2 oz. Mikado Orange 4 R O.

Nut Brown.--3/4 lb. Congo Brown G, 1/4 lb. Chicago Blue R W, and 3/4 lb.
Mikado Orange 4 R O.

Dark Brown.--1 lb. Congo Brown G, 1-1/2 lb. Benzopurpurine 4 B, 1-
1/2 lb. Zambesi Black F, and 1/2 lb. Wool Black 6 B.

Stone.--1 oz. Zambesi Black D, 1/4 oz. Mandarine G, 1/4 oz. Curcumine
extra, and 1-1/4 oz. Mikado Orange 4 R O.

Slate Green.--3 oz. Zambesi Black D, 1-1/2 oz. Guinea Green B.

Sage Brown.--1/2 lb. Zambesi Black D, 1-1/2 oz. Mandarine G extra, 3 oz.
Curcumine extra, 3 oz. Acid Violet 6 B, 6 oz. Mikado Orange 4 R O, and 4-
1/2 oz. Curcumine S.

Cornflower Blue.--3 oz. Chicago Blue 4 R, 1/4 lb. Zambesi Blue R X,
1/4 lb. Acid Violet 6 B, and 3/4 oz. Zambesi Brown G.

Dark Brown.--1-1/2 lb. Brilliant Orange G, 1/2 lb. Orange T A, 1 lb.
Columbia Black F B, and 1/4 lb. Wool Black 6 B.

Dark Blue.--2 lb. Chicago Blue R W, 1 lb. Zambesi Blue R X, 1/2 lb.
Columbia Black F B, 10 oz. Guinea Green B, and 1/2 lb. Guinea Violet 4 B.

The Janus dyes may be used for the dyeing of half wool union fabrics. The
best plan of working is to prepare a bath with 5 lb. of sulphate of zinc. In
this the goods are worked at the boil for five minutes, then there is added
the dyes (previously dissolved in water), and the working continued for a
quarter of an hour; then there is added 20 lb. Glauber's salt and the working
at the boil continued for one hour, at the end of which time the dye-bath

will be fairly well exhausted of colour. The goods are now taken out and put
into a fixing bath of sumac or tannin, in which they are treated for fifteen
minutes. To this same bath there is next added tartar emetic and 1 lb.
sulphuric acid, and the working continued for a quarter of an hour; then the
bath is heated to 160° F., when the goods are lifted, rinsed and dried. In the
recipes the quantities of dyes, sumac or tannin, and tartar emetic only are
given, the other ingredients and processes are the same in all.

Dark Blue.--2-1/4 lb. Janus Dark Blue B, and 1/2 lb. Janus Green B, in the
dye-bath; 16 lb. sumac extract and 2 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing bath.

Blue Black.--3-1/2 lb Janus Black I and 1/3 lb. Janus Black I I in the dye-
bath, and 16 lb. sumac extract and 2 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing bath.

Dark Brown.--2-1/2 lb. Janus Brown B, 1 lb. Janus Black I, 3-1/2 oz. Janus
Yellow G, and 5 oz. Janus Red B in the dye-bath, with 16 lb. sumac extract
and 2 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing bath.

Drab.--1-1/2 oz. Janus Yellow R, 1/4 oz. Janus Red B, 1 oz. Janus Blue R,
and 1/4 oz. Janus Grey B B, in the dye-bath, and 4 lb. sumac extract and
1 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing-bath.

Grey.--5 oz. Janus Blue R, 3-1/4 oz. Janus Grey B, 1-1/2 oz. Janus
Yellow R, and 1/4 oz. Janus Red B in the dye-bath, with 4 lb. sumac extract
and 1 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing-bath.

Nut Brown.--1 lb. Janus Brown R, 8 oz. Janus Yellow R, and 1-1/2 oz. Janus
Blue B in the dye-bath, and 8 lb. sumac extract and 1 lb. tartar emetic in the
fixing-bath.

Walnut Brown.--3 lb. Janus Brown B, 1 lb. Janus Red B, 1 lb. Janus
Yellow R, and 1-1/4 oz. Janus Green B in the dye-bath, with 8 lb. sumac
extract and 1 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing-bath.

Crimson.--2-1/2 lb. Janus Red B, and 8 oz. Janus Claret Red B in the dye-
bath, with 8 lb. sumac extract and 1 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing-bath.

Dark Green.--1-1/2 lb. Janus Green B, 1 lb. Janus Yellow R, and 8 oz. Janus
Grey B in the dye-bath, with 4 lb. sumac extract and 1-1/4 lb. tartar emetic
in the fixing-bath.

Chestnut Brown.--1 lb. Janus Brown R and 1 lb. Janus Yellow R in the dye-
bath, and 8 lb. sumac extract and 1 lb. tartar emetic in the fixing-bath.

Before the introduction of the direct dyes the method usually followed, and
indeed is now to a great extent, is that known as Cross-dyeing. The goods
were woven with dyed cotton threads of the required shade and undyed
woollen threads; after weaving and cleansing the woollen part of the fabric
was dyed with acid dyes such as Acid Magenta, Scarlet R, Acid Yellow, etc.
In such methods care has to be taken that the dyes used for dyeing the
cotton are such as stand acids, a by no means easy condition to fulfil at one
time. Many of the direct dyes are fast to acids and therefore lend themselves
more or less readily to cross-dyeing. For details of the dyes for cotton
reference may be made to the sections on dyeing with the direct colours in
the companion volume to this book on Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics.

Shot Effects.--A pleasing kind of textile fabric which is now made and is a
great favourite for ladies' dress goods is where the cotton of a mixed fabric
is thrown up to form a figured design. It is possible to dye the two fibres in
different colours and so produce a variety of shot effects. These latter are so
endless that it is impossible here to enumerate all that may be produced. It
will have to suffice to lay down the lines which may be followed to the best
advantage, and then give some recipes to illustrate the remarks that have
been made. The best plan for the production of shot effects upon union
fabrics is to take advantage of the property of certain acid dyes which dye
only the wool in an acid bath and of many of the direct colours which will
only dye the cotton in an alkaline bath. The process, working on these lines,
becomes as follows: The wool is first dyed in an acid bath with the addition
of Glauber's salt and bisulphate of soda or sulphuric acid, the goods are then
washed with water containing a little ammonia to free them from the acid
and afterwards dyed with the direct colour in an alkaline bath.

Fancy or the mode shades are obtained by combining suitable dye-stuffs.

If the cotton is to be dyed in light shades it is advantageous to dye on the
liquor at 65° to 80° F., with the addition of 3-1/4 oz. Glauber's salt, and
from 20 to 40 grains borax per gallon water. The addition of an alkali is
advisable in order to neutralise slight quantities of acid which may have
remained in the wool, and to prevent the dye-stuff from dyeing the cotton
too deep a shade.

Very light shades can also be done on the padding machine. The dye-stuffs
of Group (2), which have been previously enumerated, do not stain the
wool at all or only very slightly and are therefore the most suitable. Less
bright effects can be produced by simply dyeing the goods in one bath. The
wool is first dyed at the boil with the wool dye-stuff in a neutral bath, the
steam is then shut off and the cotton dyed by adding the cotton dye-stuff to
the bath and dyeing without again heating. By passing the goods through
cold water to which some sulphuric or acetic acid is added the brightness of
most effects is greatly increased.

Gold and Green.--First bath, 1 lb. Cyanole extra, 7-1/4 oz. Acid Green, 1-
1/2 oz. Orange G G, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda; work at the boil for one
hour, then lift and rinse well. Second bath, 4 lb. Diamine Orange G and
15 lb. Glauber's salt; work in the cold or at a lukewarm heat. Third bath at
120° F., 4 oz. Chrysoidine and 1/4 oz. Safranine.

Black and Blue.--First bath, 3-1/2 lb. Naphthol Black 3 B and 10 lb.
bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 2 lb. Diamine Sky Blue and 13 lb.
Glauber's salt. Third bath, 6-1/2 oz. New Methylene Blue N; work as in the
last recipe.

Green and Claret.--First bath, 3-1/2 lb. Naphthol Red C and 10 lb.
bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 2 lb. Diamine Sky Blue F F, 1-1/4 lb.
Thioflavine S, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Gold Brown and Blue.--First bath, 2-1/2 oz. Orange E N Z, 1-1/2 oz.
Orange G G, 1/4 oz. Cyanole extra, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second
bath, 14 oz. Diamine Sky Blue F F and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Dark Brown and Blue.--First bath, 1/2 lb. Orange G G, 1-1/2 oz. Orange
E N Z, 1-1/2 oz. Cyanole extra and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second bath,

12 oz. Diamine Sky Blue F F and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Black and Green Blue.--First bath, 3 lb. Orange G G, 1 lb. Brilliant
cochineal 4 R, 1 lb. Fast Acid Green B N, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt. Second
bath, 1-3/4 lb. Diamine Sky Blue F F, 3-1/4 lb. Thioflavine S, and 15 lb.
Glauber's salt.

We may here note that in all the above recipes the second bath (for dyeing
the cotton) should be used cold or at a lukewarm heat, and as strong as
possible. It is not completely exhausted of colour, only about one-half going
on the fibre. If kept as a standing bath this feature should be borne in mind
and less dye-stuff used in the dyeing of the second and following lots of
goods.

Blue and Gold Yellow.--3 lb. Diamine Orange G, 13 oz. Naphthol Blue G,
14-1/2 oz. Formyl Violet S 4 B, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt; work at just under
the boil.

Brown and Blue.---1 lb. Diamine Steel Blue L, 9-1/2 oz. Diamine Sky Blue,
1 lb. Orange E N Z, 1 lb. Indian Yellow G, 1-3/4 oz. Naphthol Blue Black
and 15 lb. Glauber's salt. Work at 170° to 180° F.

In these two last recipes only one bath is used, all the dyes being added at
once. This is possible if care be taken that dye-stuffs are used which will
dye wool and not cotton from neutral baths and dyes which dye cotton
better than wool. The temperature should also be kept below the boil and
carefully regulated as the operation proceeds and the results begin to show
themselves.

Grey and Orange.--First bath, 3 oz. Orange extra, 1-1/4 lb. Cyanole extra,
11 lb. Azo Red A, and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 5 oz. Diamine
Orange D C and 3 oz. Diamine Fast Yellow B.

Green and Red.--First bath, 2 lb. Croceine A Z and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.
Second bath, 1 lb. Diamine Sky Blue F F, 1/2 lb. Thioflavine S, and 15 lb.
Glauber's salt.

Brown and Violet.--First bath, 3/4 lb. Orange extra, 3/4 lb. Cyanole extra,
and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 5 oz. Diamine Brilliant Blue G
and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Black and Yellow.--First bath, 7 lb. Naphthol Black B, 1/2 lb. Fast Yellow S,
and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 3 lb. Diamine Fast Yellow A and
15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Black and Pink.--Black as above. Pink with Diamine Rose B D (see above).

Green and Buff.--First bath, 1/4 lb. Orange extra, 3/4 oz. Fast Yellow S and
10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Second bath, 3/4 lb. Diamine Sky Blue F F, 1/2 lb.
Thioflavine S, and 15 lb. Glauber's salt.

Orange and Violet.--First bath, 9 oz. Orange extra and 10 lb. bisulphate of
soda. Second bath, 3/4 lb. Diamine Violet N and 10 lb. Glauber's salt.

Black and Blue.--First bath, Naphthol Black, as given above. Second bath,
Diamine Sky Blue, as given above.

Black and Yellow.--Add first 1 lb. Wool Black 6 B and 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
then when the wool has been dyed add 2 lb. Curcumine S to dye the cotton
in the same bath.

Green and Red.--Dye the wool by using 3 lb. Guinea Green B, 1/4 lb.
Curcumine extra, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt, then add to the bath 3/4 lb. Erika
B N and 3/4 lb. Congo Corinth G.

Orange and Blue.--Dye the wool first with 1-1/4 lb. Mandarine G, 2 oz.
Wool Black 6 B, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt; then the cotton with 2 lb.
Columbia Blue G.

Blue and Orange.--Dye the wool first with 3/4 lb. Guinea Violet B, 3/4 lb.
Guinea Green B, and 10 lb. Glauber's salt; then dye the cotton with 2 lb.
Mikado Orange 4 R O.

Green and Orange.--Dye the wool with 3 lb. Guinea Green B, 1/4 lb.
Curcumine extra and 10 lb. Glauber's salt, then dye the cotton in the same

bath with 1-1/2 lb. Mikado Orange 4 R O.

CHAPTER VI.

DYEING OF GLORIA.

Gloria is a material which during the last few years has become of
considerable importance as furnishing a fine lustrous fabric at a
comparatively low price. The perfection to which the art of dyeing has
attained and the facilities now available to the dyer, enable this to be
produced more beautiful than ever, and naturally an increased demand for it
as a dress fabric has developed.

Gloria is woven from the two fibres, wool and silk, of a fine texture to
enable it to be used in the place of a silk fabric. Formerly it was usually
woven with the wool and silk yarns already dyed, especially when a "shot"
effect was to be produced, this being done by a twill weave of the fabric and
by the use of yarns of two very different colours in the case of "shot"
fabrics. By the introduction of dye-stuffs derived from coal tar the cloth is
now dyed after being woven, care being taken to choose those which will
dye the two fibres equally well when self-shades are wanted, or those which
will dye one fibre better than the other, and thus allow a woven piece of
gloria to be dyed of two different colours. As most dyers know, the most
brilliant effects are obtained when the finished woven piece can be dyed.
Then all the grease and dirt which has become attached to it during the
operations of spinning the yarns and weaving the pieces can be removed
before dyeing, thus leaving the fabric in a perfectly clean condition. Thus
no after cleansing is required, whereas when the fibres are dyed in the yarn
the goods must be cleansed after weaving to free them from dirt, and such
cleaning has a somewhat deleterious effect upon the brilliancy of the colour
of the finished fabric, more especially in the case of light colours.

Gloria may be in one colour only, a self-colour as it is called; this case is
comparatively simple, the only care that is required being to select dyes
which have an equal affinity for the two fibres or which give but slightly
different shades. Still, some good effects are obtained when dyes are used
which dye the silk and wool different colours but give the combined effect
of a self-colour. Or the fibre may be purposely dyed in two different colours
in some cases to give the "shot" effect. This is much more troublesome, but
with a little care can be carried out with good results. The dyes available for
dyeing gloria may be classified, according to their behaviour in regard to
their dyeing of the two fibres, into three groups as follows:--

Group A.--Those which will dye the two fibres of equal shade.

Group B.--Those which will dye the wool at boiling heat more readily than
the silk.

Group C.--Those which will dye the silk only in a cold bath.

Group A consists of those dyes which can be used in dyeing self-colours on
gloria from acid baths. It includes Alkali Blue, Naphthylamine Blacks,
Naphthol Green B, Indian Yellow, Croceine A Z, Croceine Orange,
Orange R, Brilliant Croceine M, Rose Bengale, Thiocarmine R, Soluble
Blue, Formyl Violet S 4 B, Acid Green, Croceine Orange G, Carmoisin,
Acid Violet 5 B, Fast Acid Violet 10 B, Fast Green Bluish, Rhodamine, Silk
Blue, Victoria Black, Archil, Turmeric, Safranine, Auramine, Quinoline
Yellow, Azoflavine, Victoria Blue and Bismarck Brown.

Group B comprises those dye-stuffs which in a boiling acid bath dye the
wool deeper than the silks, in other words have more affinity for the wool
than the silk, Tropæoline O, Acid Magenta, Indigo Extract, Phloxine,
Naphthol Yellow, Orange G G, Scarlet S, Azo Red A, Eosines,
Thiocarmine R, Naphthol Black B B, New Victoria Black Blue,
Erythrosine, and Roccelline.

The silk becomes tinted to a more or less extent when in such a bath, but
often the colour is readily removed either by subsequent passage through
boiling water or through hot soap liquor. A very good clearing can be
effected by the use of a bath of acetate of ammonia. Naphthol Yellow, for

instance, only imparts a very faint shade of yellow when thus dyed, and this
is easily removed by boiling-water treatment.

Group C.--Those dye-stuffs which will dye the silk more readily in a cold
bath than the wool. These comprise most of the basic dyes, such as
Thioflavine T, Safranine, Brilliant Green, Methyl Violet, Magenta, New
Methylene Blue, Bismarck Brown, Rose Bengale, Phloxine, Acid Greens,
Formyl Violet S 4 B, Rhodamine, Solid Blue, etc.

Gloria may be dyed either by a one-bath or two-bath process, and either one
or two colours, as may be required. In both cases advantage may be taken
of the different affinities of the two fibres for the dye-stuffs used, as, for
instance, the silk may be dyed brown, the wool olive by using a mixture of
Acid Yellow, Indigo extract and Orange G. Indigo extract, Cochineal, Acid
Magenta, Picric acid, Naphthol Yellow, and Tartrazine dye the wool only at
the boil.

The following recipes will serve to illustrate the foregoing remarks and
show how this important fabric may be dyed:--

Deep Gold.--The dye-bath is made from 2 lb. Indian Yellow, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, dyed at the boil. In this and
following recipes the quantities are for 100 lb.

Orange.--The dye-bath is made with 2 lb. Indian Yellow, 19 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Scarlet.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Scarlet 3 R, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid. Another scarlet is got from 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Another
scarlet is got from 2 lb. Croceine Scarlet 3 B, 2 lb. sulphuric acid, and 10 lb.
Glauber's salt; by using the 5 B Scarlet a bluer shade can be dyed. Azo
Cochineal also dyes a fine scarlet on gloria.

Crimson.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Carmoisin B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. The 7 B Croceine Scarlet also dyes a fine crimson
of a more fiery tone than the last, while 2-1/2 lb. Azo Fuchsine G dyes a
bluer shade of crimson.

Rose.--A fine rose is obtained with 2 lb. Rhodamine B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and a little acetic acid. 1 lb. Phloxine dyes a fine deep rose; the silk comes
out a paler colour than the wool, but the general effect is good.

Deep Maroon.--Make the dye-bath from 1-1/2 lb. Croceine A Z, 1/2 lb.
Indian Yellow, 1/4 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, 10 lb. bisulphate of soda. Enter
the goods, work at the boil for an hour, then cool down to 120° F., enter an
equal quantity of dye-stuff and work for an hour longer.

Pale Maroon.--Make the dye-bath with 3 lb. Azo Bordeaux, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Black.--Prepare the dye-bath with 5 lb. Naphthylamine Black D, 1 lb. Acid
Green B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid; work at the boil for
twenty minutes, then allow to cool to 120° or 130° F., then work an hour
longer. Another black can be dyed in a similar way from 5 lb. Victoria
Black B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Violet.--Use 2 lb. Acid Violet 5 B, or 2 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid. Fast Acid Violet 10 B gives a bluer
shade than the above.

Green.--Make the dye-bath with 2 lb. Acid Green G G, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil. This gives a bright yellow
shade of green; a bluer shade can be got from Acid Green 6 B or Acid
Green B, while Fast Green Bluish gives very blue greens.

Coeruleum Blue.--Dye with 3/4 lb. Silk Blue B E S, 10 lb. Glauber's salt,
and 2 lb. sulphuric acid; this gives a very fine bright blue.

Deep Indigo Blue.--Dye with 4-1/2 lb. Solid Blue R, 2 lb. Thiocarmine R
paste, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Deep Violet Brown.--Dye with 3 lb. Croceine A Z, 1-1/4 lb. Indian Yellow,
1-3/4 lb. Formyl Violet S 4 B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid
for an hour at the boil, and for an hour at 120° F.

Blue Black.--Make the dye-bath with 5 lb. New Victoria Blue Black, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil. Another plan is
to use 5 lb. Naphthylamine Black 4 B and 10 lb. bisulphate of soda.

Dark Grey.--Prepare a dye-bath with 3 lb. Naphthol Black 3 B, 4 lb.
Naphthol Green B, 1 lb. Amaranth, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 8 lb. copperas, and
3 lb. sulphuric acid, working at the boil for an hour and then rinsing in
water to which a little acetate of ammonia has been added. The silk is dyed
grey and the wool a black.

Brown.--A fine yellow brown shot with lilac is obtained by first dyeing in a
bath of 5 lb. Naphthol Yellow, 10 lb. Glauber's salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.
Wash in hot water, then dye with 2-1/2 lb. Solid Blue P G, 1-1/2 oz. Methyl
Violet B O, and 5 lb. acetic acid in the cold.

Wool, Orange; Silk, Pale Green.--Dye the wool with 1-1/2 lb. Orange G G,
6 oz. Naphthol Green B, 2-1/2 oz. Naphthol Red C, 10 lb. bisulphate of
soda, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid; and the silk with 1/2 lb. Milling Yellow and
1/2 lb. Acid Green.

Wool, Black; Silk, Light Grey.--Dye in a bath with 5 lb. Anthracene Acid
Black S T, 4-1/2 oz. Fast Yellow S, 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid. The silk is cleaned by boiling for ten minutes in a soap bath.

Wool, Bright Red; Silk, Blush Rose.--The gloria silk is dyed in a bath of
3 lb. Naphthol Red O, 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.
After dyeing, soap for ten minutes.

Wool, Black; Silk, Green.--Dye the wool in a bath containing 5 lb.
Anthracene Acid Black S T, 5 oz. Fast Yellow S, 2 lb. oxalic acid, 10 lb.
Glauber's salt, and 15 lb. acetic acid. Work the goods in this at the boil for
an hour, then lift, add 3/4 lb. bichromate of potash, and boil for twenty
minutes longer. Clean the silk by boiling in a bath of soap for twenty
minutes, then dye in a cold bath containing 1 lb. Thioflavine T and 1 lb.
Brilliant Green.

Wool, Dark Maroon; Silk, Pale Blue.--After the manner described in the
first recipe, dye the wool with 1 lb. Orange G G, 3 lb. Naphthol Green B,

2 lb. Brilliant Cochineal 2 R, 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 2 lb. sulphuric
acid. Dye the silk with 1-1/2 lb. Pure Blue O T.

Wool, Violet; Silk, Green.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Acid Violet 4 B,
9 oz. Indigotine extra, 10 lb. bisulphate of soda, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.
The dyeing is carried on at the boil until the bath is exhausted of colour,
whereupon the goods are well rinsed in water. They are next soaped at
160° F. for ten minutes in a liquor containing 1/2 oz. soap per gallon, then
rinsed. Next a dye-bath is made with 1 lb. Acid Green, 8 oz. Milling
Yellow O, and 1 lb. acetic acid, the goods being treated in this in the cold
until the desired shade is obtained, then lifted, rinsed and dried.

Violet and Pink.--A fine effect of violet shot with pink is obtained by dyeing
in a bath of 1-1/2 lb. Indigo extract, 1/2 lb. Rhodamine B, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt, and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Brown Olive and Green is dyed in a bath made with 1 lb. Quinoline Yellow,
1 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 1/4 lb. Fast Green Bluish, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and
2 lb. sulphuric acid. By using about half the above quantities of dye-stuffs a
drab effect shot with green can be obtained.

Crimson and Green.--The first bath is made from 4 lb. Azo Red A and
10 lb. bisulphate of soda, worked for an hour at the boil; then treat in a
weak bath of acetate of ammonia; and dye the silk in a cold bath of 2 oz.
Solid Green Crystals, 1/4 lb. Thioflavine T, and 5 lb. acetic acid.

Violet and Pink.--Dye in a bath of 1-1/4 lb. Indigo extract, 10 lb. Glauber's
salt and 2 lb. sulphuric acid.

Brown and Pink.--This is dyed in a bath made from 1-1/4 lb. Fast Yellow,
5 oz. Rhodamine B, 1/4 lb. indigo extract, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, and 2 lb.
sulphuric acid. The silk dyes a pale pink while the general effect is that of a
fine fawn brown with a reddish shot effect.

Dark Green and Pale Crimson.--This is done in two baths, the first is made
with 8 lb. Naphthol Green B, 10 lb. Glauber's salt, 3 lb. sulphuric acid, and
7 lb. copperas, working at the boil; then treat with hot water and dye in a

fresh bath with 6 oz. Safranine Prima and 5 lb. acetic acid in the cold. The
combined effect of the two is that of a brown shot with green.

Orange and Green.--This gives a splendid shot effect and is dyed as
follows. Work for an hour at the boil, for thirty minutes in a bath of boiling
water, then enter into a cold bath of 5 oz. Thioflavine T, 3 oz. Brilliant
Green, and 3 lb. acetic acid; work for thirty minutes, or until shade is
obtained.

Orange and Blue.--Use first dye-bath as in the last, then, after washing in
hot water, dye in a bath of 2 oz. New Methylene Blue N, and 3 lb. acetic
acid.

Silk, Sky Blue; Wool, Drab.--Make a dye-bath with 20 lb. acetic acid,
3/4 oz. Indigotine, 3 oz. Fast Yellow extra and 2 oz. Azo Fuchsine G. Work
at the boil for one hour at 100° F., then pass into a bath of 3/4 oz. Turquoise
Blue B B, and 2 lb. acetic acid, working for half an hour at 80°.

Silk, Pink; Wool, Pale Blue.--Make a dye-bath with 15 lb. acetic acid and 4-
1/2 oz. Indigotine. Work at the boil for an hour, then pass into a bran bath as
before; next enter into a dye-bath at 80° to 90° of 3/4 oz. Brilliant
Rhoduline R B, 1-1/2 oz. Auramine I I, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Silk, Green; Wool, Dark Crimson.--The first bath is made from 3 lb. Azo
Fuchsine G, 1 lb. Indian Yellow G and 20 lb. acetic acid; then follows the
bran and the final dye-bath, which is made from 1-1/2 oz. Imperial Green
G I, and 2 lb. acetic acid.

Silk, Orange; Wool, Black.--A dye-bath is made from 2 lb. Indigotine, 2 lb.
Indian Yellow G, 1/2 lb. Rhodamine G, and 20 lb. acetic acid. Work at the
boil for one hour; then lift, wash and dry.

Silk, Light Green; Wool, Dark Blue.--Make a dye-bath from 1/2 lb. Azo
Fuchsine G, 2 lb. Fast Light Green, and 20 lb. acetic acid. Work at the boil
to shade; then lift, wash and dry.

Silk, Yellow; Wool, Terra Cotta.--A dye-bath is made from 1-1/2 oz.
Indigotine, 3/4 lb. Azo Fuchsine G, 9 oz. Indian Yellow R, and 20 lb. acetic

acid. Work at the boil for one hour; then lift, wash and dry.

Silk, Light Sea Green; Wool, Pale Sage.--Make the dye-bath with 1/2 lb.
Fast Yellow extra, 3 oz. Azo Fuchsine G, 1-1/2 oz. Fast Green bluish, and
20 lb. acetic acid. Work as in the last recipe.

Silk, Light Green; Wool, Brown.--Make the dye-bath with 1 lb. Azo
Fuchsine G, 2-1/2 lb. Fast Yellow extra, 1/2 lb. Fast Green bluish, and 20 lb.
acetic acid. Work at the boil for one hour.

Silk, Pale Blue; Wool, Crimson.--Make a dye-bath with 2 lb. Azo
Crimson L and 20 lb. acetic acid. Work at the boil for one hour, then pass
into a bran bath for half an hour at 90° F., and into another bath containing
1/2 lb. Turquoise Blue G, and 2 lb. acetic acid, at 90° F., for half an hour;
then wash and dry.

Silk, Light Drab; Wool, Lavender.--Make the first dye-bath from 3 oz.
Indigotine, 2 oz. Azo Fuchsine G, and 20 lb. acetic acid. After working an
hour at the boil, pass into a bran bath for half an hour, afterwards topping
with 1-1/2 oz. Bismarck Brown R and 2 lb. acetic acid.

CHAPTER VII.

OPERATIONS FOLLOWING DYEING: WASHING, SOAPING,
DRYING.

After loose wool, or woollen yarns or piece goods of every description have
been dyed, before they can be sent out for sale they have to pass through
various operations of a purifying character. There are some operations
through which cloths pass that have as their object the imparting of a certain
appearance and texture to them, these are generally known as finishing
processes, of these it is not intended here to speak, but only of those which
precede them but follow on the dyeing operations.

These processes are usually of a very simple character, and common to
most colours which are dyed, and here will be noticed the appliances and
manipulations necessary in the carrying out of these operations.

Squeezing or Wringing.--It is advisable when the goods are taken out of
the dye-bath to squeeze or wring them according to circumstances in order
to express out all surplus dye-liquor, which can be returned to the dye-bath
if needful to be used again. This is an economical proceeding in many
cases, especially in working with many of the old tannin materials, like
sumac, divi-divi, myrobalans, and the modern direct dyes, which during the
dyeing operations are not completely extracted out of the bath, or in other
words the dye-bath is not exhausted of colouring matter, and therefore it can
be used again for another lot of goods simply by adding fresh material to
make up for that absorbed by the first lot.

Loose wool and loose cotton are somewhat difficult to deal with by
squeezing or wringing, but the material may be passed through a pair of

squeezing rollers such as are shown in figure 24, which will be more fully
dealt with later on.

Yarns in Hanks.--In the hand-dyeing process of hank-dyeing the hanks are
wrung by placing one end of the hank on a wringing-horse placed over the
dye-tub, and a dye-stick in the other end of the hank, giving two or three
sharp pulls to straighten out the yarn and then twisting the stick round; the
twisting of the yarns puts some pressure on the fibres thoroughly and
uniformly squeezing out the surplus liquor from the yarn.

Hank-Wringing Machines.--Several forms of hank-wringing machines
have been devised. One machine consists of a pair of discs fitted on an axle,
these discs carry strong hooks on which the hanks are placed. The operator
places a hank on a pair of the hooks. The discs revolve and carry round the
hank, during the revolution the hank is twisted and the surplus liquor wrung
out, when the revolution of the discs carries the hank to the spot where it
entered the machine, the hooks fly back to their original position, the hank
unwinds, it is then removed and a new hank put in its place, and so the
machine works on, hanks being put on and taken off as required. The
capacity of such a machine is great and the efficiency of its working good.

Mr. S. Spencer, of Whitefield, makes a hank-wringing machine which
consists of a pair of hooks placed over a vat. One of the hooks is fixed, the
other is made to rotate. A hank hung between the hooks is naturally twisted
and all the surplus liquor wrung out, the liquor falling into the vat.

Roller Squeezing Machines for Yarn.--Hanks may be passed through a
pair of indiarubber squeezing rollers which may be so arranged that they
can be fixed as required on the dye-bath. Such a pair of rollers is a familiar
article and quite of common and general use in dye-houses.

Piece Goods.--These are generally passed open through a pair of squeezing
rollers, which are often attached to the dye-vat in which the pieces are dyed.

Read Holiday's Squeezing Machine.--In figure 24 is shown a squeezing
machine very largely employed for squeezing all kinds of piece goods after
dyeing or washing. It consists of a pair of heavy rollers on which, by means
of the screws shown at the top, a very considerable pressure can be brought
to bear. The piece is run through the eye shown on the left, by which it is
made into a rope form, then over the guiding rollers and between the
squeezing rollers and into waggons for conveyance to other machines. This
machine is effective.

Another plan on which roller, or rather in this case disc, squeezing
machines are made is to make the bottom roller with a square groove in the
centre, into this fits a disc, the cloth passing between them. The top disc
can, by suitable screws, be made to press upon the cloth in the groove and
thus squeeze the water out of it.

Washing.

One of the most important operations following that of dyeing is the
washing with water to free the goods, whether cotton or woollen, from all
traces of loose dye, acids, mordanting materials, etc., which it is not
desirable should be left in, as they might interfere with the subsequent
finishing operations. For this purpose a plentiful supply of good clean water
is required, this should be as soft as possible, free from any suspended
matter which might settle upon the dyed goods and stain or speck them.

Washing may be done by hand, as it frequently was in olden days, by
simply immersing the dyed fabrics in a tub of water, shaking, then wringing
out, again placing in fresh water to finish off. Or if the dye-works were on
the banks of a running stream of clean water the dyed goods were simply
hung in the stream to be washed in a very effectual manner.

In these days it is best to resort to washing machines adapted to deal with
the various kinds of fibrous materials and fabrics, in which they can be
subjected to a current of water.

Loose Wool.--If this has been dyed by hand then the washing may also be
done in the same way by hand in a plain vat. If the dyeing has been done on
a machine then the washing can be done on the same machine.

Yarn in Hanks.--A very common form of washing machine is shown in
figure 25. As will be seen it consists of a wooden vat, over which are
arranged a series of revolving reels on which the hanks are hung, the hanks
are kept in motion through the water and so every part of the yarn is
thoroughly washed. Guides keep the hanks of yarn separate and prevent any
entanglement one with another. A pipe delivers constantly a current of clean
water, while another pipe carries away the used water. Motion is given to
the reels in this case by a donkey engine attached to the machine, but it may
also be driven by a belt from the main driving shaft of the works. This
machine is very effective.

Piece Goods.--Piece goods are mostly washed in machines, of which two
broad types may be recognised. First those where the pieces are dealt with
in the form of ropes or in a twisted form, and second those where the pieces
are washed while opened out full width. There are some machines in which
the cloths may be treated either in the open or rope form as may be thought
most desirable.

Figure 26 represents a fairly well-known machine in which the pieces are
treated in a rope-like form. It consists of a trough in which a constant
current of water is maintained; at one end of this trough is a square beating
roller, at the other a wood lattice roller, above the square beater and out of
the trough are a pair of rollers whose purpose is to draw the cloth through
the machine and also partly to act as squeezing rollers. As will be seen the
cloth is threaded in rope form spirally round the rollers, passing in at one
end and out at the other, pegs in a guide rail serving to keep the various
portions separate. The square beater in its revolutions has a beating action
on the cloth, tending to more effectual washing. The lattice roller is simply
a guide roller.

Figure 27 shows a washing machine very largely used in the wool-dyeing
trade. The principal portion of this machine is of wood.

The internal parts consist of a large wooden bowl, or oftener, as in the
machine under notice, of a pair of wooden bowls which are pressed together
by springs with some small degree of force. Between these bowls the cloth
is placed, more or less loosely twisted up in a rope form, and the machines
are made to take four, six or eight pieces or lengths at one time, the ends of
the pieces being stitched together so as to make a continuous band. A pipe
running along the front of the machine conveys a constant current of clean
water, which is caused to impinge in the form of jets on the pieces of cloth

as they run through the machine, while an overflow carries away the used
water. The goods are run in this machine as long as is considered necessary
for a sufficient wash, which may take half to one and a half hours.

In figure 30 is shown a machine designed to wash pieces in the broad or
open state. The machine contains a large number of guide rollers built more
or less open, round which the pieces are guided, the ends of the pieces
being stitched together, pipes carrying water are so arranged that jets of
clean water impinge on and thoroughly wash cloth as it passes through, the
construction of the guide rollers facilitating the efficient washing of the
goods.

Soaping.

Sometimes yarns or cloths have to be passed through a soap-bath after
being dyed in order to brighten up the colours or develop them in some
way. In the case of yarns this can be done on the reel washing machines
such as are shown in figure 25. In the case of piece goods a continuous
machine in which the washing, soaping, etc., can be carried on
simultaneously is often employed. Such a machine is shown in figure 28. It
consists of a number of compartments fitted with guide rollers, so that the
cloth passes up and down several times through the liquors in the
compartment; between one compartment and another is placed a pair of
squeezing rollers. The cloth is threaded in a continuous manner, well shown
in the drawing, through the machine; in one compartment it is treated with
water, in another with soap liquor, and another with water, and so on, and
these machines may be made with two, three or more compartments, as
may be necessary for the particular work in hand. As seen in the drawing
the cloth passes in at one end, and out at the other finished. It is usually
arranged that a continuous current of the various liquors used flows through
the various compartments, thus ensuring the most perfect treatment of the
cloths.

Drying.

Following on the washing comes the final operation of the dyeing process,
that of drying the dyed and washed goods. Now textile fabrics of all kinds
after they have passed through dye-baths, washing machines, etc., contain a
large amount of water, often exceeding in amount that of the fabric itself,
and to take the goods direct from the preceding operations to the drying
plant means that a considerable amount of fuel must be expended to drive
off this large amount of water. It is therefore very desirable that the goods
be freed from as much of this water as possible before they are sent into any
drying chambers, and this may be done in three ways, by wringing,
squeezing and hydro-extracting. The first two methods have already been
described (pp. 198, 199) and need not again be alluded to, the last needs
some account.

Hydro-extractors are a most efficient means for extracting water out of
textile fabrics. They are made in a variety of forms by several makers.
Essentially they consist of a cylindrical vessel with perforated sides, so
constructed that it can be revolved at a high speed. This vessel is enclosed
in an outer cage. The goods are placed in the basket, as it is termed, and
then this is caused to revolve; at the high speed at which it revolves
centrifugal action comes into play and the water contained in the goods
finds its way to the outside of the basket through the perforations and so
away from the goods. Hydro-extractors are made in a variety of sizes and
forms, in some the driving gear is above, in others below the basket, in
some the driving is done by belt gearing, in others a steam engine is directly
connected with the basket. Figures 29 and 30 show two forms which are

much in use in the textile industry. They are very efficient and extract water
from textile goods more completely than any other means, as will be
obvious from a study of the table below.

The relative efficiency of the three systems of extracting the moisture out of
textile fabrics has been investigated by Grothe, who gives in his Appretur
der Gewebe, published in 1882, the following table showing the percentage
amount of water removed in fifteen minutes:--

Yarns. Wool. Silk. Cotton. Linen.
Wringing 44·5 45·4 45·3 50·3
Squeezing 60·0 71·4 60·0 73·6
Hydro-extracting 83·5 77 81·2 82·8
Pieces.
Wringing 33·4 44·5 44·5 54·6
Squeezing 64·0 69·7 72·2 83·0
Hydro-extracting 77·8 75·5 82·3 86·0

In the practical working of hydro-extractors it is of the utmost importance
that the goods be carefully and regularly laid in the basket, not too much in
one part and too little in another. Any unevenness in this respect at the
speed at which they are driven leaves such a strain on the bearings as to
seriously endanger the safety of the machine.

After being wrung, squeezed or hydro-extracted the goods are ready to be
dried. In the case of yarns this may be done in rooms heated by steam pipes
placed on the floor, the hanks being hung on rods suspended from racks
arranged for the purpose.

Where large quantities of yarn have to be dried it is most economical to
employ a yarn or drying machine, and one form of such is shown in figure
31. The appearance of the machine is that of one long room from the
outside, internally it is divided into compartments, each of which is heated
up by suitably arranged steam pipes, but the degree of heating in each
compartment varies, at the entrance end it is high, at the exit end low. The
yarn is fed in at one end, being hung on rods, and by suitable gearing it is
carried directly through the various chambers or sections, and in its passage
the heat to which it is subject drives off the water it contains. The yarn
requires no attention from the time it passes in wet at the one end of the
machine and comes out dry at the other end. The amount of labour required
is slight, only that represented by filling the sticks with wet yarn and
emptying the dried yarn. The machine works regularly and well.

The drying is accomplished by circulating heated air through the yarns, this
heating being effected by steam coils; fresh air continually enters the
chambers while water-saturated air is as continually being taken out at the

top of the chamber. One of the great secrets in all drying operations is to
have a constant current of fresh hot air playing on the goods to be dried, this
absorbs the moisture they contain, and the water-charged air thus produced
must be taken away as quickly as possible.

Piece Goods.--The most convenient manner of drying piece goods is to
employ the steam cylinder drying machine such as is shown in figure 32.
This consists of a number of hollow tin or copper cylinders which can be
heated by steam passing in through the axles of the cylinders, which are
made hollow on purpose. The cloth to be dried passes round these cylinders,
which revolve while the cloth passes. They work very effectually.

CHAPTER VIII.

EXPERIMENTAL DYEING AND COMPARATIVE DYE TESTING.

Every dyer ought to be able to make experiments in the mordanting and
dyeing of textile fibres for the purpose of ascertaining the best methods of
applying mordants or dye-stuffs, the best methods of obtaining any desired
shade, and for the purpose of making comparative tests of dyes or
mordanting materials with the object of determining their strength and
value. This is not by any means difficult, nor does it involve the use of any
expensive apparatus, so that a dyer need not hesitate to set up a small
dyeing laboratory for fear of the expense which it might entail.

In order to carry out the work indicated above there will be required several
pieces of apparatus. First a small chemical balance; one that will carry 50
grammes in each pan is quite large enough, and such a one, quite accurate
enough for this work, can be bought for 25s. to 30s., while if the dyer be too
poor even for this a cheap pair of apothecaries' scales might be used. It is
advisable to procure a set of gramme weights and to get accustomed to
them, which is not by any means difficult.

In using the balance always put the substance to be weighed on the left-
hand pan and the weights on the right-hand pan. Never put chemicals of any
kind direct on the pan, but weigh them in a watch-glass, small porcelain
basin, or glass beaker (which has first been weighed), according to the
nature of the material which is being weighed. The sets of weights are
always fitted into a block or box, and every time they are used they should
be put back into their proper place.

The experimenter will find it convenient to provide himself with a few
small porcelain basins, glass beakers, cubic centimetre measures, two or

three 200 c.c. flasks with a mark on the neck, a few pipettes of various
sizes, 10 c.c., 20 c.c., 25 c.c.

The most important feature is the dyeing apparatus. Where only a single
dye test is to be made a small copper or enamelled iron saucepan, such as
can be bought at any ironmongers may be used; this may conveniently be
heated by a gas-boiling burner, such as can also be bought at an
ironmongers or plumbers for 2s.

It is, however, advisable to have means whereby several dyeing
experiments can be made at one time and under precisely the same
conditions, and this cannot be done by using the simple means noted above.

To be able to make perfectly comparative dyeing experiments it is best to
use porcelain dye-pots (these may be bought from most dealers in chemical
apparatus), and to heat these in a water-bath arrangement.

The simplest arrangement is sketched in figure 33; it consists of a copper
bath measuring 15 inches long by 10-1/2 inches broad and 6-1/2 inches
deep; this is covered by a lid on which are six apertures to take the
porcelain dye-baths. The bath is heated by two round gas-boiling burners of
the type already referred to.

The copper bath is filled with water which, on being heated to the boil by
the gas burners, heat up the dye-liquors in the dye-pots. The temperature in
the dye-pots under such conditions can never reach the boiling point; where
it is desirable, as in some cases of wool mordanting and dyeing that it
should be so high, then there should be added to the water in the copper
bath a quantity of calcium chloride, which forms a solution that has a much
higher boiling point than that of water, and so the dye-liquors in the dye-
pots may be heated up to the boil.

An objection might be raised that with such an apparatus the temperature in
every part of the bath may not be uniform, and so the temperature of the
dye-liquors in the pots might vary also, and differences of temperature often
have a considerable influence on the shade of the colour which is being
dyed. This is a minor objection, which is more academic in its origin than of
practical importance. To obviate it Mr. William Marshall, of the Rochdale
Technical School, has devised a circular form of dye-bath, in which the
temperature in every part can be kept quite uniform.

The dyeing laboratories of Technical Schools and Colleges are generally
provided with a more elaborate set of dyeing appliances. These in the latest
constructed consist of a copper bath supported on a hollow pair of
trunnions, so that it can be turned over if needed. Into the bath are firmly
fixed three earthenware or porcelain dye-pots; steam for heating can be sent
through the trunnions. After the dyeing tests have been made the apparatus
can be turned over and the contents of the dye-pots emptied into a sink
which is provided for the purpose.

Many other pieces of apparatus have been devised and made for the
purpose of carrying on dyeing experiments on the small scale, but it will not
be needful to describe these in detail. After all no more efficient apparatus
can be desired than that described above.

Dyeing experiments can be made with either yarns or pieces of cloth,
swatches as they are commonly called; a very convenient size is a small
skein of yarn or a piece of cloth weighing 5 grammes. These test skeins or
pieces ought to be well washed in hot water before use, so that they are
clean and free from any size or grease. A little soda or soap will facilitate
the cleansing process.

In carrying out a dyeing test the dye-pot should be filled with the water
required, using as little as is consistent with the dye-swatch being handled
comfortably therein, then there is added the required mordants, chemicals,
dyes, etc., according to the character of the work which is being done.

Of such chemicals as soda, caustic soda, sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt),
tartar, bichromate of potash, it will be found convenient to prepare stock
solutions of known strength, say 50 grammes per litre, and then by means
of a pipette any required quantity can be conveniently added. The same
might be followed in the case of dyes which are constantly in use, in this
case 5 grammes per litre will be found strong enough.

Supposing it is desired to make a test of a sample of Acid Red, using the
following proportions, 2 per cent. dye-stuff, 3 per cent. sulphuric acid and
15 per cent. Glauber's salt, and the weight of the swatch which is being used
is 5 grammes, the following calculations are to be made to give the
quantities of the ingredients required:--

For the dye-stuff, 5 (weight of swatch) multiplied by 2 (per cent. of dye)
and divided by 100 equals (5 x 2) / 100 = 0·1 gramme of dye.

For the acid we have similarly (5 x 3) / 100 = 0·15 gramme of acid.

For the Glauber's salt (5 x 15) / 100 = 0·75 gramme of Glauber's salt.

These quantities may be weighed out and added to the dye-bath, or if
solutions are kept a calculation can be made as to the number of cubic
centimetres which contain the above quantities, and these measured out and
added to the dye-bath.

When all is ready the bath is heated up, the swatch put in and the work of
the test entered upon.

Students are recommended to make experiments on such points as:--

The shades obtained by using various proportions of dye-stuffs.

The influence of various assistants: common salt, soda, Glauber's salt,
borax, phosphate of soda in the bath.

The influence of varying proportions of mordants on the shade of dyeing.

The value of various assistants, tartar, oxalic acid, lactic acid, sulphuric
acid, on the fixation of mordants.

The relative value of tannin matters, etc.

Each dyer should make himself a pattern book into which he should enter
his tests, with full particulars as to how they have been produced at the side.

It is important that a dyer should be able to make comparative dye-tests to
ascertain the relative strength of any two or more samples of dyes which
may be sent to him.

This is not difficult but requires considerable care in carrying out the
various operations involved.

0·5 gramme of each of the samples of dyes should be weighed out and
dissolved in 100 c.c. of water, care being taken that every portion of the dye
is dissolved before any of the solution is used in making up the dye-vats.
Care should be taken that the skeins of yarn or swatches of cloth are exactly
equal in weight, that the same volume of water is placed in each of the dye-
pots, that the same amounts of sulphate of soda or other dye assistants are
added, that the quantities of dye-stuffs and solutions used are equal, in fact
that in all respects the conditions of dyeing are exactly the same, such in
fact being the vital conditions in making comparative dye-tests of the actual
dyeing strength of several samples of dyes.

After the swatches have been dyed they are rinsed and then dried, when the
depths of shade dyed on them may be compared one with another. To
prevent any mistakes it is well to mark the swatches with one, two, three or
more cuts as may be required.

It is easier to ascertain if two dyes are different in strength of colour than to
ascertain the relative difference between them. There are two plans

available for this purpose; one is a dyeing test, the other is a colorimetric
test made with the solutions of the dyes.

Dyeing Test.--This method of ascertaining the relative value of two dyes as
regards strength of colour is carried out as follows. A preliminary test will
show which sample is stronger than the other; then there is prepared a series
of dye-vats, one contains a swatch with the deepest of the two dyes, which
is taken as the standard, the others with the other dye but containing 2, 5
and 10 per cent. more dye-stuff, and all these are dyed together, and after
drying a comparison can be made between these and the standard swatch,
and a judgment formed as to the relative strength of the two dyes; a little
experience will soon enable the dyer to form a correct judgment of the
difference in strength between two samples of dye-stuff.

The colorimetric test is based on the principle that the colour of a solution
of dye-stuff is proportionate to its strength. Two white glass tubes, equal in
diameter, are taken; solutions of the dye-stuffs, 0·5 gramme in 100 c.c. of
water, are prepared, care being taken that the solution is complete. 5 c.c. of
one of these solutions is taken and placed in one of the glass tubes, and 5
c.c. of the other solution is placed in the other glass tube, 25 c.c. of water is
now added to each tube and then the colour of the diluted liquids is
compared by looking through in a good light. That sample which gives the
deepest solution is the strongest in colouring power. By diluting the
strongest solution with water until it is of the same depth of colour as the
weakest, it may be assumed that the length of the columns of liquid in the
two tubes is in proportion to the relative strength of the two samples. Thus
if in one tube there are 30 centimetres of liquid and in the other 25
centimetres, then the relative strength is as 30 to 25, and if the first is taken
as the standard at 100 a proportion sum may be worked out as follows:--

30: 25 :: 100 : 83·3;

that is, the weakest sample has only 83·3 per cent. of the strength of the
strongest sample.

CHAPTER IX.

TESTING OF THE COLOUR OF DYED FABRICS.

It is frequently desirable that dyers should be able to ascertain with some
degree of accuracy what dyes have been used to dye any particular sample
of dyed cloth that has been offered to them to match. In these days of the
thousand-and-one different dyes that are known it is by no means an easy
thing to do, and when, as is most often the case, two or three dye-stuffs
have been used in the production of a shade, the difficulty is materially
increased.

The only available method is to try the effect of various acid and alkaline
reagents on the sample, noting whether any change of colour occurs, and
judging accordingly. It would be a good thing for dyers to accustom
themselves to test the dyeings they do and so accumulate a fund of practical
experience which will stand them in good stead whenever they have
occasion to examine a dyed pattern of unknown origin.

The limits of this book do not permit of there being given a series of
elaborate tables showing the action of various chemical reagents on fabrics
dyed with various colours, and such indeed serve very little purpose, for it
is most difficult to describe the minor differences which often serve to
distinguish one colour from another. Instead of doing so we will point out in
some detail the methods of carrying out the various tests, and advise all
dyers to carry these out for themselves on samples dyed with known
colours, and when they have an unknown colour to test to make tests
comparatively with known colours that they think are likely to have been
used in the production of the dyed fabric they are testing.

One very common method is to spot the fabric, that is to put a drop of the
reagent on it, usually with the aid of the stopper of the reagent bottle, and to
observe the colour changes, if any, which ensue.

This is a very useful test and should not be omitted; and it is often
employed in the testing of indigo dyed goods with nitric acid, those of
logwood with hydrochloric acid, alizarine with caustic soda, and many
others. It is simple and easy to carry out, and only takes a few minutes.

To make a complete series of tests of dyed fabrics there should be provided
the following reagents:--

1. Strong sulphuric acid as bought.
2. Dilute sulphuric acid, being the strong acid diluted with
20 times its volume of water.
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid as bought.
4. Dilute hydrochloric acid, 1 acid to 20 water.
5. Concentrated nitric acid as bought.
6. Dilute nitric acid, 1 acid to 20 water.
7. Acetic acid.
8. Caustic soda solution, 5 grammes in 100 c.c. water.
9. Ammonia (strong).
10. Dilute ammonia, 1 strong ammonia to 10 water.
11. Carbonate of soda solution, 5 grammes in 100 c.c. water.
12. Bleaching powder solution, 2° Tw.
13. Bisulphite of soda, 72° Tw.
14. Stannous chloride, 10 grammes crystals in 100 c.c.
water, with a little hydrochloric acid.
15. Methylated spirit.

Small swatches of the dyed goods are put in clean porcelain basins, and
some of these solutions poured over them. Any change of colour of the
fabric is noted as well as whether any colour is imparted to the solutions.
After making observations of the effects in the cold, the liquids may be
warmed, and the results again noted. After being treated with the acids the
swatches should be well washed with water, when the original colour may
be wholly or partially restored.

To give tables showing the effects of these reagents on the numerous dyes
now known would take up too much room and not serve a very useful
purpose, as such tables if too much relied on leave the operator somewhat
uncertain as to what he has before him. The reader will find in Hurst's
Dictionary of Coal-Tar Colours some useful notes as to the action of acids
and alkalies on the various colours that may be of service to him.

Alizarine and the series of dye-stuffs to which it has given its name, fustic,
cochineal, logwood and other dyes of a similar class, require the fabric to be
mordanted, and the presence of such mordant is occasionally an indirect
proof of the presence of these dyes.

To detect these mordants a piece of the swatch should be burnt in a
porcelain or platinum crucible over a bunsen burner, care being taken that
all carbonaceous matter be burnt off. A white ash will indicate the presence
of alumina mordants, red ash that of iron mordants, and a greenish ash
chrome mordants.

To confirm these the following chemical tests may be applied. Boil the ash
left in the crucible with a little strong hydrochloric acid and dilute with
water. Pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the solution, if
there be any tin present a brown precipitate of tin sulphide will be obtained.
This can be filtered off. The filtrate is boiled for a short time with nitric
acid, and ammonia is added to the solution when alumina is thrown down
as a white, gelatinous precipitate, iron is thrown down as a brown red,
bulky precipitate, while chrome is thrown down as a greyish-looking,
gelatinous precipitate. The precipitate obtained with the ammonia is filtered
off and a drop of ammonium sulphide added, when any zinc present will be
thrown down as white precipitate of zinc sulphide; to the filtrate from this
ammonium oxalate may be added, when if lime is present a white
precipitate of calcium oxalate is obtained.

A test for iron is to dissolve some of the ash in a little hydrochloric acid and
add a few drops of potassium ferrocyanide solution, when if any iron be
present a blue precipitate will be obtained.

To make more certain of the presence of chrome, heat a little of the ash of
the cloth with caustic soda and chlorate of soda in a porcelain crucible until

well fused, then dissolve in water, acidify with acetic acid and add lead
acetate, a yellow precipitate indicates the presence of chrome.

A book on qualitative chemical analysis should be referred to for further
details and tests for metallic mordants.

The fastness of colours to light, air, rubbing, washing, soaping, acids and
alkalies is a feature of some considerable importance, there are indeed few
colours that will resist all these influences, and such are fully entitled to be
called fast. The degree of fastness varies very considerably, some colours
will resist acids and alkalies well, but are not fast to light and air; some will
resist washing and soaping, but are not fast to acids; some may be fast to
light, but are not so to washing. The following notes will show how to test
these features.

Fastness to Light and Air.--This is simply tested by hanging a piece of the
dyed cloth in the air, keeping a piece in a drawer to refer to, so that the
influence on the original colour can be noted from time to time. If the piece
is left out in the open one gets not only the effect of light but also that of
climate on the colour, and there is no doubt rain, hail and snow have some
influence on the fading of the colour. If the piece is exposed under glass the
climatic influences do not come into play, and one gets the effect of light
alone.

In making tests of fastness the dyer will and does pay due regard to the
character of the influences that the material will be subjected to in actual
use, and these vary very considerably; thus the colour of underclothing need
not be fast to light, for it is rarely subjected to that agent of destruction; on
the other hand, it must be fast to washing, for that is an operation to which
underclothing is subjected week by week.

Window curtains are much exposed to light and air, and, therefore, the
colours in which they are dyed should be fast to light and air. On the other
hand, these curtains are rarely washed, and so the colour need not be quite
fast to washing. And so with other kinds of fabrics; there are scarcely two
kinds which are subjected to the same influences and require the colours to
have the same degree of fastness.

The fastness to rubbing is generally tested by rubbing the dyed cloth with a
piece of white paper.

Fastness to Washing.--This is generally tested by boiling a swatch of the
cloth in a solution of soap containing 4 grammes of a good neutral curd
soap per litre for ten minutes, and noting the effect whether the soap
solution becomes coloured and to what degree, or whether it remains
colourless, and also whether the colour of the swatch has changed at all.

One very important point in connection with the soaping tests is whether a
colour will run into a white fabric that may be soaped along with it. This is
tested by twisting strands of the dyed yarn or cloth with white yarn or cloth
and boiling them in the soap liquor for ten minutes and then noting the
effect, particularly observing whether the white pieces have taken up any
colour.

Fastness to acids and fastness to alkalies is observed while carrying out the
various acid and alkali tests given above.

THE END.

INDEX.

A.

Acetate of ammonia, 93, 94, 101, 102, 127, 128, 129, 132, 167, 192, 194.
------- of chrome, 115.
------- of lime, 158, 159.
Acetic acid, 127.
Acid black, 37, 89.
---- ----- B, 92, 99.
---- ----- B B, 99, 111, 112.
---- ----- S, 90, 99.
---- blue 4 S, 98, 127.
---- ---- 1 V, 153.
---- dyes for blue, 152.
---- ---- for brown, 161.
---- ---- for green, 128.
---- ---- for mode colours, 165.
---- ---- for violet, 160.
---- dye-stuffs, 61.
---- green, 53, 91, 92, 127, 184, 189, 190, 192, 193.
---- ----- B, 128, 191.
---- ----- blue shade, 136.
---- ----- B N, 136.
---- ----- extra, 155.
---- ----- G G, 192.
---- magenta, 73, 105, 111, 113, 183, 190.
---- mauve, 96.
---- ----- B, 161.
---- red, test for, 214.
---- violet, 105.

---- ------ 4 B, 193.
---- ------ 5 B, 154, 160, 189, 191.
---- ------ 5 B E, 162.
---- ------ 6 B, 130, 171, 181.
---- ------ 10 B, 191.
---- ------ N, 92, 99, 161, 162.
---- ------ 6 R N, 161.
---- ------ 4 R S, 160.
---- ------ V, 162.
---- ---- 1 V, 153.
---- yellow, 53, 99, 123, 183, 190.
Acids, action on wool, 11.
Acridine red, 102.
-------- scarlet, 102.
Adjective group of dye-stuffs, 68.
Alizarine, 61, 69, 72, 73, 86, 114, 220.
--------- black, 99.
--------- ----- S W, 94, 113.
--------- blue, 116, 119, 166.
--------- ---- A, 158.
--------- ---- D N W, 131, 132, 133, 158, 164, 166.
--------- ---- S W, 108.
--------- Bordeaux, 133.
--------- -------- B, 98, 155.
--------- -------- G, 155, 159.
--------- brown, 131, 132, 133, 158, 164, 166.
--------- claret R, 118.
--------- colours, 77.
--------- cyanine, 111, 119, 156.
--------- ------- black, 93, 94, 159, 160.
--------- ------- G, 159.
--------- ------- G G, 98, 157.
--------- ------- G extra, 157.
--------- ------- R, 99, 157.
--------- ------- R R, 157.
--------- ------- R R R, 93, 157.
--------- ------- 3 R double, 157, 160.

--------- G, 122.
--------- green, 127.
--------- ----- S, 132.
--------- ----- S W, 132.
--------- grey B, 166.
--------- orange, 119, 123.
--------- ------ 2 G, 120.
--------- ------ H, 164.
--------- ------ N, 118, 122, 166.
--------- ------ W, 119.
--------- ------ R, 163.
--------- ------ R R, 122.
--------- red 1 W S, 118, 119, 120, 122.
--------- --- 2 W S, 118.
--------- --- 3 W S, 119, 164.
--------- --- 5 W S, 118, 120.
--------- S X, 120.
--------- yellow, 70, 71, 115, 116, 123, 131, 133, 156, 164, 166.
--------- ------ G G, 115, 122.
--------- ------ G G W, 94, 125, 126, 131, 132, 164.
--------- ------ R W, 122.
Alkali blue, 152, 189.
------ ---- B, 152.
------ ---- 6 B, 180.
------ yellow R, 169.
Alkalies, action on wool, 9.
Alkaline blue 6 B, 178.
-------- ---- 171, 177.
Alpaca, 1, 83.
Alum, 74, 77, 85, 86, 97, 115, 117, 129, 131.
Alumina, 114.
------- sulphate, 115, 117.
Aluminium salts, 8.
Amaranth, 92, 108, 111, 192.
Amido-benzoic acid, 114.
Ammonia, 17, 27, 33, 78.
------- action on wool, 60.

Angora goat, 1.
Annotta, 13, 63.
Anthracene acid black S T, 193.
---------- ---- browns, 115.
---------- blue W B, 159.
---------- ---- W G, 132, 158, 159.
---------- brown, 94, 119, 132.
---------- ----- R, 163.
---------- ----- W, 159, 164.
---------- chrome black, 96, 99.
---------- ------ ----- F, 95.
---------- ------ ----- F F, 92, 96.
---------- red, 122, 134.
---------- yellow, 69, 70, 115.
---------- ------ B N, 96, 126, 135.
---------- ------ C, 90, 98, 109, 122, 124, 125, 126, 132, 163, 167.
---------- ------ G G, 126.
Anthracite black B, 90, 96, 132, 163.
---------- ----- R, 90, 98.
Anthragallol, 114.
Archil, 75, 189.
------ substitute N, 99, 107, 110, 131, 155, 162, 165.
Argol, 86, 97, 115, 116, 117, 151.
----- lactic acid, 116.
Artificial wool, 174.
Auramine, 53, 64, 103, 189.
-------- base, 64.
-------- I I, 195.
Auroline, 169.
Azo acid brown, 130.
--- ---- magenta G, 162.
--- ---- rubine, 111.
--- ---- violet 4 R, 109, 111, 161.
--- ---- yellow, 171.
--- black, 89.
--- blue, 171.
--- Bordeaux, 109, 191.

--- carmine, 124, 161, 166.
--- ------- B, 130.
--- cochineal, 105, 112, 191.
--- crimson L, 196.
--- dye-stuffs, 61, 66.
--- flavine, 189.
--- ------- S, 210.
--- fuchsine, 109, 115.
--- -------- G, 108, 130, 160, 162, 191, 194, 195, 196.
--- green, 70, 127.
--- mauve, 171.
--- red A, 108, 111, 171, 176, 177, 179, 190, 194.
--- rubine, 92.
--- scarlet, 53.
--- yellow, 93, 124, 128, 129, 130, 155, 162, 165.

B.

Basic dyes for violet, 160.
----- dye-stuffs, 61.
Batching of wool, 15, 25.
Benzo azurine 3 G, 170.
----- ------- R G, 170.
----- blue black G, 170.
----- brown, 61.
----- dyes, 168.
----- fast red, 100, 102, 110.
----- ---- scarlet, 62.
----- ---- ------- B S, 102.
----- flavine, 64.
----- green, 127.
----- orange R, 121.
Benzol, 16, 24.
Benzoline, 25.
Benzopurpurine, 61, 100.
-------------- B, 170.
-------------- 4 B, 111, 170, 180, 181.

-------------- 10 B, 170, 180.
Bichromate of potash, 16, 115, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 166, 167, 193.
---------- of potassium, 175.
Bisulphate of soda, 33, 131, 141, 146, 167, 184, 192, 193, 194.
Bismarck brown, 189, 190.
-------- ----- R, 196.
Black, 93, 95, 176, 177, 180, 191, 193, 195.
----- and blue, 185, 186.
----- and green blue, 185.
----- and pink, 186.
----- and yellow, 186.
----- blue, 152, 157.
----- ---- O, 155.
----- on wool, 83, 91.
Bleaching wool, 29.
Blue, 153, 158.
---- and gold yellow, 185.
---- and orange, 187.
---- black, 96, 153, 159, 179, 182, 192.
---- ----- on wool, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94.
---- green, 127, 128, 129, 130.
---- shades on wool, 136.
Bluestone, 74, 86, 87, 88, 135.
Bluish Bordeaux red, 110.
------ crimson, 108.
------ green, 134.
------ red, 106, 120.
------ pink, 111, 112.
------ purple, 109.
------ violet, 160.
------ rose, 193.
Borax, 215.
Bordeaux, 102.
-------- B L, 110.
-------- red, 109, 110, 113.
Bottle green, 127, 130, 132, 134.
Bran, 138, 144, 145.

Brazil wood, 114.
Bright blue, 152, 153, 155, 156, 158, 180.
------ Bordeaux red, 109, 110.
------ buff, 164, 165.
------ canary, 124.
------ cherry red, 109, 110.
------ chestnut, 164.
------ crimson, 108.
------ fawn, 165.
------ ---- red, 118.
------ electric blue. 156.
------ golden brown, 163.
------ grass green, 130, 133.
------ green, 127, 128, 134.
------ greenish blue, 154.
------ leaf green, 129.
------ lemon yellow, 125.
------ maroon, 119.
------ moss green, 129.
------ orange, 121, 122.
------ pale sage green, 131.
------ peacock green, 130.
------ red, 111, 193.
------ scarlet, 102, 112.
------ straw, 124.
------ violet, 161.
------ ------ blue, 156.
------ yellow, 123, 124, 175, 176, 178.
Brilliant alizarine blue G, 133, 157, 158, 161.
--------- azurine 5 G, 170.
--------- cochineal 2 R, 112, 123, 193.
--------- --------- 4 R, 123, 185.
--------- Congo G, 102.
--------- ----- R, 170.
--------- croceine B, 106, 123.
--------- -------- 3 B, 123.
--------- -------- 5 B, 123.

--------- -------- 7 B, 123.
--------- -------- 9 B, 123.
--------- -------- B B, 106.
--------- -------- M, 106.
--------- -------- M O O, 123.
--------- -------- N, 189.
--------- green, 53, 64, 127, 190, 193, 194.
--------- milling green B, 171.
--------- orange, 92.
--------- orseille C, 107, 112.
--------- pale bluish crimson, 108.
--------- ponceau G, 106.
--------- ------- 2 R, 106.
--------- ------- 4 R, 112.
--------- purpurine R, 170.
--------- rhoduline R B, 195.
--------- royal blue, 154.
--------- scarlet, 119, 171.
--------- ------- G, 171.
--------- ------- 4 R, 105.
Bronze green, 131, 180.
Brown, 161, 163, 164, 181, 192, 195.
----- and violet, 186.
----- and pink, 194.
----- and blue, 185.
----- black, 94.
----- olive and green, 193.
----- shades on wool, 161.
Buff, 164.

C.

Calcium salts, 8.
Camel-hair, 83.
Camwood, 76, 86.
Carbohydrate, 7.
Carbonate of soda, 27, 78, 169.

Carbon disulphide, 16, 24.
Carbonising of wool, 11.
Carded wool, dyeing of, 44.
Carmoisin, 189.
--------- B, 191.
Cashmere, 83, 173.
-------- goat, 1.
Caustic soda, 141.
------- lye, 147.
Celestine blue B, 155.
Chemical vats, 138.
Chemic extract, 150.
Cherry red, 109, 110.
Chestnut, 163.
-------- brown, 184.
Chicago blue B, 170.
------- ---- 4 B, 170.
------- ---- 6 B, 170, 180.
------- ---- G, 170.
------- ---- R W, 181.
------- ---- R R W, 170.
Chloramine orange, 121.
---------- yellow, 169.
Chlorination of wool, 37.
Chlorine, action on wool, 12.
Cholesterine, 7, 23.
Chrome, 114.
------ acetate, 129.
------ alum, 115.
------ blue, 158.
------ Bordeaux 6 B, 161.
------ brown R, 164.
------ fluoride, 77.
------ logwood black, 84, 85.
------ ------ jet black, 85.
------ mordant, 151.
------ patent black D G, 92.

------ violet, 115, 119.
Chromine G, 169.
Chromogene I, 120.
Chromotrop, 115.
---------- 2 B, 125.
---------- 6 B, 108, 154.
---------- 10 B, 94, 109.
---------- R, 106.
---------- 2 R, 99, 107, 129, 130, 155, 162, 165.
---------- S, 93, 94.
Chrysamine, 61, 128, 170.
---------- G, 165.
Chrysoidine, 184.
Chrysophenine, 61, 102, 128, 170.
------------- G, 180.
Claret, 110, 111, 118, 120.
------ red, 110.
Clayton yellow, 170.
Cloth-drying machine, 209.
----- red, 73.
----- washing machine, 29, 30, 202, 203.
Coal tar, 137.
---- --- colours, 114.
---- --- dyes, 63.
---- --- ---- for dyeing blue, 152.
Coatings, 173.
Cochineal, 97, 114, 190, 220.
--------- scarlet, 77.
Coerulein, 114, 133.
--------- B, 132.
--------- S W, 132.
--------- blue, 192.
Colour lakes, 113.
------ strength, test for, 216.
------ testing, 218.
Columbia black B, 170.
-------- ---- F B, 170, 181.

-------- red 8 B, 170.
-------- yellow, 169.
Congo blue, 62.
----- brown G, 170, 180.
----- ----- R, 161, 171.
----- Corinth G, 171, 180, 187.
----- ------- B, 169, 171.
----- dyes, 168.
----- orange G, 170.
----- ------ R, 165, 170.
----- R, 170.
----- red, 62.
Copperas, 74, 86, 87, 88, 97, 133, 134, 135.
-------- vats, 138.
Copper-cased dye beck, 56.
Coral red, 112.
Cornflower blue, 181.
Corron's hank-dyeing machine, 49.
Cotton yellow, 170.
Cream of tartar, 116.
Crimson, 103, 108, 113, 180, 183, 191, 194.
Croceine A Z, 123, 171, 189, 191, 192.
-------- orange, 121, 122, 189.
-------- ------ E N, 123.
-------- scarlet, 108.
-------- ------- 3 B, 191.
-------- ------- 3 R, 167.
Cross dyeing, 183.
Crushed strawberry, 105.
------- ---------- red, 107, 118.
Crystal scarlet 6 R, 123.
Cudbear, 97.
Curcumine extra, 171, 181, 187.
--------- S, 180, 186.
Cutch, 76, 97.
----- brown, 76.
Cyanine B, 107, 111, 124, 129, 130, 155, 165.

------- scarlet E, 111.
Cyanole, 107, 111, 131, 165.
------- extra, 99, 108, 112, 113, 131, 155, 184, 185, 186.
------- green B, 134.
------- ----- 6 G, 134.
Cyprus green B, 136.
------ ----- R, 136.

D.

Dark beige green, 130.
---- blue, 152, 154, 157, 159, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 195.
---- Bordeaux red, 120.
---- bottle green, 131, 132.
---- brown and blue, 185.
---- ----- 163, 164, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182.
---- buff, 165.
---- chestnut, 162.
---- cherry red, 112.
---- crimson, 102, 195.
---- green, 127, 128, 131, 177, 180, 183.
---- ----- and pale crimson, 194.
---- grey, 98, 166, 167, 178, 181, 192.
---- invisible blue, 156.
---- maroon, 193.
---- navy, 157, 159.
---- ---- blue, 155.
---- olive brown, 162.
---- orange, 121.
---- peacock blue, 156.
---- red, 120.
---- sage, 179.
---- ---- green, 130.
---- sea green, 171.
---- seal, 162, 163.
---- slate, 159, 166, 177.
---- stone, 177.

---- violet, 161.
---- ------ brown, 164.
---- walnut, 164, 179.
Dead black on wool, 90.
Deep blue, 154, 155.
---- Bordeaux red, 109.
---- brown, 162.
---- crimson, 108, 112, 113, 118.
---- electric green, 131.
---- fawn, 107.
---- ---- red, 107, 119.
---- golden yellow, 125.
---- indigo blue, 192.
---- leaf green, 130.
---- ---- yellow, 125.
---- lemon, 125.
---- maroon, 111, 119, 191.
---- navy, 153.
---- ---- blue, 153.
---- olive yellow, 125.
---- orange, 122, 176.
---- red, 103.
---- sage green, 131, 132.
---- scarlet, 106, 112, 119.
---- seal, 162.
---- sky blue, 155.
---- violet, 160.
---- ------ brown, 192.
---- yellow, 124, 126.
Delahunty's dyeing machine, 43, 44.
Deltapurpurine 5 B, 130.
Diamine black, 99, 155.
------- ----- B H, 170, 177, 178.
------- ----- B O, 170.
------- ----- H W, 169, 177, 178.
------- ----- R O, 170.
------- blue, 62.

------- ---- 2 B, 170.
------- ---- 3 B, 170.
------- ---- B G, 170.
------- ---- B X, 170.
------- ---- G, 169.
------- ---- R W, 169, 170.
------- ---- 3 R, 170.
------- ---- black E, 170.
------- Bordeaux, 102.
------- -------- B, 169, 170, 177, 179.
------- -------- S, 170.
------- brilliant blue G, 170, 176, 178, 179.
------- bronze G, 171, 177.
------- brown, 62, 179.
------- ----- B, 169.
------- ----- G, 170.
------- ----- 3 G, 169.
------- ----- G W, 169.
------- ----- N, 169, 177.
------- ----- S, 170.
------- ----- V, 170, 177.
------- catechine B, 170, 179.
------- --------- G, 169, 170.
------- cutch, 176.
------- dark blue B, 169, 170, 180.
------- dyes, 168.
------- fast yellow A, 170, 175, 186.
------- ---- ------ B, 169, 176, 177, 179.
------- ---- red F, 98, 100, 102, 109, 112, 124, 132, 163, 167, 169.
------- gold, 121, 170, 175.
------- green, 127.
------- ----- B, 169.
------- ----- G, 169, 170.
------- new blue R, 170.
------- --- nitrazol brown B, 170.
------- --- G, 170.
------- orange B, 169, 177, 178, 179.

------- ------ D, 170.
------- ------ D C, 121.
------- ------ G, 170, 175, 178, 184, 185.
------- ------ G C, 121.
------- ------ O, 170.
------- red, 62, 169.
------- --- B, 170.
------- --- 5 B, 178.
------- --- N O, 170.
------- rose B D, 102, 169, 178, 186.
------- scarlet B, 112, 121, 122, 170, 178.
------- ------- 3 B, 170.
------- sky blue, 170, 185.
------- --- F F, 170, 185, 186.
------- steel blue L, 170, 177, 185.
------- violet N, 170, 178, 186.
Diamond black, 93, 99.
------- ----- F, 92.
------- ----- on wool, 93.
------- brown, 164.
------- flavine, 133, 163.
------- ------- G, 98.
------- green, 93.
------- yellow B, 133.
Dihydroxynaphthalene, 88.
----------- sulpho acid, 116.
Dinitroso-resorcine, 127.
Direct black, 88.
------ dyes, 197.
------ ---- for blue, 152.
------ ---- for brown, 161.
------ ---- for green, 127.
------ ---- for mode colours, 165.
------ ---- for orange, 121.
------ ---- for violet, 160.
------ orange R, 170.
------ red dyes, 100.

------ yellow G, 170.
Divi-divi, 197.
Drab, 165, 166, 167, 178, 179, 181, 182, 194.
Dress goods, 173.
Drying of goods, 205.
Dyeing machinery, 40, 43.
------ test, 216.
------ tubs, 41.
Dye-jiggers, 51, 52.
---- tests, 211.
---- vat with steam pipe, 42.

E.

Electric blue, 155.
Emerald green, 128, 129, 130, 135.
Emin red, 107, 110.
Eosine, 190.
------ red, 104.
Erie blue, 2 G, 170.
Erika B N, 170, 187.
Erythesine D, 112.
Erythrosine, 104, 190.
Experimental dye-bath, 212.
------------ dyeing, 211.

F.

Fast acid violet 10 B, 111, 130, 162, 165, 189.
---- ---- ------ R, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120, 130, 166.
---- ---- blue R, 99, 107, 129, 155, 165.
---- ---- green B N, 96, 134, 185.
---- ---- magenta B, 105, 108, 109, 153.
---- black, 96.
---- blue, 37.
---- bright olive, 135.
---- chrome black, 92.
---- green, 127, 133.

---- green bluish, 111, 130, 154, 160, 162, 165, 189, 192, 194, 195.
---- ----- extra bluish, 162.
---- light green, 195.
---- red, 102, 111.
---- scarlet, 105.
---- yellow, 109, 124, 161, 162, 165, 166, 194.
---- ------ F Y, 90, 91, 105, 123, 130.
---- ------ S, 111, 113, 135, 186, 193.
---- ------ extra, 194, 195.
Fastness to acid, test for, 223.
-------- to alkalies, test for, 223.
-------- to light and air, test for, 221.
-------- to washing, test for, 222.
Fawn, 118.
---- drab, 179.
---- red, 107, 113.
Ferrous sulphate, 115, 117.
Fermentation vats, 138.
Flavazol, 70.
Fluoride of chrome, 91, 98, 102, 110, 115, 117, 129, 132, 133, 167.
Formyl blue B, 171.
------ violet, 53.
------ ------ 6 B, 171.
------ ------ 10 B, 171.
------ ------ S 4 B, 155, 161, 171, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 185, 189, 190,
191.
Fulling fast olive, 135.
Fustic, 66, 69, 70, 77, 83, 85, 86, 87, 97, 120, 220.
------ extract, 88, 123, 131, 133, 134, 135.

G.

Galleine, 166.
Gallipoli oil, 26.
Galloflavine, 70, 119, 133.
Gambine, 61, 114, 119, 127.
------- B, 164.

------- R, 133, 164, 167.
------- V, 96, 125, 133, 164.
------- yellow, 93, 115, 125.
Geranine B, 160.
-------- G, 102.
Glacier blue, 155.
Glauber's salt, 81, 89, 91, 99, 127, 128, 129, 130, 135, 150, 151, 169, 171,
172, 184, 215.
Gloria, dyeing of, 188.
Gold and green, 184.
---- brown, 176, 179, 185.
---- orange, 122, 123, 176.
---- yellow, 126.
Golden brown, 162, 163.
------ yellow, 125, 126.
Good yellow, 175.
Grass green, 128.
Green, 127, 131, 178, 192, 193, 195.
----- and buff, 186.
----- and claret, 185.
----- and red, 186.
----- and orange, 187.
Greenish, 98.
-------- black on wool, 91.
-------- straw, 124.
Grey, 98, 165, 182.
---- and orange, 186.
---- blue, 158.
---- on wool, 96.
Guinea green B, 171, 181, 187.
------ violet 4 B, 171, 181.

H.

Hæmatoxylin of logwood, 84.
Hand dyeing, 40.
---- scouring of wool, 18.

Hank-washing machine, 201.
---- wringing machines, 198.
Hare fur, 83.
Hessian violet, 102, 171.
Holliday's patent indigo vat, 143.
Hydrochloric acid, 88.
Hydrochloride of rosaniline, 9.
Hypochlorites, action on wool, 12.
Hydro-extractor, 206, 207.
Hydrosulphite of soda, 147.
------------- vats, 138, 141.
Hydroxy-azo dyes, 114.

I.

Imperial green G 1, 195.
Indian yellow, 90, 91, 189, 191, 192.
------ ------ G, 131, 171, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 185, 195.
------ ------ R, 126, 165, 171, 175, 176, 195.
Indigo, 83, 85, 136, 141.
------ black, 86.
------ blue, 151.
------ carmine, 66, 150.
------ ------- D, 161, 166.
------ dyeing, 137.
------ dye-stuffs, 61.
------ dye-vat, 149.
------ extract, 73, 75, 97, 105, 131, 133, 134, 135, 151, 190, 194.
------ ------- for dyeing wool, 150.
------ indophenol vat, 146.
Indigotine, 194.
---------- extra, 193, 195, 196.
Indophenol, 146.
Induline, 37.
-------- A, 153.
Invisible bronze green, 133.
--------- green, 130, 132, 136.

Iron logwood black, 86, 87.
Italian cloths, 176.

J.

Janus black I, 182.
----- ----- I I, 182.
----- blue R, 182.
----- brown B, 182.
----- ----- R, 182, 183.
----- claret red B, 183.
----- dark blue B, 182.
----- dyes, 181.
----- green B, 182, 183.
----- grey B, 182, 183.
----- ---- B B, 182.
----- red B, 182, 183.
----- yellow G, 182.
----- ------ R, 182, 183.
Jet black, 93, 94, 95, 96.
--- ----- on wool, 90, 91, 93.
Jig wince, 53.

K.

"Kempy" fibres, 3.
Keratine, 8.
Keton blue G, 111, 162.
Klauder-Weldon hank-dyeing machine, 47, 48.

L.

Lactic acid, 115, 116, 117, 151, 215.
Lanafuchsine 6 B, 113.
------------ S B, 111, 113.
------------ S G, 111, 112, 113.
Lanacyl blue B B, 171.
------- ---- R, 171.

------- violet B, 171, 180.
Lavender, 160, 196.
-------- blue, 158.
-------- grey, 166.
Leaf yellow, 125.
Lemon yellow, 125.
Level dyeing, 77.
Light drab, 196.
----- green, 133, 195.
----- grey, 97, 193.
----- sea green, 195.
----- straw, 126.
Lignorosine, 115, 117, 151.
Lilac, 166.
----- blue, 158.
----- grey, 165.
Lime, 117, 140.
---- vats, 138.
Liquor ammonia, 147.
Llama, 1.
Logwood, 66, 69, 70, 83, 85, 86, 87, 97, 136, 151, 220.
------- black, 87, 88.
------- ----- on wool, 86.
------- extract, 88, 133, 135, 136.
Loose wool, dyeing of, 43.
----- ---- washing of, 200.

M.

Machine-scouring of wool, 20.
Madder, 77, 144.
Magenta, 53, 61, 64, 102, 103, 190.
Maize yellow, 124.
Malachite green, 127.
Mandarine G, 121, 171, 180, 181, 187.
Maroon, 111, 118, 178.
------ red, 111.

Marseilles soap, 78.
Mauve, 161.
McNaught's wool-washing machine, 20.
Metallic salts, action on wool, 12.
Methylene blue, 133, 134.
Methylrosaniline, 64.
Methyl violet, 53, 64, 190.
------ ------ 3 B, 160.
------ ------ B O, 192.
------ ------ R, 160.
Medulla, 4.
Medium blue, 157, 158.
------ green, 133.
Merino wool, 5.
Mikado orange 4 R O, 180, 181, 187.
Milling red B, 111.
------- --- R, 106, 110.
------- yellow, 192.
------- ------ O, 99, 125, 193.
Mimosa, 169.
Mode colours on wool, 164.
Mordant dyes for brown, 163.
------- ---- for orange, 122.
------- dye-stuffs, 61, 68.
------- dyes for violet, 161.
Mordanting, 115.
---------- of wool, 12.
Mordant yellow, 119, 122, 132.
------- ------ D, 126.
------- ------ O, 164.
Moss green, 129, 130.
Mother vat, 147.
Mouse, 162.
Muriate of tin, 97.
Myrobalan, 197.

N.